Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Acute sinusitis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/acute-sinusitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20351671

  Acute sinusitis causes the spaces inside the nose, known as sinuses, to become inflamed and swollen. […] The common cold is the usual cause of acute sinusitis. […] Acute sinusitis is most often caused by the common cold. Signs and symptoms may include a blocked and stuffy (congested) nose, which may block your sinuses and prevent drainage of mucus. […] Acute sinusitis is an infection caused by a virus. The common cold is most often the cause. Sometimes, sinuses that are blocked for a time might get a bacterial infection.

• #1 Rhinosinusitis

  https://mobile.fpnotebook.com/ENT/Sinus/Rhnsnsts.htm

  Viral (most cases, 90 to 98% of all Rhinosinusitis) […] Bacterial (superinfection of up to 2% of viral Upper Respiratory Infections) […] Fungal (Immunocompromised or Diabetes Mellitus)

• #1 Acute Sinusitis: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15285-acute-sinusitis

  Acute sinusitis often happens when you’re getting over a cold. Your sinuses are a series of connected hollow spaces behind your cheekbones, forehead and nose. Air that comes in through your nose travels through your sinuses on its way to your lungs. […] Sinusitis happens when bacteria and viruses settle in your sinuses, making their tissues swell. At the same time, your sinuses make more mucus. Normally, mucus flowing away from your sinuses washes away intruders. But when your sinus tissues swell, that mucus becomes trapped. […] A healthcare provider may prescribe antibiotics if you have acute sinusitis from a bacterial infection. Often, providers will take a wait-and-see approach before prescribing antibiotics. In general, acute sinusitis symptoms that last 10 or more days may be signs of bacterial infection.

• #1 Sinusitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusitis

  Acute sinusitis is usually precipitated by an earlier upper respiratory tract infection, generally of viral origin, mostly caused by rhinoviruses (with RVA and RVC giving more severe infection than RVB), coronaviruses, and influenza viruses, others caused by adenoviruses, human parainfluenza viruses, human respiratory syncytial virus, enteroviruses other than rhinoviruses, and metapneumovirus. If the infection is of bacterial origin, the most common three causative agents are Streptococcus pneumoniae (38%), Haemophilus influenzae (36%), and Moraxella catarrhalis (16%). […] Acute episodes of sinusitis can also result from fungal invasion. These infections are typically seen in people with diabetes or other immune deficiencies (such as AIDS or transplant on immunosuppressive antirejection medications) and can be life-threatening. In type I diabetics, ketoacidosis can be associated with sinusitis due to mucormycosis.

• #1 Causes of Rhinosinusitis

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/assistance/diseases/rhinosinusitis/causes-and-risk-factors

  Viruses. Acute viral rhinosinusitis can be caused by over 200 different viruses. Some of the most frequent ones are rhinoviruses (25%80%), followed by coronaviruses (10%20%), influenza viruses (10%15%) and adenoviruses (5%). No virus whatsoever is detected in 20%30% of cases. The proportion may vary depending on the time of year, the population group being analysed or the detection method. […] Bacteria. When the symptoms get worse after 5 days or persist for more than 10 days, this is called acute bacterial rhinosinusitis. It is a bacterial superinfection of a mucous membrane that has been affected by an acute viral infection or common cold. According to the European position paper on rhinosinusitis and nasal polyps (EPOS 2012) the bacteria most frequently isolated are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Moxarella catarrhalis. Other species, such as streptococci, anaerobic bacteria and Staphylococcus aureus, are also isolated at lower percentages.

• #1 Acute Sinusitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK547701/

  Viruses are the most common cause of acute rhinosinusitis. The viral rhinosinusitis (VRS) pathogens include rhinovirus, adenovirus, influenza virus, and parainfluenza virus. The most common causes of acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS) are Streptococcus pneumoniae (38%), Haemophilus influenzae (36%), and Moraxella catarrhalis (16%). Although rare, fungal infections can also cause acute rhinosinusitis, though this is almost exclusively seen in the immunosuppressed (uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, HIV positive, oncology patients undergoing active treatment, and patients on immunosuppressants for an organ transplant or rheumatologic conditions). […] Acute bacterial rhinosinusitis is most commonly viral. The large majority of cases will either resolve spontaneously or can be effectively treated with antibiotics. Invasive fungal rhinosinusitis is a rare, serious form of the infection that can occur in immunocompromised patients. It is associated with a high morbidity and mortality rate.

• #1 Acute Rhinosinusitis – Causes – Investigations – Management – TeachMeSurgery

  https://teachmesurgery.com/ent/nose/acute-rhinosinusitis/

  Acute rhinosinusitis is a common condition, affecting 8-15% of the population at any one time. It is characterised by acute inflammation of the mucosal linings of the nasal passage (rhinitis) and paranasal sinuses (sinusitis). […] There are a variety of precipitants for acute inflammation of nasal mucosa, such as infection and allergy. Inflammation of mucosa results in blockage of the paranasal sinuses and subsequently can lead to a bacterial infection. […] The most common causes are a viral organisms, such as rhinovirus, influenza, or adenovirus, however can also be caused by bacterial organisms, such as S. pneumoniae, H. Influenzae, or M. catarrhalis. Allergic precipitants that can cause acute rhinosinusitis dust, pollen, and cat or dog hair.

• #1 Acute Sinusitis: Practice Essentials, Background, Anatomy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/232670-overview

  Purulent sinusitis can occur when ciliary clearance of sinus secretions decreases or when the sinus ostium becomes obstructed, which leads to retention of secretions, negative sinus pressure, and reduction of oxygen partial pressure. This environment is then suitable for growth of pathogenic organisms. Factors that predispose the sinuses to obstruction and decreased ciliary function are allergic, nonallergic, or viral insults, which produce inflammation of the nasal and sinus mucosa and result in ciliary dysmotility and sinus obstruction. […] In individuals with recurrent or persistent sinusitis, suspect other predisposing conditions such as cystic fibrosis, ciliary dyskinesia, allergic inflammation, immunodeficiency, or an anatomic problem. […] The vast majority of rhinosinusitis episodes are caused by viral infection. Most viral upper respiratory tract infections are caused by rhinovirus, but coronavirus, influenza A and B, parainfluenza, respiratory syncytial virus, adenovirus, and enterovirus are also causative agents.

• #1 Sinus Infection Basics | Sinus Infection | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/sinus-infection/about/index.html

  Sinus infections happen when fluid builds up in the air-filled pockets in the face (sinuses). This fluid buildup allows germs to grow. […] Viruses cause most sinus infections, but bacteria can cause some sinus infections. […] A sinus infection is usually caused by a virus and gets better on its own without antibiotics.

• #1 Sinusitis – ENT Health

  https://www.enthealth.org/conditions/sinusitis/

  Viruses or bacteria usually cause acute sinusitis. Acute viral sinusitis is likely if you have been sick for less than 10 days and are not getting worse. Acute bacterial sinusitis is when you do not improve at all within 10 days of getting sick, or when you get worse within 10 days after beginning to get better. […] Chronic sinusitis, however, is usually caused by prolonged inflammation, instead of a long infection. Infection can be a part of chronic sinusitis, especially when it worsens from time to time, but is not usually the main cause. The exact cause cannot always be determined; for some reason the nose and sinuses are overreacting to what they think is an infection.

• #1 Patient education: Acute sinusitis (sinus infection) (Beyond the Basics) – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/acute-sinusitis-sinus-infection-beyond-the-basics

  ACUTE SINUSITIS CAUSES […] The most common cause of acute sinusitis is a viral infection associated with the common cold. This condition is also called viral sinusitis. Bacterial sinusitis occurs much less commonly, in only 0.5 to 2 percent of cases, usually as a complication of viral sinusitis. […] Because antibiotics are effective only against bacterial, and not viral, infections, most people with acute sinusitis do not need antibiotics and would be putting themselves at risk for medication side effects and for developing antibiotic resistance by taking them for nonbacterial sinusitis. Most adults with normal immune systems can also clear bacterial infections without antibiotics.

• #1 Sinusitis | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/sinusitis

  Sinusitis is caused by too much mucus, or a swelling of the lining of the sinuses and nose, which can block the narrow channels. […] This can occur during a cold, or may be due to allergy (for example, hayfever) or irritation of the linings of the sinuses (for example, from chlorine in a swimming pool). Bacteria (germs) then grow inside the sinuses, causing pain, headache and sometimes fever. Mucus from infected sinuses can be yellow or green.

• #1 Understanding Acute RhinosinusitisFacebookInstagramLinkedIn

  https://coloradoent.com/blog/understanding-acute-rhinosinusitis-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/

  Acute sinusitis manifests through various symptoms, including a fever higher than 100.4°F, thick yellow or green nasal discharge, sinus or ear pressure, tooth pain, and a reduced sense of smell. […] The most common cause of acute sinusitis is a viral upper respiratory infection, making viral sinusitis the predominant form of this condition. […] Bacterial sinusitis, while less common, can occur in about 3% of cases. […] Distinguishing between viral and bacterial sinusitis can be challenging, but generally, if symptoms last fewer than ten days, it’s likely viral. […] However, a bacterial infection may be suspected if symptoms persist beyond ten days without improvement or initially improve and then worsen.

• #1 Sinus infections and antibiotics – Mayo Clinic Health System

  https://www.mayoclinichealthsystem.org/hometown-health/speaking-of-health/will-my-sinus-infection-clear-up-on-its-own

  The first few weeks of the common cold aren’t fun, but the acute sinusitis that can develop afterwards doesn’t help either. Unfortunately, sinus congestion and the common cold go hand in hand. Acute sinusitis frequently is caused by the common cold, but also can be caused by allergies and bacterial and fungal infections. […] Sinus infections are caused when the cavities around your nasal passages become inflamed and swollen. This inflammation eventually interferes with drainage and causes mucus to build up. […] Antibiotics only will be needed if the infection is severe, recurrent or persistent. […] The likelihood of bacterial infection increases when: Symptoms last seven days or more, particularly when symptoms initially improve and then worsen. Mucus is thick and yellow or green in color. There is facial or sinus tenderness, particularly if it’s worse on one side of the face. Pain is present in the upper teeth and is worse on one side of the face.

• #1 Recurrent Acute Rhinosinusitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459372/

  The most common etiologies for RARS mirror those of other sinusitis types. Viral upper respiratory tract infection is the most common cause of sinusitis and is typically self-limiting. In these cases, viral inoculation triggers inflammation and irritation of the nasal cavity mucosa and paranasal sinuses. This inflammation reduces the size of the sinus ostia (outflow openings), obstructing the clearance of nasal flora, mucus, and inhaled particles from the sinuses. Inflammation also impairs ciliary movement and causes mucus stasis, predisposing the sinuses to bacterial infection. Similarly, untreated allergic rhinitis can cause chronic inflammation in the nose and paranasal sinuses, resulting in outflow tract obstruction, secretion buildup, and potential bacterial infection. […] The most common bacterial pathogens causing RARS are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, other Streptococcus species, Moraxella catarrhalis, and Staphylococcus aureus. Methicillin-resistant S aureus (MRSA) often colonizes the nares and leads to recurrent sinusitis, especially in patients who have undergone multiple courses of antibiotics.

• #1 Acute Rhinosinusitis in Adults | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2011/0501/p1057.html

  Most cases of acute rhinosinusitis are caused by viral infections associated with the common cold. […] Mucosal edema leads to obstruction of the sinus ostia. In addition, viral and bacterial infections impair the cilia, which transport mucus. The obstruction and slowed mucus transport cause stagnation of secretions and lowered oxygen tension within the sinuses. This environment is an excellent culture medium for viruses and bacteria. The most common bacterial organisms in community-acquired acute bacterial rhinosinusitis are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Moraxella catarrhalis. […] The most common viruses in acute viral rhinosinusitis are rhinovirus, adenovirus, influenza virus, and parainfluenza virus.

• #1 Acute Bacterial Rhinosinusitis in Adults: Part I. Evaluation | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2004/1101/p1685.html

  Anaerobic sinus infections often are associated with dental infections or procedures. […] Patients with nosocomial infections are more likely to have gram-negative organisms. […] Immunocompromised patients are prone to fungal infections, particularly those caused by Aspergillus and Mucor species.

• #1 Sinusitis – Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/ear-nose-and-throat-disorders/nose-and-paranasal-sinus-disorders/sinusitis

  Acute sinusitis in immunocompetent patients in the community is almost always viral (eg, rhinovirus, influenza, parainfluenza). A small percentage develop secondary bacterial infection with streptococci, pneumococci, Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, or staphylococci. […] Hospital-acquired acute infections are more often bacterial, typically involving Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis, and Enterobacter. […] Immunocompromised patients may have acute invasive fungal sinusitis. […] Chronic sinusitis involves many factors that combine to create chronic inflammation. Chronic allergies, structural abnormalities (eg, nasal polyps), environmental irritants (eg, airborne pollution, tobacco smoke), mucociliary dysfunction, and other factors interact with infectious organisms to cause chronic sinusitis.

• #1 Chronic Sinusitis: Practice Essentials, Background, Anatomy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/232791-overview

  A change of bacterial isolates during the course of recurrent exacerbation was observed in 68% (76/112) of patients studied by Yaniv et al, necessitating a change of treatment in 40% (45/112). […] S aureus including methicillin resistant is associated with the development of persistent severe inflammatory disease of the upper airway, including chronic sinusitis with nasal polyps. […] Gram-negative facultative and aerobic bacteria, including P aeruginosa, are more often isolated in patients with chronic sinusitis who have undergone endoscopic sinus surgery. […] The following fungi have been reported in samples obtained with endoscopy or sinus puncture in patients with chronic sinusitis: Aspergillus species, Cryptococcus neoformans, Candida species, Sporothrix schenckii, Alternaria species.

• #1 Sinus Infection Causes, Risk Factors, Symptoms, Diagnosis

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/sinus-infection/causes-risk-factors-symptoms-diagnosis/

  Fungal sinusitis can either be noninvasive or invasive, with the latter class spreading beyond the sinuses to also infect such areas as bone and blood vessels. […] Aspergillus fumigatus is the most common fungus associated with fungal sinusitis. […] Other Aspergillus species, including Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger, can also cause acute sinusitis in healthy immune systems. […] Fungal genuses associated with allergic fungal sinusitis include Alternaria, Aspergillus, Bipolaris, Chrysosporium, Drechslera, and Exserohilum. […] Some common fungi associated with chronic invasive fungal sinusitis include Mucor, Alternaria, Curvularia, Bipolaris, Candida, Sporothrix schenckii, and Pseudallescheria boydii.

• #1 Acute Sinusitis: Causes, Symptoms & Diagnosis

  https://www.healthline.com/health/acute-sinusitis

  The following factors can increase your risk of developing acute sinusitis: intranasal allergies, nasal passage abnormalities, such as a deviated septum or nasal polyps, tobacco smoking or frequent breathing in of other pollutants, large or inflamed adenoids, spending a lot of time in a day care, preschool, or other areas where infectious germs are frequently present, activities that result in pressure changes, such as flying and scuba diving, a weakened immune system, cystic fibrosis. […] Acute sinusitis is a common condition that as many as 1 in 8 people experience. Its most often caused by a cold, but can also be caused by allergies, nasal issues, or conditions like cystic fibrosis.

• #1 Chronic Sinusitis: Practice Essentials, Background, Anatomy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/232791-overview

  Polymicrobial aerobic-anaerobic flora is sinus cultures obtained from present with fungus ball. […] The following conditions and risk factors predispose patients to the development of chronic sinusitis: Anatomic abnormalities of the ostiomeatal complex (eg, septal deviation, concha bullosa, deviation of uncinate process, Haller cells), Allergic rhinitis, Aspirin sensitivity, Asthma, Nasal polyps, Nonallergic rhinitis (eg, vasomotor rhinitis, rhinitis medicamentosa, cocaine abuse), Defects in mucociliary clearance, Nasotracheal intubation, Nasogastric intubation, Hormonal (eg, puberty, pregnancy, oral contraception), Obstruction by tumor, Immunologic disorders (eg, common variable immunodeficiency, immunoglobulin A [IgA] deficiency, IgG subclass deficiency, AIDS), Cystic fibrosis, Primary ciliary dyskinesia, Kartagener syndrome, Wegener granulomatosis, Repeated viral upper respiratory tract infections, Smoking, Environmental irritants and pollutants, Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). The reflux of gastric contents may play a contributing role in some cases of CRS; this relationship still needs to be better defined, Periodontitis/significant dental disease, Systemic diseases (ie, granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener granulomatosis), Churg-Strauss vasculitis, sarcoidosis), Yellow nail syndrome.

• #1 Acute Recurrent Sinusitis: Symptoms, Causes and Treatment – Houston Advanced Sinus

  https://houstonadvancedsinus.com/acute-recurrent-sinusitis-symptoms-causes-and-treatment/

  Causes of Acute Recurrent Sinusitis […] A deviated or crooked septum obstructs or blocks sinus openings, causing recurrent acute sinusitis. The deviated septum can be congenital or a result of an injury or facial trauma. […] Patients with naturally small sinus openings are susceptible to sinus drainage problems and recurrent acute sinusitis. […] When the immune system of the body overreacts to an allergen, it triggers allergic rhinitis. The problem may cause inflammation and congestion in the nasal passages which blocks the natural sinus openings and leading the mucous stasis in the sinuses and ultimately causing a bacterial sinusitis.

• #1 5 of The Most Common Causes of Sinusitis

  https://www.socalsinus.com/5-of-the-most-common-causes-of-sinusitis/

  Acute sinusitis is temporary, and develops when the membranes inside the nose, sinus cavities, and sometimes the throat become inflamed, usually from recent virus, bacteria, or airborne irritants exposure, or allergies. […] Sinusitis that occurs from structural septum abnormalities dont normally respond to conventional therapeutics and remedies. […] Nasal polyps are small, abnormal growths that develop in the sinuses or nose. […] Enlarged turbinates are a common cause of sinus infections and nasal congestion that can lead to headaches, facial pain, trouble sleeping, eating, smelling, and additional discomfort. […] Congestion develops when the mucosa, the thin layer of moist tissues that line the nasal and sinus cavities and moisturize the air you breathe become irritated or infected.

• #1 Recurrent Acute Sinusitis Treatment | Denver Sinus Experts

  https://www.advancedentdenver.com/sinus/recurrent-acute-sinusitis/

  Typical acute sinusitis is a short-term inflammation of the sinuses that often includes a sinus infection. Acute sinusitis is most often caused by colds, or sometimes bacterial infections. […] There are several different issues that can cause recurrent acute sinusitis. These include: […] Allergic rhinitis is swelling of the inner lining of the nose, due to allergies. This swelling blocks sinus openings and can lead to bacterial sinusitis. […] A crooked septum (due to injury or genetics) can block your sinus openings, causing sinusitis to reoccur. […] If you have naturally small sinus openings, you’re more susceptible to sinus drainage issues and therefore recurrent acute rhinosinusitis.

• #1 Acute Sinusitis: Practice Essentials, Background, Anatomy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/232670-overview

  Acute bacterial rhinosinusitis very frequently is associated with viral upper respiratory tract infection, although allergy, trauma, neoplasms, granulomatous and inflammatory diseases, midline destructive disease, environmental factors, dental infection, and anatomic variation, which may impair normal mucociliary clearance, may predispose to bacterial infection. […] The most common pathogens isolated from maxillary sinus cultures in patients with acute bacterial rhinosinusitis include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis.

• #1 Acute Sinusitis: Symptoms and Treatment

  https://patient.info/ears-nose-throat-mouth/acute-sinusitis

  Acute sinusitis is a sinus infection which usually goes away on its own without treatment. […] In most people, acute sinusitis develops after a cold or flu-like illness. Colds and flu are caused by germs which may spread to the sinuses. The infection is usually caused by a virus and in most cases will clear after 2-3 weeks without any specific treatment. […] In a small number of cases, different germs, bacteria, add on to an infection that started with a virus. This can cause a bacterial sinus infection which can make the infection worse and last longer. […] In some cases, infection spreads to a cheekbone (maxillary) sinus from an infected tooth. […] In some people, one or more factors are present that may cause the sinuses to be more prone to infection. These include: Nasal allergy (allergic rhinitis). The allergy may cause swelling of the tissues on the inside lining of the nose and block the sinus drainage channels. This makes the sinuses more susceptible to infection.

• #1 Sinusitis – Knowledge @ AMBOSS

  https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/sinusitis/

  Pathogens: Viral (most common): rhinovirus, coronavirus, adenovirus, influenza, and parainfluenza viruses […] Bacterial: particularly S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae, M. catarrhalis, S. aureus, E. coli, and Klebsiella. […] Fungal: e.g., Aspergillus, Rhizopus oryzae. […] Route of transmission: droplet transmission, particularly in winter months. […] Risk factors: Preexisting viral upper respiratory tract infection (URTI): most common; leads to superimposed bacterial infections. […] Ventilation disorders of the sinuses: Hypertrophy of nasal turbinates, nasal polyps, deviation of nasal septum. […] Impairments of ciliary function such as cystic fibrosis, primary ciliary dyskinesia, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, allergic inflammation, and immunodeficiency. […] Foreign body lodged in the nasal cavity (particularly seen in children). […] Odontogenic infection: leads to unilateral maxillary sinusitis. […] Rhinitis: spread of pathogens via nasal mucosa. […] Bronchial asthma. […] Analgesic (NSAIDs, aspirin) intolerance.

• #1 Acute Sinusitis: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments | Sparsh Hospital

  https://www.sparshhospital.com/blog/understanding-acute-sinusitis-symptoms-causes-treatments/

  Environmental Factors: Exposure to pollutants, smoke, or dry air can irritate the sinus linings and increase the risk of acute sinusitis. […] Weakened Immune System: People with conditions like HIV/AIDS or cystic fibrosis that weaken the immune system have increased the risk of infections. […] The leading causes of acute sinusitis are viruses like the common cold or sometimes bacteria, which can inflame your sinuses and block drainage. However, it’s important to note that allergies can also contribute to this condition.

• #1 Acute sinusitis – Hancock Health

  https://www.hancockhealth.org/mayo-health-library/acute-sinusitis/

  Acute sinusitis is an infection caused by a virus. The common cold is most often the cause. Sometimes, sinuses that are blocked for a time might get a bacterial infection. […] The following can raise the risk of getting sinusitis: Hay fever or another allergy that affects the sinuses. A common cold that affects the sinuses. A problem inside the nose, such as a deviated nasal septum, nasal polyps or tumors. A medical condition such as cystic fibrosis or an immune system disorder such as HIV/AIDS. Being around smoke, either from smoking or being around others who smoke, known as secondhand smoke.

• #1 Sinusitis – Types, Causes, Symptoms, Complications and Treatment PACE Hospitals – Best Hospitals in Hitech City, Hyderabad, India | Near Madhapur, Kukatpally, KPHB, Kondapur, Gachibowli, Jubilee Hills, Banjara HillsPACE Hospitals Contact

  https://www.pacehospital.com/sinusitis-types-causes-symptoms-and-treatment

  Sinusitis is usually the result of a cold or flu virus spreading to the sinuses from the upper airways. Only a few cases are caused by bacteria infecting the sinuses. An infected tooth or fungal infection can also occasionally cause the sinuses to become inflamed. […] It’s not clear exactly what causes sinusitis to become chronic (long-lasting), but it has been associated with: Mechanical obstruction – Deviated septum, any swellings within the nose like nasal polyps, Focal infection- common cold, nasal infections, Adenotonsillitis, dental extraction, Trauma, exposure to dusty or polluted areas, Allergies and related conditions, including allergic rhinitis, asthma and hay fever, Immunodeficiency / a weakened immune system, Autonomic imbalance – emotional disturbances, stress, Thermal changes, Change in humidity, Hormones- pregnancy, puberty, hypothyroidism, Smoking. […] For infants and young children, spending time in day cares, using pacifiers or drinking bottles while lying down could increase the chances of getting sinusitis, and for adults, smoking increases the risks for sinus infections.

• #1 Acute Sinusitis: Causes, Symptoms & Diagnosis

  https://www.healthline.com/health/acute-sinusitis

  Acute sinusitis, also called acute rhinosinusitis, is a short-term inflammation of the membranes that line your nose and surrounding sinuses. This impedes your ability to drain mucus from your nose and sinuses. […] As a common health issue affecting 1 in 8 adults each year, acute sinusitis is most often caused by a cold or viral infection. But it can also be due to noninfectious causes, including seasonal allergies, nasal issues, or health conditions like cystic fibrosis. […] Illnesses and conditions that can cause or lead to acute sinusitis include: viruses, bacteria, fungi, intranasal allergies, such as hay fever, nasal polyps or other tumors, deviated nasal septum, infected adenoids, cystic fibrosis, an inherited genetic disease where thick, sticky mucus builds up in the body. […] An infected tooth could also cause acute sinusitis, as bacteria can spread from the infected tooth to the sinuses.

• #1 A prospective study of acute sinusitis, clinical features and modalities of management in adults, Sudan | The Egyptian Journal of Otolaryngology | Full Text

  https://ejo.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43163-022-00316-9

  Predisposing factors include diabetes mellitus, swimming, diving, high altitude, climbing, dental infection and dental procedures, trauma, and barotraumas. […] The management of acute sinusitis can be categorized into medical and surgical. The medical treatment consists of rest in bed, rehydration, analgesics, antipyretics, nasal decongestants, mucolytics, occasionally steroids, and lastly antibiotics. The surgical treatment is for those who fail medical treatment or develop complications, and it includes mainly functional endoscopic sinus surgery.

• #1 Acute Bacterial Rhinosinusitis | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/a/acute-bacterial-rhinosinusitis-1.html

  Acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS) is an infection of both your nasal cavity and sinuses. It is caused by bacteria. […] ABRS is caused by bacteria that infect the lining of your nasal cavity and sinuses. Its most often caused by the bacteria Streptococcus pneumonia. Another bacteria called Haemophilus influenzae may also cause ABRS. […] The bacterial infection happens after the lining is already inflamed. This inflammation is often caused by a virus. […] Other factors can cause inflammation and make a bacterial infection more likely, such as: Allergies, Blockage in the nose, Swimming in contaminated water, Tooth infection, Cocaine use in the nose, Air pollutants.

• #1 Acute Sinusitis: Symptoms and Treatment

  https://patient.info/ears-nose-throat-mouth/acute-sinusitis

  Other causes of a blockage to the sinus drainage channels, such as: Growths (nasal polyps). […] A weakened immune system – for example, people with HIV, people on chemotherapy, etc. […] Chronic sinusitis can sometimes develop from an acute sinusitis. This is the most common complication. Chronic sinusitis causes similar symptoms to acute sinusitis but lasts longer. […] Other complications are rare. However, they can be serious. For example, infection may spread from a sinus to around an eye, into bones, into the blood, or into the brain. These severe complications are estimated to occur in about 1 in 10,000 cases of acute sinusitis.

• #1 Chronic Sinusitis: Practice Essentials, Background, Anatomy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/232791-overview

  The etiology of chronic sinusitis is multifactorial. The interaction between many systemic, local host, and environmental factors contribute to sinus inflammation and to the pathophysiology of the disease. Systemic factors include genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis, conditions that cause immunodeficiency, autoimmune disease, idiopathic conditions such as Samter triad (aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease), and acid reflux. Local host factors include sinonasal anatomic abnormalities, iatrogenic conditions such as scarring due to prior sinus surgery, neoplasm, or the presence of a foreign body, among others. Possible environmental factors that may contribute to the condition include the presence of biofilms and bacterial infection, as well as fungal infection, allergy, environmental pollutants, and smoking.

• #1 Acute Bacterial Rhinosinusitis in Adults: Part I. Evaluation | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2004/1101/p1685.html

  Acute rhinosinusitis is one of the most common conditions that physicians treat in ambulatory practice. Although often caused by viruses, it sometimes is caused by bacteria, a condition that is called acute bacterial rhinosinusitis. […] Although usually caused by viruses, acute rhinosinusitis sometimes is complicated by a bacterial infection, a condition called acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS). […] The two most common causes of community-acquired ABRS in adults are Streptococcus pneumoniae and nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae. […] It is important to remember that most cases of rhinosinusitis are viral in origin. […] The ostiomeatal complex, the area at the confluence of drainage from the sinuses, is particularly vulnerable to inflammatory changes, swelling, and obstruction. Anatomic variations and other factors generally predispose patients to ABRS by causing inflammation in the ostiomeatal complex.

• #1 Sinusitis: Symptoms, Risk Factors, Treatment, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/sinusitis

  Acute sinusitis has the shortest duration and resolves on its own. […] Viral infections eventually lead to most cases of acute sinusitis, but seasonal allergies can also cause it. […] Different causes can lead to the fluid buildup in the sinuses that occurs with sinusitis. Possible causes can include: viral infections like the common cold, seasonal allergies, bacterial infections that may require antibiotics to clear. […] Sometimes, a cold, allergens, or bacteria can cause too much mucus to form. This mucus buildup can become thick and encourage bacteria and other germs to build up in your sinus cavity, eventually leading to a sinus infection.

• #1 Recurrent Acute Rhinosinusitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459372/

  Genetic factors affecting nasociliary motion or mucus production, like Kartagener syndrome, have also been suggested to play a role in sinus disease pathophysiology. Environmental factors, such as tobacco smoke and chronic exposure to inhaled irritants, have been implicated in the development or exacerbation of RARS. These factors impair ciliary motility and disrupt cell signaling in the innate immune system, exacerbating the condition.

• #1 Causes of Sinusitis

  https://www.veteranshealthlibrary.va.gov/3,85809

  Mucus helps keep your sinuses clean. But mucus may build up in the sinuses because of colds, allergies, or blockages. These things get in the way of the natural drainage of mucus. This may lead to sinusitis. Sinusitis means sinus inflammation and infection. […] Acute sinusitis may come on suddenly. It often happens right after an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold. Viruses cause most acute sinus infections. But bacteria may also be the cause. […] People with chronic nasal problems or allergies are more likely to get acute sinusitis. Sinusitis is also more common if you have a weakened immune system, such as with HIV. You’re also more likely to get sinusitis if you have cystic fibrosis or another condition that causes your body to make extra mucus.

• #2 Acute Sinusitis: Causes, Symptoms & Diagnosis

  https://www.healthline.com/health/acute-sinusitis

  Acute sinusitis, also called acute rhinosinusitis, is a short-term inflammation of the membranes that line your nose and surrounding sinuses. This impedes your ability to drain mucus from your nose and sinuses. […] As a common health issue affecting 1 in 8 adults each year, acute sinusitis is most often caused by a cold or viral infection. But it can also be due to noninfectious causes, including seasonal allergies, nasal issues, or health conditions like cystic fibrosis. […] Illnesses and conditions that can cause or lead to acute sinusitis include: viruses, bacteria, fungi, intranasal allergies, such as hay fever, nasal polyps or other tumors, deviated nasal septum, infected adenoids, cystic fibrosis, an inherited genetic disease where thick, sticky mucus builds up in the body. […] An infected tooth could also cause acute sinusitis, as bacteria can spread from the infected tooth to the sinuses.

• #2 Sinusitis Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/report/sinusitis

  Acute sinusitis can be caused by viral, bacterial, or fungal infections. Allergens and environmental irritants are other possible causes. In most cases, acute sinusitis is caused by an upper respiratory tract viral infection, such as the common cold, and usually resolves on its own. […] In almost 90% cases in adults and 50% to 70% cases in children, acute sinusitis have a viral cause. Acute sinusitis typically starts with the common cold virus. A cold can set the stage for sinusitis by causing inflammation and congestion in the nasal passages, leading to obstruction in the sinuses. […] A small percentage of acute sinusitis, and possibly chronic sinusitis cases, are caused by bacteria. Bacteria are normally present in the nasal passages and throat and are usually harmless. However, when a cold or other viral upper respiratory infection blocks the nasal passage and prevents the sinuses from draining, bacteria can multiply within the mucous lining of the sinuses, causing sinusitis.

• #2 Recurrent Acute Rhinosinusitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459372/

  The most common etiologies for RARS mirror those of other sinusitis types. Viral upper respiratory tract infection is the most common cause of sinusitis and is typically self-limiting. In these cases, viral inoculation triggers inflammation and irritation of the nasal cavity mucosa and paranasal sinuses. This inflammation reduces the size of the sinus ostia (outflow openings), obstructing the clearance of nasal flora, mucus, and inhaled particles from the sinuses. Inflammation also impairs ciliary movement and causes mucus stasis, predisposing the sinuses to bacterial infection. Similarly, untreated allergic rhinitis can cause chronic inflammation in the nose and paranasal sinuses, resulting in outflow tract obstruction, secretion buildup, and potential bacterial infection. […] The most common bacterial pathogens causing RARS are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, other Streptococcus species, Moraxella catarrhalis, and Staphylococcus aureus. Methicillin-resistant S aureus (MRSA) often colonizes the nares and leads to recurrent sinusitis, especially in patients who have undergone multiple courses of antibiotics.

• #2 Causes of Rhinosinusitis

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/assistance/diseases/rhinosinusitis/causes-and-risk-factors

  Viruses. Acute viral rhinosinusitis can be caused by over 200 different viruses. Some of the most frequent ones are rhinoviruses (25%80%), followed by coronaviruses (10%20%), influenza viruses (10%15%) and adenoviruses (5%). No virus whatsoever is detected in 20%30% of cases. The proportion may vary depending on the time of year, the population group being analysed or the detection method. […] Bacteria. When the symptoms get worse after 5 days or persist for more than 10 days, this is called acute bacterial rhinosinusitis. It is a bacterial superinfection of a mucous membrane that has been affected by an acute viral infection or common cold. According to the European position paper on rhinosinusitis and nasal polyps (EPOS 2012) the bacteria most frequently isolated are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Moxarella catarrhalis. Other species, such as streptococci, anaerobic bacteria and Staphylococcus aureus, are also isolated at lower percentages.

• #2 Sinus Infection Causes, Risk Factors, Symptoms, Diagnosis

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/sinus-infection/causes-risk-factors-symptoms-diagnosis/

  A sinus infection occurs when the mucous membranes lining your sinuses (air-filled cavities in your face and head) become infected, usually with a virus but also sometimes bacteria or fungi. […] Sinus infections usually follow a viral respiratory tract infection, especially the common cold. A sinus infection caused by a virus is also called viral sinusitis. […] It is most often caused by: Rhinoviruses, the most important cause of the common cold and one of the most common pathogens in people; Influenza viruses, which cause the flu; Parainfluenza viruses, which cause upper and lower respiratory illnesses, including bronchitis and pneumonia. […] A small percentage of people with viral sinusitis also test positive for adenovirus, which is responsible for a range of respiratory illnesses, as well as diarrhea, gastrointestinal inflammation, and neurologic diseases.

• #2

  https://www.atsu.edu/faculty/chamberlain/website/lectures/lecture/urisin.htm

  Most cases of acute rhinosinusitis are due to respiratory viruses (98-99.8%), which include rhinovirus, parainfluenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus, and adenovirus. […] However, acute rhinosinusitis can occasionally be complicated by a bacterial infection and is diagnosed as acute bacterial rhinosinusitis. The two most common causes of community-acquired acute bacterial rhinosinusitis are Streptococcus pneumoniae and nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae. […] Infection of the sinuses may follow the common cold, dental extractions, rhinitis due to allergies, and forcing water into the sinuses by jumping into water. […] In approximately 2% of adults and 10% of children, acute bacterial rhinosinusitis can follow acute viral rhinosinusitis, allergic rhinitis, or other upper respiratory tract infections.

• #2 Patient education: Acute sinusitis (sinus infection) (Beyond the Basics) – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/acute-sinusitis-sinus-infection-beyond-the-basics

  ACUTE SINUSITIS CAUSES […] The most common cause of acute sinusitis is a viral infection associated with the common cold. This condition is also called viral sinusitis. Bacterial sinusitis occurs much less commonly, in only 0.5 to 2 percent of cases, usually as a complication of viral sinusitis. […] Because antibiotics are effective only against bacterial, and not viral, infections, most people with acute sinusitis do not need antibiotics and would be putting themselves at risk for medication side effects and for developing antibiotic resistance by taking them for nonbacterial sinusitis. Most adults with normal immune systems can also clear bacterial infections without antibiotics.

• #2 Acute rhinosinusitis – Symptoms, Causes, Images, and Treatment Options

  https://www.epocrates.com/online/diseases/14/acute-rhinosinusitis

  Majority of cases of acute rhinosinusitis in adults and children are of viral etiology. […] Duration of symptoms more than 10 days often indicates bacterial cause. […] Antibiotics are only recommended in select patient groups (e.g., severe disease, persistent or worsening symptoms, or immunocompromised patients) because symptoms often resolve without intervention and there is a risk of antimicrobial resistance.

• #2 Sinusitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusitis

  Acute sinusitis is usually precipitated by an earlier upper respiratory tract infection, generally of viral origin, mostly caused by rhinoviruses (with RVA and RVC giving more severe infection than RVB), coronaviruses, and influenza viruses, others caused by adenoviruses, human parainfluenza viruses, human respiratory syncytial virus, enteroviruses other than rhinoviruses, and metapneumovirus. If the infection is of bacterial origin, the most common three causative agents are Streptococcus pneumoniae (38%), Haemophilus influenzae (36%), and Moraxella catarrhalis (16%). […] Acute episodes of sinusitis can also result from fungal invasion. These infections are typically seen in people with diabetes or other immune deficiencies (such as AIDS or transplant on immunosuppressive antirejection medications) and can be life-threatening. In type I diabetics, ketoacidosis can be associated with sinusitis due to mucormycosis.

• #2 Acute Sinusitis: Symptoms and Treatment

  https://patient.info/ears-nose-throat-mouth/acute-sinusitis

  Acute sinusitis is a sinus infection which usually goes away on its own without treatment. […] In most people, acute sinusitis develops after a cold or flu-like illness. Colds and flu are caused by germs which may spread to the sinuses. The infection is usually caused by a virus and in most cases will clear after 2-3 weeks without any specific treatment. […] In a small number of cases, different germs, bacteria, add on to an infection that started with a virus. This can cause a bacterial sinus infection which can make the infection worse and last longer. […] In some cases, infection spreads to a cheekbone (maxillary) sinus from an infected tooth. […] In some people, one or more factors are present that may cause the sinuses to be more prone to infection. These include: Nasal allergy (allergic rhinitis). The allergy may cause swelling of the tissues on the inside lining of the nose and block the sinus drainage channels. This makes the sinuses more susceptible to infection.

• #2 Acute Bacterial Rhinosinusitis in Adults: Part I. Evaluation | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2004/1101/p1685.html

  Anaerobic sinus infections often are associated with dental infections or procedures. […] Patients with nosocomial infections are more likely to have gram-negative organisms. […] Immunocompromised patients are prone to fungal infections, particularly those caused by Aspergillus and Mucor species.

• #2 Sinusitis Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/report/sinusitis

  Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis (a common cause of childhood illnesses) are the bacteria most often linked to acute sinusitis. These bacteria plus other strains, such as Staphylococcus aureus, are also associated with chronic sinusitis. […] An allergic reaction to fungi is a cause of some chronic rhinosinusitis cases. Various fungi such as species of Aspergillus, Candida, Mucor, Rhizopus, and others can cause fungal sinus disease. However, Aspergillus is the most common fungus associated with sinusitis. Fungal infections tend to occur in people with sinusitis who also have diabetes, leukemia, AIDS, or other conditions that impair the immune system. Fungal infections can also occur in people with healthy immune systems, but they are far less common.

• #2 Sinusitis – Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/ear-nose-and-throat-disorders/nose-and-paranasal-sinus-disorders/sinusitis

  The organisms are commonly bacterial (possibly as part of a biofilm on the mucosal surface) but may be fungal. […] Many bacteria have been implicated, including gram-negative bacilli and oropharyngeal anaerobic microorganisms; polymicrobial infection is common. […] In a few cases, chronic maxillary sinusitis is secondary to dental infection. […] Fungal infections (Aspergillus, Sporothrix, Pseudallescheria) may be chronic and tend to strike older and immunocompromised patients. […] Allergic fungal sinusitis is a form of chronic sinusitis characterized by diffuse nasal congestion, markedly viscid nasal secretions, and, often, nasal polyps. […] It is an allergic response to the presence of topical fungi, often Aspergillus, and is not caused by an invasive infection. […] Invasive fungal sinusitis is an aggressive, sometimes fatal, infection in immunocompromised patients, usually caused by Aspergillus or Mucor species. […] Common risk factors for sinusitis include factors that obstruct normal sinus drainage (eg, allergic rhinitis, nasal polyps, nasogastric or nasotracheal tubes, nasal packing) and immunocompromised states (eg, diabetes, HIV infection).

• #2 Acute Recurrent Sinusitis: Symptoms, Causes and Treatment – Houston Advanced Sinus

  https://houstonadvancedsinus.com/acute-recurrent-sinusitis-symptoms-causes-and-treatment/

  Causes of Acute Recurrent Sinusitis […] A deviated or crooked septum obstructs or blocks sinus openings, causing recurrent acute sinusitis. The deviated septum can be congenital or a result of an injury or facial trauma. […] Patients with naturally small sinus openings are susceptible to sinus drainage problems and recurrent acute sinusitis. […] When the immune system of the body overreacts to an allergen, it triggers allergic rhinitis. The problem may cause inflammation and congestion in the nasal passages which blocks the natural sinus openings and leading the mucous stasis in the sinuses and ultimately causing a bacterial sinusitis.

• #2 Why Sinusitis Keeps Coming Back | Jerome Hester, MD

  https://www.drhesterent.com/why-sinusitis-keeps-coming-back/

  Sometimes, for reasons that are unclear, the thin tissue lining the nasal passages develop small, benign (non-cancerous) tumors. We call these nasal polyps. […] If the septum has deviated to the point that it causes health problems, Dr. Hester will work with you to determine which treatment method or surgical procedure is best for correcting the deviation. […] Previous injuries, anatomic defects from birth, or previous sinus injections can all cause scar tissue to build up in the sinuses. […] If Dr. Hester notices that scar tissue is impacting sinus function, he may recommend endoscopic sinus surgery to clear the tissue away. […] If your nasal passages or sinus cavities experience abnormal growths of any kind, they can usually be removed through surgery.

• #2 Sinus Infections and What Causes Them

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/sinus-infection-overview-83143

  Acute sinus infections often start with allergies or viral infection (such as a cold) and sometimes develop into a bacterial infection. […] Allergic rhinitis and upper respiratory tract infections are risk factors for acute and chronic sinusitis. Other conditions that can increase the chance of developing sinus infections include gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and non-allergic rhinitis. […] An acute or subacute sinus infection starts with inflammation of the nasal passages, which can occur due to an irritant, allergy, or infection, such as the common cold. The resulting blockage of sinus drainage leads to the development of the infection. […] Chronic or recurrent sinusitis is usually caused by ongoing inflammation rather than infection. It can develop due to factors such as allergic rhinitis, fungal allergies, aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), and exposure to irritants (such as cigarette smoke).

• #2 Sinus Infection (Sinusitis): Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17701-sinusitis

  Sinusitis is usually caused by the common cold, but other viruses, bacteria, fungi and allergies can also cause sinusitis. […] Bacterial infections, viral infections and allergies can irritate them, causing them to get blocked and filled with fluid. […] Acute sinusitis symptoms (nasal congestion, drainage, facial pain/pressure and decreased sense of smell) last less than four weeks. It’s usually caused by viruses like the common cold. […] Viruses, like the ones that cause the common cold, cause most cases of sinusitis. Bacteria can cause sinusitis, or they can infect you after a case of viral sinusitis. […] Sinus infections caused by fungus are usually more serious than other forms of sinusitis. […] Viruses, bacteria, fungi and allergens can cause sinusitis. Specific triggers for sinusitis include: The common cold, The flu (influenza), Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria, Haemophilus influenza bacteria, Moraxella catarrhalis bacteria, Nasal and seasonal allergies.

• #2 Chronic Sinusitis: Practice Essentials, Background, Anatomy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/232791-overview

  The etiology of chronic sinusitis is multifactorial. The interaction between many systemic, local host, and environmental factors contribute to sinus inflammation and to the pathophysiology of the disease. Systemic factors include genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis, conditions that cause immunodeficiency, autoimmune disease, idiopathic conditions such as Samter triad (aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease), and acid reflux. Local host factors include sinonasal anatomic abnormalities, iatrogenic conditions such as scarring due to prior sinus surgery, neoplasm, or the presence of a foreign body, among others. Possible environmental factors that may contribute to the condition include the presence of biofilms and bacterial infection, as well as fungal infection, allergy, environmental pollutants, and smoking.

• #2 Recurrent Acute Rhinosinusitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459372/

  Genetic factors affecting nasociliary motion or mucus production, like Kartagener syndrome, have also been suggested to play a role in sinus disease pathophysiology. Environmental factors, such as tobacco smoke and chronic exposure to inhaled irritants, have been implicated in the development or exacerbation of RARS. These factors impair ciliary motility and disrupt cell signaling in the innate immune system, exacerbating the condition.

• #2 Understanding Acute Rhinosinusitis

  https://veteranshealthlibrary.va.gov/RelatedItems/3,85811

  Acute rhinosinusitis can result from viral, bacterial, or fungal infections. Viral is the most common cause. […] In some cases, a sinus infection can be caused by bacteria. Although rare, fungal infections can also be the cause, particularly in people with weak immune systems. […] You are at higher risk for a sinus infection if you: Are older in age, Have structural problems with your sinuses such as nasal polyps which are growths on the lining of the nose or sinuses, a deviated septum- when the bone and cartilage that separates the 2 nasal passages is crooked, a nasal bone spur or growth, a narrowing of the sinus openings, Smoke cigarettes or are exposed to secondhand smoke, Are exposed to changes in pressure, such as from flying a lot or deep-sea diving, Have asthma or seasonal allergies, Have a weak immune system or taking medicines that suppress your immune system, Have dental disease, Are regularly exposed to air pollution.

• #2 Causes of Sinusitis

  https://www.veteranshealthlibrary.va.gov/3,85809

  Mucus helps keep your sinuses clean. But mucus may build up in the sinuses because of colds, allergies, or blockages. These things get in the way of the natural drainage of mucus. This may lead to sinusitis. Sinusitis means sinus inflammation and infection. […] Acute sinusitis may come on suddenly. It often happens right after an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold. Viruses cause most acute sinus infections. But bacteria may also be the cause. […] People with chronic nasal problems or allergies are more likely to get acute sinusitis. Sinusitis is also more common if you have a weakened immune system, such as with HIV. You’re also more likely to get sinusitis if you have cystic fibrosis or another condition that causes your body to make extra mucus.

• #2 Acute Bacterial Rhinosinusitis in Adults: Part I. Evaluation | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2004/1101/p1685.html

  Acute rhinosinusitis is one of the most common conditions that physicians treat in ambulatory practice. Although often caused by viruses, it sometimes is caused by bacteria, a condition that is called acute bacterial rhinosinusitis. […] Although usually caused by viruses, acute rhinosinusitis sometimes is complicated by a bacterial infection, a condition called acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS). […] The two most common causes of community-acquired ABRS in adults are Streptococcus pneumoniae and nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae. […] It is important to remember that most cases of rhinosinusitis are viral in origin. […] The ostiomeatal complex, the area at the confluence of drainage from the sinuses, is particularly vulnerable to inflammatory changes, swelling, and obstruction. Anatomic variations and other factors generally predispose patients to ABRS by causing inflammation in the ostiomeatal complex.

• #2

  https://www.parkwayeast.com.sg/conditions-diseases/sinusitis/symptoms-causes

  Acute sinusitis, also known as acute rhinosinusitis, can last up to 4 weeks. […] Acute bacterial rhinosinusitis is a condition that usually occurs when the common cold does not improve and lasts for many weeks. […] Sinusitis is usually due to a combination of factors acting at the same time, often triggered by a viral upper respiratory tract infection that predisposes you to secondary bacterial infection and impaired clearance of inflammatory mucus. […] Untreated allergic rhinitis (allergic inflammation of airways in the nose) is one of the factors that can lead to sinusitis. […] Dental infections such as tooth infections usually cause isolated maxillary sinusitis. […] If you have a weakened immune function, fungal sinusitis, viral infections and bacterial infections may lead to sinusitis.

• #2 Acute Bacterial Sinusitis | Kettering Health

  https://ketteringhealth.org/conditions/acute-bacterial-sinusitis/

  Acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS) is an infection of both your nasal cavity and sinuses. It is caused by bacteria. […] ABRS is caused by bacteria that infect the lining of your nasal cavity and sinuses. It’s most often caused by the bacteria Streptococcus pneumonia. Or it may be caused by the bacteria Haemophilus influenzae. This can happen when the lining is already inflamed. This is often caused by a virus. The bacterial infection comes later. It often starts in the nasal cavity and spreads into your sinuses. […] Other factors can cause inflammation and make a bacterial infection more likely, such as: Allergies, Blockage in the nose, Swimming, Tooth infection, Cocaine use in the nose.

• #2 Causes of Rhinosinusitis

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/assistance/diseases/rhinosinusitis/causes-and-risk-factors

  The main risk factor for developing acute bacterial rhinosinusitis is changes to the mucus transport mechanism (mucociliary clearance) across the nasal epithelium. This epithelium is lined with hairs, called cilia, which form the structure responsible for mucus transport. In the case of a viral infection, the cilia may be destroyed, thus facilitating bacterial superinfection, but an abnormality in the nasal cavities could also alter the direction of mucociliary clearance and cause mucus to accumulate. […] Any change associated with ciliary function results in changes to mucus transport and accumulation in the paranasal sinuses.

• #2 Acute Sinusitis: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments | Sparsh Hospital

  https://www.sparshhospital.com/blog/understanding-acute-sinusitis-symptoms-causes-treatments/

  Environmental Factors: Exposure to pollutants, smoke, or dry air can irritate the sinus linings and increase the risk of acute sinusitis. […] Weakened Immune System: People with conditions like HIV/AIDS or cystic fibrosis that weaken the immune system have increased the risk of infections. […] The leading causes of acute sinusitis are viruses like the common cold or sometimes bacteria, which can inflame your sinuses and block drainage. However, it’s important to note that allergies can also contribute to this condition.

• #2 Chronic Sinusitis: Practice Essentials, Background, Anatomy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/232791-overview

  Polymicrobial aerobic-anaerobic flora is sinus cultures obtained from present with fungus ball. […] The following conditions and risk factors predispose patients to the development of chronic sinusitis: Anatomic abnormalities of the ostiomeatal complex (eg, septal deviation, concha bullosa, deviation of uncinate process, Haller cells), Allergic rhinitis, Aspirin sensitivity, Asthma, Nasal polyps, Nonallergic rhinitis (eg, vasomotor rhinitis, rhinitis medicamentosa, cocaine abuse), Defects in mucociliary clearance, Nasotracheal intubation, Nasogastric intubation, Hormonal (eg, puberty, pregnancy, oral contraception), Obstruction by tumor, Immunologic disorders (eg, common variable immunodeficiency, immunoglobulin A [IgA] deficiency, IgG subclass deficiency, AIDS), Cystic fibrosis, Primary ciliary dyskinesia, Kartagener syndrome, Wegener granulomatosis, Repeated viral upper respiratory tract infections, Smoking, Environmental irritants and pollutants, Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). The reflux of gastric contents may play a contributing role in some cases of CRS; this relationship still needs to be better defined, Periodontitis/significant dental disease, Systemic diseases (ie, granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener granulomatosis), Churg-Strauss vasculitis, sarcoidosis), Yellow nail syndrome.

• #3 Acute Rhinosinusitis – Causes – Investigations – Management – TeachMeSurgery

  https://teachmesurgery.com/ent/nose/acute-rhinosinusitis/

  Acute rhinosinusitis is a common condition, affecting 8-15% of the population at any one time. It is characterised by acute inflammation of the mucosal linings of the nasal passage (rhinitis) and paranasal sinuses (sinusitis). […] There are a variety of precipitants for acute inflammation of nasal mucosa, such as infection and allergy. Inflammation of mucosa results in blockage of the paranasal sinuses and subsequently can lead to a bacterial infection. […] The most common causes are a viral organisms, such as rhinovirus, influenza, or adenovirus, however can also be caused by bacterial organisms, such as S. pneumoniae, H. Influenzae, or M. catarrhalis. Allergic precipitants that can cause acute rhinosinusitis dust, pollen, and cat or dog hair.

• #3 Acute Rhinosinusitis in Adults | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2011/0501/p1057.html

  Most cases of acute rhinosinusitis are caused by viral infections associated with the common cold. […] Mucosal edema leads to obstruction of the sinus ostia. In addition, viral and bacterial infections impair the cilia, which transport mucus. The obstruction and slowed mucus transport cause stagnation of secretions and lowered oxygen tension within the sinuses. This environment is an excellent culture medium for viruses and bacteria. The most common bacterial organisms in community-acquired acute bacterial rhinosinusitis are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Moraxella catarrhalis. […] The most common viruses in acute viral rhinosinusitis are rhinovirus, adenovirus, influenza virus, and parainfluenza virus.

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