Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Thyroid cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/thyroid-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20354161

  Thyroid cancer happens when cells in the thyroid develop changes in their DNA. A cell’s DNA contains the instructions that tell the cell what to do. The changes, which doctors call mutations, tell the cells to grow and multiply rapidly. The cells go on living when healthy cells would naturally die. The accumulating cells form a mass called a tumor. […] For most thyroid cancers, it’s not clear what causes the DNA changes that cause the cancer. […] Factors that may increase the risk of thyroid cancer include: Female sex. Thyroid cancer occurs more often in women than in men. Experts think it may be related to the hormone estrogen. People who are assigned female sex at birth generally have higher levels of estrogen in their bodies. […] Exposure to high levels of radiation. Radiation therapy treatments to the head and neck increase the risk of thyroid cancer.

• #1 What Causes Thyroid Cancer? | Causes of Thyroid Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/thyroid-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/what-causes.html

  While we know about some risk factors for thyroid cancer, including certain inherited conditions, its not always clear exactly what causes thyroid cancer. […] Cancer is caused by changes in the DNA inside our cells. […] Some people inherit DNA changes (mutations) from a parent that increase their risk of thyroid cancer. […] But most thyroid cancers are not caused by inherited gene changes. Instead, the gene changes are acquired during a persons life. […] In different types of thyroid cancer, the cells tend to have changes in different genes. […] In about half of all papillary thyroid cancers, the cancer cells have changes in the BRAF gene. […] Less often, the cancer cells have a mutation in one of the RAS genes. […] Some papillary thyroid cancers have changes in the RET gene.

• #1 What Causes Thyroid Cancer? | Causes of Thyroid Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/thyroid-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/what-causes.html

  Follicular thyroid cancers often have changes in one of the RAS oncogenes. […] Most anaplastic thyroid cancers are thought to start out as papillary or follicular thyroid cancers, so they often have some of the same mutations described above, such as in the BRAF and RAS genes. […] The main gene changes in people with medullary thyroid cancer (MTC) are mutations in different parts of the RET gene. […] RET gene changes are found in the cancer cells of about 2 out of 3 people with the sporadic (non-inherited) form of MTC. […] Nearly all people with an inherited form of MTC, such as from multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN2), have a mutation in the RET gene.

• #1 Thyroid Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459299/

  Thyroid cancer is a malignancy arising from the thyroid parenchymal cells. […] Familial occurrence of thyroid cancer is approximately 5% for PTC and FTC and 15 to 30% for MTC. […] Over the last decades, the incidence of papillary thyroid cancer has increased worldwide, mostly due to early detection and advanced imaging technology with the risk of overdetection. […] Mutations and translocations in the genes coding the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cellular signaling pathway have been implicated in the genetic basis of most thyroid cancers. […] Some of the common mutations are as follows: PTC – Point mutation in the BRAF gene leading to BRAF V600E mutant kinase is the most common mutation leading to PTC (29 to 69%) and PTC-associated anaplastic thyroid cancer (0 to 12%). […] Translocation of the RET-papillary thyroid cancer(RET/PTC) occurs in about 7% of PTC.

• #1 Thyroid Cancer: Types, Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/12210-thyroid-cancer

  Thyroid cancer develops in your thyroid, a small, butterfly-shaped gland at the base of your neck. […] Experts aren’t sure why some cells become cancerous (malignant) and attack your thyroid. Certain factors, such as radiation exposure, a diet low in iodine and faulty genes can increase the risk. Other risk factors include: Enlarged thyroid (goiter). Family history of thyroid disease or thyroid cancer. Thyroiditis (inflammation of your thyroid gland). Gene mutations (changes) that cause endocrine diseases, such as multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A (MEN2A) or type 2B (MEN2B) syndrome. Low iodine intake. Obesity (high body mass index). Radiation therapy for head and neck cancer, especially during childhood. Exposure to radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons or a power plant accident.

• #1 Exploring the Causes of Thyroid Cancer: Insights & Facts – BuzzRx

  https://www.buzzrx.com/blog/what-causes-thyroid-cancer

  Several inherited genetic syndromes have been linked to different types of thyroid cancer. In addition, people with a family history of the disease are at a higher risk of developing it. […] About 20-25% of cases of medullary thyroid cancer occur in people with an inherited mutated gene. This is known as familial medullary thyroid carcinoma (FMTC). […] Cowden disease is a genetic syndrome caused by defects in the PTEN gene. People with this mutation are at an increased risk of benign growths such as hamartomas as well as thyroid cancer, breast cancer, uterine cancer, and other cancers. […] Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is a genetic syndrome associated with changes in the APC gene. People with this syndrome develop multiple polyps in the colon and have a very high risk of colon cancer. They are also at an increased risk of papillary thyroid cancer.

• #1 Risks and causes of thyroid cancer | Cancer Research UK

  https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/thyroid-cancer/causes-risks

  You have an increased risk of thyroid cancer if you have Cowden syndrome. Cowden syndrome is a rare inherited disorder. It causes lots of non cancerous (benign) growths called harmatomas. People with this disorder have an increased risk of cancer. […] The thyroid gland is sensitive to radiation. People who have a lot of radiation may develop nodules or lumps on their thyroid some years later. […] Thyroid cancer is more common in people treated with radiotherapy when they were a child. The cancer might develop some years later. It is also more common in people who had dental x-rays before 1970. And the risk of thyroid cancer is higher in people who had CT scans of the brain, head and neck when they were children. […] Thyroid cancer may be more common in survivors of atomic explosions or accidents. Thyroid cancer cases rose in the Ukraine after the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident. Thyroid cancer increased in people exposed when they were children or adolescents.

• #1 Risks and causes of thyroid cancer | Cancer Research UK

  https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/thyroid-cancer/causes-risks

  Some non cancerous (benign) thyroid conditions increase your risk of thyroid cancer. These include: an enlarged thyroid gland (goitre), a condition where the immune system attacks the thyroid gland (Hashimoto’s disease), nodules (adenomas). […] You have a higher risk of thyroid cancer if a close family member has thyroid cancer. […] Some people have an increased risk of thyroid cancer because of an inherited faulty gene. […] Some people have changes in the RET gene that cause syndromes called MEN2A and MEN2B. MEN stands for multiple endocrine neoplasia. People with these syndromes have an increased risk of medullary thyroid cancer. […] Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is a bowel condition caused by an inherited gene. Some studies suggest that people with FAP might have an increased risk of thyroid cancer. More research is needed.

• #1 Exploring the Causes of Thyroid Cancer: Insights & Facts – BuzzRx

  https://www.buzzrx.com/blog/what-causes-thyroid-cancer

  People with Carney Complex Type I have mutations in the PRKAR1A gene. They develop benign tumors and hormonal disturbances and are at an increased risk of thyroid cancer (papillary and follicular type). […] Changes in chromosomes 19 and 1 are linked to an inherited condition that runs in some families. Papillary thyroid carcinoma tends to develop at an early age in individuals with these DNA changes. […] Women are at a three times higher risk of thyroid cancer than men. The disease is commonly diagnosed in women in their 40s and 50s and men in their 60s and 70s. […] There may be a link between iodine deficiency and thyroid cancer. The thyroid gland needs iodine to make thyroid hormone. […] Some external factors linked to thyroid cancer include: Radiation exposure (medical radiation or nuclear weapon fallout), Chemical toxins, including pesticides, Metals such as cadmium that are present in air, water, or food, Nitrites and nitrates present in food and water, Air pollution. […] Certain health conditions can increase the risk of thyroid cancer, such as: Goiter (enlarged thyroid), Thyroiditis (inflammation of the thyroid gland), Obesity.

• #1 Thyroid Cancer Risk Factors | Risk Factors for Thyroid Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/thyroid-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  A risk factor is anything that increases your chances of getting a disease such as cancer. […] Scientists have found a few risk factors that make a person more likely to develop thyroid cancer. […] For unclear reasons, thyroid cancer occurs almost 3 times more often in women than in men. […] Thyroid cancer can occur at any age, but its most common in people in their 30s through 60s. […] Some hereditary (inherited) conditions are linked to an increased risk of certain types of thyroid cancer. […] If MEN2 runs in your family, you may be at very high risk of developing medullary thyroid cancer. […] People with this syndrome develop many colon polyps at an early age and have a very high risk of colon cancer. […] People with this syndrome have an increased risk of developing cancers of the thyroid, breast, and some other organs.

• #1 Thyroid Cancer—Risks and Causes – touchONCOLOGY

  https://touchoncology.com/thyroid-cancer/journal-articles/thyroid-cancer-risks-and-causes/

  The incidence of thyroid cancer has almost doubled in recent years and over 60,000 people will be diagnosed in the US in 2015. […] The reasons for this increased incidence are controversial and most likely multifactorial. Increased detection of preclinical stage tumors of small size would appear to be an obvious cause with the introduction and widespread use of thyroid sonography and increased use of aspiration biopsies of small tumor as suggested by Davies and Welch. […] A true increase could be the result of a change in exposure to an unidentified risk factor in the environment or in our lifestyle. To date, ionizing radiation is the best-established risk factor for thyroid cancer, as a result of data obtained from nuclear incidents such as the Chernobyl radioiodine releases and from Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

• #1 Risk factors for thyroid cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/thyroid/risks

  A risk factor is something that increases the risk of developing cancer. It could be a behaviour, substance or condition. Most cancers are the result of many risk factors. But sometimes thyroid cancer develops in people who dont have any of the risk factors described below. […] Exposure to ionizing radiation is the strongest risk factor for thyroid cancer. The risk of developing thyroid cancer is related to your age when you were exposed. The younger you are when exposed to radiation, the greater the risk of developing thyroid cancer. […] People, especially children, who receive radiation therapy to the head and neck have a higher risk of developing thyroid cancer. […] People who are exposed to ionizing radiation from nuclear accidents or weapons have a greater risk of developing thyroid cancer, especially if they were children when they were exposed to the radiation.

• #1 Thyroid Cancer | American Thyroid Association

  https://www.thyroid.org/thyroid-cancer/

  Thyroid cancer is more common in people who have a history of exposure to high doses of radiation, have a family history of thyroid cancer, and are older than 40 years of age. […] High dose radiation exposure, especially during childhood, increases the risk of developing thyroid cancer. […] Exposure to radioactivity released during nuclear disasters (1986 accident at the Chernobyl power plant in Russia or the 2011 nuclear disaster in Fukushima, Japan) has also been associated with an increased risk of developing thyroid cancer, particularly in exposed children, and thyroid cancers can be seen in exposed individuals as many as 40 years after exposure.

• #1 Thyroid cancer – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyroid_cancer

  Thyroid cancers are thought to be related to a number of environmental and genetic predisposing factors, but significant uncertainty remains regarding their causes. […] Environmental exposure to ionizing radiation from both natural background sources and artificial sources is suspected to play a significant role, and significantly increased rates of thyroid cancer occur in those exposed to mantlefield radiation for lymphoma, and those exposed to iodine-131 following the Chernobyl, Fukushima, Kyshtym, and Windscale nuclear disasters. […] Thyroiditis and other thyroid diseases also predispose to thyroid cancer. […] Genetic causes include multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2, which markedly increases rates, particularly of the rarer medullary form of the disease. […] Mutations in the genes for MenA and Men2B in multiple endocrine neoplasia is responsible for 25% of medullary thyroid cancers.

• #1 Follicular Thyroid Carcinoma: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/278488-overview

  Follicular thyroid carcinoma (FTC) is the second most common cancer of the thyroid, after papillary carcinoma. […] The thyroid is particularly sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation. Exposure to ionizing radiation results in a 30% risk for thyroid cancer. […] A history of exposure of the head and neck to x-ray beams, especially during childhood, has been recognized as an important contributing factor to the development of thyroid cancer. […] Seven percent of the individuals exposed to the atomic bomb blasts in Japan developed thyroid cancers. However, exposure to fallout from the Chernobyl nuclear accident was associated with increases in papillary rather than follicular thyroid carcinoma. […] From the 1920s to the 1960s, irradiation was used to treat tumors and benign conditions, such as acne; excessive facial hair; tuberculosis in the neck; fungal diseases of the scalp; sore throats; chronic coughs; and enlargement of the thymus, tonsils, and adenoids. About 10% of individuals who were treated with irradiation developed thyroid cancer after a latency period of 30 years.

• #1 Thyroid Cancer Causes – Endocrinesurgery.net.au

  http://www.endocrinesurgery.net.au/thyroid-cancer-causes/

  The relationship between radiation and thyroid cancer has been recognised since the 1950s. External beam radiotherapy was often given in the early to mid 20th century as treatment for enlargement of the tonsils, adenoids, thymus and lymph nodes in the neck, and even for skin conditions such as acne and tinea capitis. It has been well documented that radiation to the neck given to children in this way results years later in the development of thyroid cancers. […] Nuclear fallout from the atomic bombing of Japan in 1945 and accidents such as Chernobyl in 1986 resulted in an increased incidence of thyroid cancer in the affected population. Two thirds of radiation induced tumours are benign, and one third malignant, most of which (70-95%) are papillary cancers. […] The relative risk increases for 5-10 years after exposure, peaks at 15-20 years and decreases over subsequent years, but can still be apparent at 40 years. High dose radiation can also induce cancers in the thyroid even when exposure to radiation has been elsewhere in the body from the neck, such as in treatment for Hodgkins lymphoma, cervical cancer or childhood abdominal tumours.

• #1 Risks and causes of thyroid cancer | Cancer Research UK

  https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/thyroid-cancer/causes-risks

  We dont know what causes most thyroid cancers. But there are some factors that might increase your risk of developing it. […] Your risk of developing thyroid cancer depends on many factor. These include age and a family history of thyroid cancer. […] Thyroid cancer is more common in women than in men during their reproductive years. It peaks in women between the ages of 40 and 44 years. Men are more likely to develop thyroid cancer at an older age. It is most common in men aged between 70 and 74. […] The reasons for this are still unclear. Researchers are looking at the relationship between thyroid cancer and: pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives, hormone replacement therapy, the age periods start, the age of menopause, surgery to remove your ovaries and/or womb. […] The risk of thyroid cancer is higher in people who are overweight or obese.

• #1 Risks and causes of thyroid cancer | Cancer Research UK

  https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/thyroid-cancer/causes-risks

  Some people have low levels of iodine in their body. They might have a higher risk of thyroid cancer after exposure to radiation. This is compared to people with normal iodine levels. […] Studies suggest that this may increase the risk of thyroid cancer. […] Studies suggest that thyroid cancer risk is about 2 times higher in people with this condition. […] Some studies suggest that people treated as adults for certain cancers have an increased risk of thyroid cancer. These include: cancer of the food pipe (oesophageal cancer), breast cancer. […] It is not known if this is due to treatment for these cancers, common risk factors or inherited genetic changes.

• #1 Thyroid Cancer Causes – Endocrinesurgery.net.au

  http://www.endocrinesurgery.net.au/thyroid-cancer-causes/

  The younger the age of exposure the higher the risk, as radiation has greater effects during periods of rapid cell proliferation such as in the developing thyroid gland. […] Higher TSH levels, even within the normal range, have been associated with a greater risk of thyroid malignancy. The relationship between TSH and papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) was analysed in a recent large study from Pisa, which showed that TSH levels were significantly higher in PTC patients than in patients with benign thyroid nodular disease or with a clinical diagnosis of multinodular goitre and single/isolated nodule. […] Common genetic alterations found in human papillary thyroid cancer are RET/PTC rearrangements, the BRAF V600E mutation and PAX8/PPAR mutations. A mutation of the BRAF oncogene is the most common genetic alteration found in papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) and is associated with extrathyroidal extension, lymph node metastasis, and tumor recurrence.

• #1 About Thyroid Cancer | Cancer Council NSW

  https://www.cancercouncil.com.au/thyroid-cancer/about-thyroid-cancer/

  Thyroid cancer develops when the cells of the thyroid grow and divide in an abnormal way. […] What causes thyroid cancer is unknown, but some things may increase your risk of developing it. […] A small number of thyroid cancers may be from having radiation therapy to the head and neck as a child, living in an area with high levels of radiation, or from exposure to radiation at work (e.g. medical or military). Thyroid cancer usually takes 10–20 years to develop after significant radiation exposure. […] A small number of thyroid cancers (about 5%) are linked to a family history. […] Thyroid nodules, an enlarged thyroid (known as a goitre) or inflammation of the thyroid (thyroiditis), only slightly increase the chance of developing thyroid cancer. […] Being overweight or obese may increase the risk of developing thyroid cancer. […] Studies have linked having both too much and too little iodine with a possible higher risk of thyroid cancer.

• #1 Thyroid Cancer Risk Factors | Risk Factors for Thyroid Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/thyroid-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  People with this rare syndrome typically have pigmented (dark) areas on their skin, as well as an increased risk of certain types of benign (non-cancerous) tumors. […] If you have a first-degree relative (parent, brother, sister, or child) with thyroid cancer, you are at an increased risk of developing it as well. […] Radiation exposure is a risk factor for thyroid cancer. […] Having head or neck radiation treatments in childhood increase the risk of thyroid cancer. […] Thyroid cancer risk is also higher in children exposed to radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons or power plant accidents. […] People with excess body weight have a higher risk of thyroid cancer than those who do not have excess weight. […] Follicular thyroid cancers are more common in areas of the world where peoples diets are low in iodine. On the other hand, a diet high in iodine may increase the risk of papillary thyroid cancer.

• #1 Thyroid Cancer Causes – Endocrinesurgery.net.au

  http://www.endocrinesurgery.net.au/thyroid-cancer-causes/

  It has been estimated that between 3 and 6% of thyroid cancer can be explained by familial factors. Over 90% of familial thyroid cancers are PTC and there has been a 4-10-fold increase in the incidence of PTC reported in relatives of patients with PTC. […] Follicular cancer rarely occurs in Iceland where, due to high dietary intake of fish, there is high iodide intake. In contrast, in areas of low iodide intake (mountainous regions such as the Alps, Andes and Himalayas) follicular cancer has a high incidence, due to chronic TSH stimulation of the thyroid. […] Papillary cancers may arise more often in patients with a long-term severe inflammation of their thyroid (thyroiditis). The vast majority of primary thyroid lymphomas almost always arise in the background of chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis (Hashimotos thyroiditis).

• #1 Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/282276-overview

  Papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) is the most common form of well-differentiated thyroid cancer, and the most common form of thyroid cancer to result from exposure to radiation. […] There is also a clear association between radiation exposure (from radiotherapy or fallout) and incidence of papillary thyroid carcinoma. […] Approximately 7% of individuals exposed to the atomic bombs in Japan developed thyroid cancers. […] Individuals, especially children, who lived in Ukraine during the time of the Chernobyl nuclear event may have increased risk of papillary thyroid cancer. […] Patients with a history of Hashimoto thyroiditis are at increased risk for papillary thyroid cancer. […] One of every six papillary thyroid cancers (PTC) and two thirds of all large PTC tumors in the United States from 1995 to 2015 were attributable to being overweight or obese. […] Unlike medullary thyroid carcinoma, papillary thyroid cancer is not a part of multiple endocrine neoplasia syndromes. […] Several reports have shown a relationship between iodine deficiency and the incidence of thyroid carcinomas.

• #1 Thyroid cancer | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/cancer/cancer-types-in-adults/thyroid-cancer/

  If you have a bowel condition called familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), your risk of developing thyroid cancer is increased. FAP runs in families and is caused by inheriting a faulty gene. […] Thyroid cancer risk is increased in people who have acromegaly. This is a rare condition where the body produces too much growth hormone. […] If youve had a benign (non-cancerous) breast condition in the past, such as a breast cyst or fibroadenoma (non-cancerous tumour), your risk of developing thyroid cancer increases by around half (50%) compared with women who havent had this type of condition. […] If youre overweight, youre more at risk of developing thyroid cancer than someone who isnt overweight. […] Exposure to radiation during childhood is another risk factor for thyroid cancer. […] If your diet contains low levels of the trace element iodine, youre at an increased risk of developing thyroid cancer. […] Women are about 2 to 3 times more likely to develop thyroid cancer than men.

• #1 Risk factors for thyroid cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/thyroid/risks

  A history of non-cancerous (benign) thyroid conditions increases the risk of developing thyroid cancer. These include thyroid nodules, goitre (an enlarged thyroid) and inflammation of the thyroid (called thyroiditis). […] If you have a first-degree relative who has had thyroid cancer, you have a higher risk of developing thyroid cancer. The higher risk may be due to certain hereditary conditions. […] A high body mass index (BMI) increases the risk of developing thyroid cancer. The reason for this higher risk is unclear. […] Tall people have a greater risk of developing thyroid cancer, but the reason for this higher risk is not known. It may have to do with hormone levels in childhood, adolescence or adulthood. […] Acromegaly is a rare condition that develops when the body makes too much growth hormone. The increased growth hormone causes the bones and organs, including the thyroid gland, to start growing again and become deformed. People with acromegaly have a higher risk of developing thyroid cancer. […] Significant research shows no link between thyroid cancer and alcohol or smoking.

• #1 Thyroid Cancer: Symptoms, Causes, Stages, Diagnosis, and Treatment – OncoDaily

  https://oncodaily.com/oncolibrary/cancer-types/thyroid-cancer

  The cancer develops when genetic mutations cause thyroid cells to grow out of control. […] While the exact reason these mutations happen isn’t always known, they can be inherited or acquired over time due to environmental exposures like radiation or random errors during cell division. […] Each form of thyroid cancer is tied to specific genetic alterations: Papillary thyroid cancer (most common) often involves mutations in BRAF, RAS, or RET genes. […] Follicular thyroid cancer typically features mutations in the RAS gene or a PAX8-PPAR gene fusion, which disrupts normal cell function. […] Anaplastic thyroid cancer, an aggressive and fast-spreading type, usually starts from a less aggressive form and accumulates mutations like TP53, causing rapid progression. […] Medullary thyroid cancer is commonly associated with RET gene mutations.

• #1 Thyroid Cancer Causes and Diagnoses | Northwestern Medicine

  https://www.nm.org/conditions-and-care-areas/cancer-care/head-and-neck-cancers/thyroid-cancer/causes-and-diagnoses

  The exact cause of thyroid cancer is unknown, but certain factors increase your risk of developing this type of cancer. Risk factors include: […] A variety of genetic mutations have been found in thyroid cancer. The pattern is different in different types of thyroid cancer. […] Most people with thyroid cancer don’t have any known risk factors for it, so it is often difficult to prevent.

• #1 Thyroid cancer

  https://www.cancervic.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer/thyroid_cancer/thyroid-cancer-overview.html

  Thyroid cancer develops when the cells of the thyroid grow and divide in an abnormal way. […] The cause of thyroid cancer is unknown, but some factors are known to increase the risk of developing it. Having a risk factor does not necessarily mean that you will develop thyroid cancer. Most people with thyroid cancer have no known risk factors. […] A small number of thyroid cancers are due to having radiation therapy to the head and neck area as a child or living in an area with high levels of radiation, such as the site of a nuclear accident. […] Only around 5% of thyroid cancer runs in families. Having a parent, child or sibling with papillary thyroid cancer may increase your risk. […] People who are overweight or obese possibly have a higher risk of developing thyroid cancer. […] Studies have also linked having too much and too little iodine with a possible higher risk of thyroid cancer.

• #1 What are the Causes and Risk Factors of Thyroid Cancer? – Immucura

  https://immucura.com/what-are-the-causes-and-risk-factors-of-thyroid-cancer/

  Notably, individuals who have undergone radiation therapy for conditions like Hodgkin lymphoma, especially during childhood, are at an elevated risk. […] Family history serves as a significant indicator of potential thyroid cancer risk. […] If a close family member, such as a parent or sibling, has been diagnosed with thyroid cancer, the likelihood of developing the disease may increase. […] Gender, for instance, plays a role, as thyroid cancer is more prevalent in women than in men. […] Age is also a factor, with the risk increasing with age. […] Additionally, certain pre-existing thyroid conditions, such as goiter and thyroid nodules, may elevate the risk of thyroid cancer. […] Genetic factors, radiation exposure, and family history stand out as key players in the development of this disease.

• #2 Risk factors for thyroid cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/thyroid/risks

  A risk factor is something that increases the risk of developing cancer. It could be a behaviour, substance or condition. Most cancers are the result of many risk factors. But sometimes thyroid cancer develops in people who dont have any of the risk factors described below. […] Exposure to ionizing radiation is the strongest risk factor for thyroid cancer. The risk of developing thyroid cancer is related to your age when you were exposed. The younger you are when exposed to radiation, the greater the risk of developing thyroid cancer. […] People, especially children, who receive radiation therapy to the head and neck have a higher risk of developing thyroid cancer. […] People who are exposed to ionizing radiation from nuclear accidents or weapons have a greater risk of developing thyroid cancer, especially if they were children when they were exposed to the radiation.

• #2 Thyroid Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459299/

  Thyroid cancer is a malignancy arising from the thyroid parenchymal cells. […] Familial occurrence of thyroid cancer is approximately 5% for PTC and FTC and 15 to 30% for MTC. […] Over the last decades, the incidence of papillary thyroid cancer has increased worldwide, mostly due to early detection and advanced imaging technology with the risk of overdetection. […] Mutations and translocations in the genes coding the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cellular signaling pathway have been implicated in the genetic basis of most thyroid cancers. […] Some of the common mutations are as follows: PTC – Point mutation in the BRAF gene leading to BRAF V600E mutant kinase is the most common mutation leading to PTC (29 to 69%) and PTC-associated anaplastic thyroid cancer (0 to 12%). […] Translocation of the RET-papillary thyroid cancer(RET/PTC) occurs in about 7% of PTC.

• #2 Thyroid Cancer Causes – Endocrinesurgery.net.au

  http://www.endocrinesurgery.net.au/thyroid-cancer-causes/

  It has been estimated that between 3 and 6% of thyroid cancer can be explained by familial factors. Over 90% of familial thyroid cancers are PTC and there has been a 4-10-fold increase in the incidence of PTC reported in relatives of patients with PTC. […] Follicular cancer rarely occurs in Iceland where, due to high dietary intake of fish, there is high iodide intake. In contrast, in areas of low iodide intake (mountainous regions such as the Alps, Andes and Himalayas) follicular cancer has a high incidence, due to chronic TSH stimulation of the thyroid. […] Papillary cancers may arise more often in patients with a long-term severe inflammation of their thyroid (thyroiditis). The vast majority of primary thyroid lymphomas almost always arise in the background of chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis (Hashimotos thyroiditis).

• #2 Risks and causes of thyroid cancer | Cancer Research UK

  https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/thyroid-cancer/causes-risks

  Some non cancerous (benign) thyroid conditions increase your risk of thyroid cancer. These include: an enlarged thyroid gland (goitre), a condition where the immune system attacks the thyroid gland (Hashimoto’s disease), nodules (adenomas). […] You have a higher risk of thyroid cancer if a close family member has thyroid cancer. […] Some people have an increased risk of thyroid cancer because of an inherited faulty gene. […] Some people have changes in the RET gene that cause syndromes called MEN2A and MEN2B. MEN stands for multiple endocrine neoplasia. People with these syndromes have an increased risk of medullary thyroid cancer. […] Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is a bowel condition caused by an inherited gene. Some studies suggest that people with FAP might have an increased risk of thyroid cancer. More research is needed.

• #2 What Causes Thyroid Cancer and Is It Hereditary?

  https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/thyroid-cancer/risk-factors

  Certain inherited genetic abnormalities have been linked with the development of different types of thyroid cancer: Inherited mutations in a gene called RET have been associated with the development of medullary thyroid cancers, and account for approximately one out of four cases. This condition is known as familial medullary thyroid cancer (FMTC). […] Other inherited genetic conditions, such as familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), Gardner syndrome, Cowden disease and Carney complex type I, are considered risk factors for thyroid cancer, particularly papillary and follicular thyroid cancers. […] Even if no known inherited syndrome has been identified, thyroid cancer in a first-degree relative, such as a parent or sibling, raises a person’s risk of developing thyroid cancer. […] A diet that contains very little iodine has been associated with an increased risk of follicular thyroid cancers.

• #2 Exploring the Causes of Thyroid Cancer: Insights & Facts – BuzzRx

  https://www.buzzrx.com/blog/what-causes-thyroid-cancer

  Several inherited genetic syndromes have been linked to different types of thyroid cancer. In addition, people with a family history of the disease are at a higher risk of developing it. […] About 20-25% of cases of medullary thyroid cancer occur in people with an inherited mutated gene. This is known as familial medullary thyroid carcinoma (FMTC). […] Cowden disease is a genetic syndrome caused by defects in the PTEN gene. People with this mutation are at an increased risk of benign growths such as hamartomas as well as thyroid cancer, breast cancer, uterine cancer, and other cancers. […] Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is a genetic syndrome associated with changes in the APC gene. People with this syndrome develop multiple polyps in the colon and have a very high risk of colon cancer. They are also at an increased risk of papillary thyroid cancer.

• #2 Thyroid Cancer Risk Factors | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/thyroid/risk-factors

  Family history. For about 5 percent of people who develop papillary thyroid cancer, the disease runs in the family. Researchers are still trying to figure our which gene is to blame. […] Gender. Its unclear why, but papillary thyroid cancer occurs about three times more often in women than in men. When it does happen in men, it usually grows and spreads more quickly. […] Risk factors for follicular thyroid cancer include: […] A low-iodine diet. People are more likely to develop follicular carcinoma if they live in a place where iodine isnt added to salt thats used in food. […] Familial conditions. Inherited disorders, such as Werners syndrome and Cowdens syndrome, sometimes include thyroid cancer as part of the disease process. […] Risk factors for medullary thyroid cancer (MTC):

• #2 Thyroid Cancer Causes – Endocrinesurgery.net.au

  http://www.endocrinesurgery.net.au/thyroid-cancer-causes/

  The younger the age of exposure the higher the risk, as radiation has greater effects during periods of rapid cell proliferation such as in the developing thyroid gland. […] Higher TSH levels, even within the normal range, have been associated with a greater risk of thyroid malignancy. The relationship between TSH and papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) was analysed in a recent large study from Pisa, which showed that TSH levels were significantly higher in PTC patients than in patients with benign thyroid nodular disease or with a clinical diagnosis of multinodular goitre and single/isolated nodule. […] Common genetic alterations found in human papillary thyroid cancer are RET/PTC rearrangements, the BRAF V600E mutation and PAX8/PPAR mutations. A mutation of the BRAF oncogene is the most common genetic alteration found in papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) and is associated with extrathyroidal extension, lymph node metastasis, and tumor recurrence.

• #2 Thyroid Cancer | American Thyroid Association

  https://www.thyroid.org/thyroid-cancer/

  Thyroid cancer is more common in people who have a history of exposure to high doses of radiation, have a family history of thyroid cancer, and are older than 40 years of age. […] High dose radiation exposure, especially during childhood, increases the risk of developing thyroid cancer. […] Exposure to radioactivity released during nuclear disasters (1986 accident at the Chernobyl power plant in Russia or the 2011 nuclear disaster in Fukushima, Japan) has also been associated with an increased risk of developing thyroid cancer, particularly in exposed children, and thyroid cancers can be seen in exposed individuals as many as 40 years after exposure.

• #2 Thyroid Cancer: Types, Risk Factors, and Symptoms

  https://www.healthline.com/health/thyroid-cancer

  Factors including overexposure to radiation can impact your risk for thyroid cancer. For example, when Chernobyl experienced its nuclear-reactor accident in 1986, there was a dramatic increase in thyroid cancer, especially in young children of the area. Similar events occurred after the atomic bomb explosion in Hiroshima. Frequent radiation exposure through radiation therapy or X-rays, especially in childhood, is considered a risk factor. […] A 2015 review found that having a diet higher in iodine, fish, and seafood in iodine-deficient populations may lead to a small reduction in your risk for thyroid cancer. Excess iodine may also be linked to thyroid cancer risk. However, more research is needed to understand the role of iodine in the development of thyroid cancer. […] Genetics may be the cause of thyroid cancer in an estimated 2 out of 10 people with medullary thyroid cancers.

• #2 Thyroid Cancer Risk Factors | Risk Factors for Thyroid Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/thyroid-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  A risk factor is anything that increases your chances of getting a disease such as cancer. […] Scientists have found a few risk factors that make a person more likely to develop thyroid cancer. […] For unclear reasons, thyroid cancer occurs almost 3 times more often in women than in men. […] Thyroid cancer can occur at any age, but its most common in people in their 30s through 60s. […] Some hereditary (inherited) conditions are linked to an increased risk of certain types of thyroid cancer. […] If MEN2 runs in your family, you may be at very high risk of developing medullary thyroid cancer. […] People with this syndrome develop many colon polyps at an early age and have a very high risk of colon cancer. […] People with this syndrome have an increased risk of developing cancers of the thyroid, breast, and some other organs.

• #2 Risk factors for thyroid cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/thyroid/risks

  A history of non-cancerous (benign) thyroid conditions increases the risk of developing thyroid cancer. These include thyroid nodules, goitre (an enlarged thyroid) and inflammation of the thyroid (called thyroiditis). […] If you have a first-degree relative who has had thyroid cancer, you have a higher risk of developing thyroid cancer. The higher risk may be due to certain hereditary conditions. […] A high body mass index (BMI) increases the risk of developing thyroid cancer. The reason for this higher risk is unclear. […] Tall people have a greater risk of developing thyroid cancer, but the reason for this higher risk is not known. It may have to do with hormone levels in childhood, adolescence or adulthood. […] Acromegaly is a rare condition that develops when the body makes too much growth hormone. The increased growth hormone causes the bones and organs, including the thyroid gland, to start growing again and become deformed. People with acromegaly have a higher risk of developing thyroid cancer. […] Significant research shows no link between thyroid cancer and alcohol or smoking.

• #2 Thyroid cancer | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/cancer/cancer-types-in-adults/thyroid-cancer/

  If you have a bowel condition called familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), your risk of developing thyroid cancer is increased. FAP runs in families and is caused by inheriting a faulty gene. […] Thyroid cancer risk is increased in people who have acromegaly. This is a rare condition where the body produces too much growth hormone. […] If youve had a benign (non-cancerous) breast condition in the past, such as a breast cyst or fibroadenoma (non-cancerous tumour), your risk of developing thyroid cancer increases by around half (50%) compared with women who havent had this type of condition. […] If youre overweight, youre more at risk of developing thyroid cancer than someone who isnt overweight. […] Exposure to radiation during childhood is another risk factor for thyroid cancer. […] If your diet contains low levels of the trace element iodine, youre at an increased risk of developing thyroid cancer. […] Women are about 2 to 3 times more likely to develop thyroid cancer than men.

• #2 Thyroid Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459299/

  Mutations in RAS proto-oncogene occur in 10-20% of follicular variant PTC (FVPTC). […] FTC – Mutations in RAS proto-oncogene are most common in FTC (40 to 50%). […] Translocation in PAX8peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) has been identified in around 30 to 35% of FTC. […] Anaplastic – Inactivating mutation of the p53 tumor suppressor gene has been identified in addition to early inactivating mutations in about 50 to 80% of the cases with anaplastic thyroid cancer. […] Also, 66% of anaplastic thyroid cancers have been identified to harbor mutations in the CTNNB1 gene. […] RAS mutations are also associated with 20 to 40% of anaplastic thyroid cancers. […] MTC – Germline mutations of RET proto-oncogene in inherited forms of MTC (approximately 25% of MTC) and RAS mutations in 25% of MTC.

• #2 Thyroid Cancer—Risks and Causes – touchONCOLOGY

  https://touchoncology.com/thyroid-cancer/journal-articles/thyroid-cancer-risks-and-causes/

  The incidence of thyroid cancer has almost doubled in recent years and over 60,000 people will be diagnosed in the US in 2015. […] The reasons for this increased incidence are controversial and most likely multifactorial. Increased detection of preclinical stage tumors of small size would appear to be an obvious cause with the introduction and widespread use of thyroid sonography and increased use of aspiration biopsies of small tumor as suggested by Davies and Welch. […] A true increase could be the result of a change in exposure to an unidentified risk factor in the environment or in our lifestyle. To date, ionizing radiation is the best-established risk factor for thyroid cancer, as a result of data obtained from nuclear incidents such as the Chernobyl radioiodine releases and from Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

• #2 Why Have Thyroid Cancer Diagnoses Spiked for US Women? – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/news-events/cancer-currents-blog/2021/thyroid-cancer-diagnosed-more-in-women

  Since the 1990s, a boom in the use of thyroid ultrasound has led to thyroid cancer diagnoses more than tripling. […] A large contributor appears to be that women are more likely to be diagnosed with small thyroid cancers that would have been unlikely to cause problems during their lifetime, researchers reported August 30 in JAMA Internal Medicine. […] Currently, its not possible to know, on detection, whether any one small thyroid cancer will go on to grow and become a problem, Dr. Davies added. […] The disparity by sex in the prevalence of small papillary thyroid cancers found during life and after death suggests that many women are receiving treatment for small tumors that might never have caused symptoms, Dr. Davies explained. […] The factors that lead more women to get a diagnosis of small papillary thyroid cancer are numerous and complex, she said. […] Although overdiagnosis likely plays an important role, thyroid nodules and thyroid diseases are more common in women in general. So some wonder if there may also be biological differences as well.

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