Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Acute Kidney Injury: Medical Causes and Pathogenesis

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/12/1/375

  Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common clinical syndrome characterized by a sudden decline in or loss of kidney function. […] The etiology of AKI is conceptually classified into three general categories: prerenal, intrarenal, and postrenal. […] The main focus of this review is to summarize the various medical causes of AKI. […] Prerenal disease and acute tubular necrosis are two major causes of AKI in hospitalized patients. […] The incidence of AKI has been increasing over the years, and many factors (aging population, the rise in predisposing comorbidities, increased use of nephrotoxic agents, and invasive procedures) may contribute to the increased incidence of AKI. […] The etiology of AKI is conceptually classified into three general categories: prerenal, intrarenal, and postrenal.

• #2 Acute Kidney Injury: Medical Causes and Pathogenesis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9821234/

  Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common clinical syndrome characterized by a sudden decline in or loss of kidney function. […] The etiology of AKI is conceptually classified into three general categories: prerenal, intrarenal, and postrenal. […] The main focus of this review is to summarize the various medical causes of AKI. […] Prerenal disease and acute tubular necrosis are two major causes of AKI in hospitalized patients. […] The etiology of AKI is conceptually classified into three general categories: prerenal, intrarenal, and postrenal. […] AKI can be caused by various medications, but certain medications are more likely to cause AKI. […] Anatomic obstruction of the urinary system at any level may result in AKI.

• #3 Acute Kidney Injury – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441896/

  Acute kidney injury (AKI) can be differentiated into prerenal, intrarenal, and postrenal etiologies, and these etiologies can be overlapping and interrelated. […] The prerenal form of AKI is due to any cause of reduced blood flow to the kidney. […] Intrinsic renal causes include conditions that affect the glomerulus or tubule, such as acute tubular necrosis and acute interstitial nephritis. […] Postrenal etiology for AKI includes obstructive causes, which lead to congestion and urinary backflow of the filtration system, leading to a shift in the filtration driving forces. […] The most common etiology of postrenal AKI is bladder outlet obstruction, which is often due to prostatic hypertrophy in older men, pelvic masses in older women, and nephrolithiasis in younger patients. […] The pathophysiology of AKI has traditionally been divided into three categories: prerenal, intrinsic renal (ie, intrarenal), and postrenal. Each of these categories has many different associated causes, and some causative factors of AKI have overlapping mechanisms of injury.

• #4 Acute kidney injury – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_kidney_injury

  Acute kidney injury (AKI), previously called acute renal failure (ARF), is a sudden decrease in kidney function that develops within seven days, as shown by an increase in serum creatinine or a decrease in urine output, or both. […] Causes of AKI are classified as either prerenal (due to decreased blood flow to the kidney), intrinsic renal (due to damage to the kidney itself), or postrenal (due to blockage of urine flow. […] Prerenal causes of AKI include sepsis, dehydration, excessive blood loss, cardiogenic shock, heart failure, cirrhosis, and certain medications like ACE inhibitors or NSAIDs. […] Intrinsic renal causes of AKI include glomerulonephritis, lupus nephritis, acute tubular necrosis, certain antibiotics, and chemotherapeutic agents. […] Postrenal causes of AKI include kidney stones, bladder cancer, neurogenic bladder, enlargement of the prostate, narrowing of the urethra, and certain medications like anticholinergics.

• #5 AKI: Acute Kidney Injury – Renal and Urology News

  https://www.renalandurologynews.com/ddi/acute-kidney-injury-aki/

  Acute kidney injury can be divided into 3 broad classes: prerenal AKI (60% to 70% of cases), intrarenal AKI (also called intrinsic; 25% to 40%), and postrenal acute kidney injury (5% to 10%).2 […] Causes of prerenal AKI include intravascular volume depletion, reduced cardiac output, systemic vasodilation, and renal vasoconstriction.3 Medications often play a role in development of prerenal AKI. Commonly prescribed medications that have been associated with prerenal AKI include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), and diuretics.2,3 […] A wide range of conditions can cause injury to any portion of the renal vasculature, nephron, or interstitium.2 Renal toxins such as radiocontrast agents and aminoglycosides can damage tubules directly and indirectly.2

• #6 Acute kidney injury – Knowledge @ AMBOSS

  https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/acute-kidney-injury/

  Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a sudden loss of renal function with a subsequent rise in creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN). It is most frequently caused by decreased renal perfusion (prerenal) but may also be due to direct damage to the kidneys (intrarenal or intrinsic) or inadequate urine drainage (postrenal). […] Prerenal causes include any condition that leads to decreased renal perfusion (60% of cases of AKI). […] Prolonged prerenal injury leads to intrinsic injury, as decreased renal perfusion causes tubular necrosis. […] Intrinsic causes include any condition that leads to severe direct kidney damage (35% of cases of AKI). […] Postrenal causes include any condition that results in bilateral obstruction of urinary flow from the renal pelvis to the urethra (5% of cases of AKI).

• #7 Acute kidney injury – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kidney-failure/symptoms-causes/syc-20369048

  Acute kidney injury happens when the kidneys suddenly can’t filter waste products from the blood. When the kidneys can’t filter wastes, harmful levels of wastes may build up. The blood’s chemical makeup may get out of balance. […] Acute kidney injury can happen when: […] You have a condition that slows blood flow to your kidneys. […] You have damage to your kidneys. […] Your kidneys’ urine drainage tubes, called ureters, get blocked. […] Conditions that may slow blood flow to the kidneys and lead to kidney injury include: […] Loss of too much body fluid, called dehydration. […] Infection with or without sepsis or septic shock. […] Medicines such as aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB, others) or naproxen sodium (Aleve). […] Blood or fluid loss. […] Severe low blood pressure from blood pressure medicines.

• #8 Acute kidney injury

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/acute-kidney-injury/

  Most cases of AKI are caused by reduced blood flow to the kidneys, usually in someone who’s already unwell with another health condition. […] This reduced blood flow could be caused by: low blood volume after bleeding, excessive vomiting or diarrhoea, or severe dehydration. […] AKI can also be caused by a problem with the kidney itself, such as inflammation of the filters in the kidney (glomerulonephritis), the blood vessels (vasculitis), or other structures in the kidney. […] It may sometimes be the result of a blockage affecting the drainage of the kidneys, such as: an enlarged prostate, a tumour in the pelvis, such as an ovarian or bladder tumour, kidney stones.

• #9 Acute kidney injury (AKI): causes, symptoms, treatment and diagnosis

  https://www.kidneyresearchuk.org/conditions-symptoms/acute-kidney-injury/

  AKI can be caused by: […] reduced blood supply to the kidney caused by bleeding, heart failure, infections and dehydration – for example, after an accident, an operation or a bout of sickness and diarrhoea which prevents someone eating and drinking properly […] damage to the small blood vessels inside the kidney caused by: […] blood clots, often from the heart in patients with an irregular heart rate (atrial fibrillation), which enter the kidney and stop blood circulating through the vessels […] fragments of cholesterol-rich plaque from diseased arteries which break off and enter the kidney, stopping blood supply to the vessels […] blockages which cause ‘back-pressure’ in the tubing systems that connect the kidneys to the bladder – for example, blockages in the ureter (the tube which urine passes through from the kidney to the bladder), or in the bladder outlet, caused by an enlarged prostate gland

• #10 Acute kidney injury – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kidney-failure/symptoms-causes/syc-20369048

  Heart attack. […] Heart failure or heart disease. […] Liver cirrhosis or failure. […] Bad allergic reaction, called anaphylaxis. […] Bad burns. […] The following may damage the kidneys and lead to acute kidney injury: […] Swelling and irritation, called inflammation, of the tiny filters in the kidneys. This is called glomerulonephritis (gloe-mer-u-loe-nuh-FRY-tis). […] Medicines, such as certain chemotherapy drugs, antibiotics and dyes used during imaging tests. […] Infection, such as with the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). […] Toxins, such as alcohol, heavy metals and cocaine. […] An immune system condition called lupus that causes glomerulonephritis. […] Blood clots in the veins and arteries in and around the kidneys. […] Cholesterol deposits that block blood flow in the kidneys.

• #11 Acute Kidney Injury Causes

  https://mobile.fpnotebook.com/Renal/Failure/ActKdnyInjryCs.htm

  Acute Kidney Injury Causes, Acute Renal Failure Causes, Prerenal Failure Causes, Postrenal Failure Causes, Intrinsic Renal Failure Causes, Infectious Causes of Acute Interstitial Nephritis […] Prerenal Failure (70% of causes) […] Mechanism: Decreased renal perfusion […] Intravascular volume depletion (e.g. Dehydration, third-spacing) […] Decreased arterial pressure (e.g. CHF, Sepsis) […] Extracellular fluid loss (Volume depletion) […] Burn Injury […] Diarrhea […] Vomiting […] Diuresis (e.g. Diuretics, DKA) […] Diaphoresis […] Hemorrhage (e.g. Trauma, major upper gastrointestinal Hemorrhage) […] Extracellular fluid volume sequestration […] Pancreatitis […] Muscle crush injury […] Systemic vasodilation (e.g. Septic Shock, Neurogenic Shock) […] Inadequate Cardiac Output

• #12 Causes of Acute Kidney Failure | Stanford Health Care

  https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/liver-kidneys-and-urinary-system/kidney-failure/causes/acute-kidney-failure.html

  Acute kidney failure causes may include, but are not limited to, the following: […] Myocardial infarction – a heart attack may lead to temporary kidney failure. […] Rhabdomyolysis – kidney damage that can occur from muscle breakdown. This condition can occur from severe dehydration, infection, or other causes. […] Decreased blood flow to the kidneys for a period of time. This may occur from blood loss or shock. […] An obstruction or blockage along the urinary tract. […] Hemolytic uremic syndrome – usually caused by an E. coli infection, kidney failure develops as a result of obstruction to the small functional structures and vessels inside the kidney. […] Ingestion of certain medications that may cause toxicity to the kidneys. […] Glomerulonephritis – a type of kidney disease that involves glomeruli. During glomerulonephritis, the glomeruli become inflamed and impair the kidney’s ability to filter urine. Glomerulonephritis may lead to chronic kidney failure in some individuals. […] Any condition that may impair the flow of oxygen and blood to the kidneys such as cardiac arrest.

• #13 Acute Kidney Injury Causes

  https://mobile.fpnotebook.com/Renal/Failure/ActKdnyInjryCs.htm

  Severe Congestive Heart Failure […] Cardiogenic Shock […] Intra-Renal Vasoconstriction […] See Medication Causes of Prerenal Failure (e.g. ACE Inhibitors, ARBs, NSAIDS) […] Cardiorenal Syndrome […] Hepatorenal Syndrome […] Abdominal Compartment Syndrome […] Intrinsic Renal Failure – Vascular Injury […] Afferent arteriolar Vasoconstriction […] Results in decreased driving force […] Decreased Glomerular filtration […] Causes (Microvascular and Macrovascular) […] Renal Artery Stenosis […] Thromboembolism […] Malignant Hypertension […] Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura (TTP) […] Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS) […] Vasculitis […] Intrinsic Renal Failure – Glomerulonephritis […] Associated with Hematuria and Proteinuria […] Causes […] Hematologic Disorders (e.g. Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome, Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura)

• #14 Acute Renal Failure: Causes and Risk Factors

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/acute-renal-failure-causes-risk-factors-4016945

  Having a major surgical procedure on your heart or blood vessels causes changes in blood flow and may increase your risk of acute renal failure after surgery. […] Traumatic injuries, significant blood loss, low blood pressure, decreased oxygen levels, or septic shock before, during, or after surgery can also increase the chances of developing acute renal failure. […] A major allergic reaction is generally rapid in progression and can affect heart function and blood flow to the extent that the kidneys may be deprived of adequate blood and oxygen. Acute renal failure is the consequence. […] Glomerulonephritis is inflammation of the kidneys and generally occurs slowly, causing progressive kidney damage. However, it can reach a point at which it suddenly becomes apparent, causing severe and rapidly progressive symptoms similar to those of acute renal failure.

• #15 Acute Renal Failure: Causes and Risk Factors

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/acute-renal-failure-causes-risk-factors-4016945

  Blood flow to the kidneys can be affected by circulatory problems in any part of the body. When you have heart failure, your heart muscle may be unable to pump enough blood to supply your tissues and organs. This can lead to cardiorenal syndrome in which the failure of the heart can directly affect the kidneys (and vice versa). […] Blood flow to the kidneys can be indirectly affected by liver cirrhosis and liver failure. When these conditions occur, there is a pooling of blood in the splanchnic circulation, which, in turn, decreases circulation to the kidneys. This can lead to type 1 hepatorenal syndrome, a life-threatening condition that ultimately requires a liver transplant. […] Sepsis occurs when the immune systems response to an infection causes damage to tissues. This can lead to multi-organ failure, including acute intrinsic kidney failure.

• #16 Acute kidney injury: Causes, phases, and early detection

  https://www.myamericannurse.com/acute-kidney-injury/

  Acute kidney injury: Causes, phases, and early detection […] In the general patient population, AKI can stem from various causes. This article increases your knowledge of the causes, types, and phases of AKI and describes how to detect and help prevent AKI. […] Factors that predispose a person to AKI include advanced age, especially in individuals with such comorbidities as diabetes, hypertension, and cardiac disease. With age comes a progressive decline in renal function. Among Americans older than age 70, renal dysfunction prevalence is 15%. […] Nephrotoxic drugs, such as aminoglycosides and contrast agents, can cause AKI. To avoid kidney injury, these agents must be administered carefully, with dosages tailored to the patients condition. […] Overwhelming infection or sepsis is one of the most common causes of AKI. In normal healthy persons, the kidney receives about 20% of total cardiac output. In contrast, patients with serious infections have reduced BP, which in turn decreases blood flow to the kidneys and leads to ischemia. Renal tubules are highly sensitive to reduced blood flow. Sepsis disrupts blood flow not just to the kidneys but also to the gut and liver; some organs have both well-perfused and nonperfused areas. As blood flow slows and stagnates, some kidney areas become underperfused, ultimately suffering cell ischemia and death. To provide adequate renal perfusion, MAP must be at least 65 mm Hg. When BP or blood flow to the kidneys decreases and MAP falls below 65 mm Hg, both urine output and the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) decline.

• #17 Acute kidney injury (AKI): causes, symptoms, treatment and diagnosis

  https://www.kidneyresearchuk.org/conditions-symptoms/acute-kidney-injury/

  high doses of ‘contrast’ used during X-rays, particularly when injected directly into the arteries, as in coronary angiography […] problems within the kidneys themselves, such as glomerulonephritis, vasculitis (inflammation of the blood vessels), or kidney damage caused by drugs or toxins. […] AKI can also be made worse by certain drugs including: […] those which reduce the blood supply to the kidneys, including non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen, naproxen and diclofenac […] drugs used to treat high blood pressure.

• #18 Acute Kidney Injury: A Guide to Diagnosis and Management | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2012/1001/p631.html

  Several medications can cause prerenal acute kidney injury. Notably, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers can impair renal perfusion by causing dilation of the efferent arteriole and reduce intraglomerular pressure. […] Intrinsic renal causes are also important sources of acute kidney injury and can be categorized by the component of the kidney that is primarily affected (i.e., tubular, glomerular, interstitial, or vascular). […] Acute tubular necrosis is the most common type of intrinsic acute kidney injury in hospitalized patients. The cause is usually ischemic (from prolonged hypotension) or nephrotoxic (from an agent that is toxic to the tubular cells). […] Glomerular causes of acute kidney injury are the result of acute inflammation of blood vessels and glomeruli. […] Postrenal causes typically result from obstruction of urinary flow, and prostatic hypertrophy is the most common cause of obstruction in older men.

• #19 Acute Tubular Necrosis (ATN): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/238064-overview

  Acute tubular necrosis (ATN) is the most common cause of acute kidney injury (AKI) in the renal category (that is, AKI in which the pathology lies within the kidney itself). […] The tubule cell damage and cell death that characterize ATN usually result from an acute ischemic or toxic event. Nephrotoxic mechanisms of ATN include direct drug toxicity, intrarenal vasoconstriction, and intratubular obstruction. […] ATN is generally caused by an acute event, either ischemic or toxic. ATN is caused by sepsis in approximately 20% of intensive care unit (ICU) patients. Prerenal azotemia, obstruction, glomerulonephritis, vasculitis, acute interstitial nephritis, acute on chronic injury (in patients with chronic kidney disease [CKD]), and atheroembolic injury account for most of the remainder. […] Ischemic ATN may be considered part of the spectrum of prerenal azotemia; indeed, ischemic ATN and prerenal azotemia have the same causes and risk factors.

• #20 Acute Kidney Injury – Zero To Finals

  https://zerotofinals.com/medicine/renal/aki/

  Renal causes are due to intrinsic disease in the kidney. This may be due to: Acute tubular necrosis, Glomerulonephritis, Acute interstitial nephritis, Haemolytic uraemic syndrome, Rhabdomyolysis. […] Post-renal causes involve obstruction to the outflow of urine away from the kidney, causing back-pressure into the kidney and reduced kidney function. This is called an obstructive uropathy. Obstruction may be caused by: Kidney stones, Tumours (e.g., retroperitoneal, bladder or prostate), Strictures of the ureters or urethra, Benign prostatic hyperplasia (benign enlarged prostate), Neurogenic bladder. […] Acute tubular necrosis refers to damage and death (necrosis) of the epithelial cells of the renal tubules. It is the most common intrinsic cause of acute kidney injury. Damage to the kidney cells occurs due to: Ischaemia due to hypoperfusion (e.g., dehydration, shock or heart failure), Nephrotoxins (e.g., gentamicin, radiocontrast agents or cisplatin).

• #20 Acute Kidney Injury – Zero To Finals

  https://zerotofinals.com/medicine/renal/aki/

  Acute kidney injury (AKI) refers to a rapid drop in kidney function, diagnosed by measuring the serum creatinine. Acute kidney injury is most common in acutely unwell patients (e.g., infections or following surgery). […] Risk factors that would predispose to developing acute kidney injury include: Older age (e.g., above 65 years), Sepsis, Chronic kidney disease, Heart failure, Diabetes, Liver disease, Cognitive impairment (leading to reduced fluid intake), Medications (e.g., NSAIDs, gentamicin, diuretics and ACE inhibitors), Radiocontrast agents (e.g., used during CT scans). […] Pre-renal causes are the most common. Insufficient blood supply (hypoperfusion) to kidneys reduces the filtration of blood. This may be due to: Dehydration, Shock (e.g., sepsis or acute blood loss), Heart failure.

• #21 Acute Tubular Necrosis (ATN): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/238064-overview

  The kidney is a particularly vulnerable target for toxins, both exogenous and endogenous. Not only does it have a rich blood supply, receiving 25% of cardiac output, but it also helps in the excretion of these toxins by glomerular filtration and tubular secretion. […] Exogenous nephrotoxins that cause ATN include aminoglycosides, amphotericin B, radiographic contrast media, and various other drugs. Endogenous nephrotoxins that cause ATN include myoglobinuria, hemoglobinuria, and acute crystal-induced nephropathy. […] COVID-19 infection can cause proteinuria in 39-81% of AKI patients. The major cause of AKI in COVID-19 is ATN.

• #22 Acute kidney injury – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kidney-failure/symptoms-causes/syc-20369048

  A condition that results from red blood cells being destroyed too early, called hemolytic uremic syndrome. […] A group of rare diseases affecting the skin and connective tissues called scleroderma. […] A rare blood disorder called thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. […] Muscle tissue breakdown, called rhabdomyolysis. The toxins from the muscle being destroyed leads to kidney damage. […] Breakdown of tumor cells called tumor lysis syndrome. This leads to the release of toxins that can injure the kidneys. […] Conditions that keep urine from leaving the body are called urinary obstruction. These can lead to acute kidney injury. They include: […] Kidney stones. […] Enlarged prostate. […] Blood clots in the urinary tract. […] Bladder cancer. […] Prostate cancer. […] Cervical cancer. […] Colon cancer. […] Growth pushing on the ureters. […] Nerve damage of the nerves that control the bladder.

• #23 Acute kidney failure Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/acute-kidney-failure

  Acute kidney failure is the rapid (less than 2 days) loss of your kidneys’ ability to remove waste and help balance fluids and electrolytes in your body. […] There are many possible causes of kidney damage. They include: Acute tubular necrosis (ATN; damage to the tubule cells of the kidneys), Autoimmune kidney disease, Blood clot in the blood vessels to the kidneys, Decreased blood flow from cholesterol (cholesterol emboli), Decreased blood flow due to very low blood pressure, which can result from burns, dehydration, hemorrhage, injury, septic shock, serious illness, or surgery, Disorders that cause clotting within the kidney blood vessels, Infections that directly injure the kidney, such as acute pyelonephritis or septicemia, Pregnancy complications, including placental abruption or placenta previa, Urinary tract blockage, Illicit drugs such as cocaine and heroin, Medicines including non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), certain antibiotics and blood pressure medicines, intravenous contrast (dye), some cancer and HIV medicines.

• #24 Acute Kidney Injury – Symptoms, causes, treatment | National Kidney Foundation

  https://www.kidney.org/kidney-topics/acute-kidney-injury-aki

  Acute kidney injury (AKI) occurs when kidneys suddenly lose their ability to filter waste from the blood, developing within hours or days. It replaces the term 'acute renal failure.’ […] AKI can have many different causes. Many people get AKI when a related disease or condition puts extra stress on your kidneys. Another common cause for AKI is when your body is reacting to an urgent or emergent health concern (such as heart surgery or COVID-19 infection). Lastly, AKI can be caused by medications or other substances that you may consume. Examples for each of these scenarios are provided below. […] Usually, AKI happens because of a combination of factors. This is especially true for older adults who are at higher risk given their age. […] Related disease or condition: Autoimmune kidney disease, such as glomerulonephritis, lupus, or IgA nephropathy; Cancer (especially bladder, cervical, ovarian, or prostate cancer); Chronic kidney disease; Diabetes flare-up (also known as diabetes-related ketoacidosis or DKA); Heart disease (e.g. heart attack, heart failure, or other condition leading to decreased heart function); Kidney infection; Kidney stones; Liver disease or cirrhosis; Multiple myeloma (a specific type of blood cancer); Vasculitis (long-term inflammation and scarring in your blood vessels).

• #25 Acute Kidney Injury Causes

  https://mobile.fpnotebook.com/Renal/Failure/ActKdnyInjryCs.htm

  Systemic Inflammation (e.g. Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, IgA Nephropathy, Henoch-Schonlein Purpura) […] Pulmonary-Renal Syndromes (e.g. Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis, Goodpasture Syndrome) […] Intrinsic Renal Failure – Acute Interstitial Nephritis […] Associated with erythematous maculopapular rash, fever, Arthralgias (30% of cases) […] Analogous to an Allergic Reaction within the Kidney […] Medication Causes […] Most common cause of Acute Interstitial Nephritis […] Acute Interstitial Nephritis typically occurs 2 weeks after drug started […] Typically secondary to a Drug Hypersensitivity or other allergic or autoimmune disorder […] Example: Penicillins or Cephalosporin Hypersensitivity Reaction […] Infectious Causes (5-10% of Acute Interstitial Nephritis causes) […] Diphtheria (classic)

• #26 Intrinsic Acute Kidney Injury

  https://www.myactivehealth.com/hwcontent/content/special/aa115538.html

  Acute glomerulonephritis may be caused by an abnormal immune system response. Some specific conditions that cause acute glomerulonephritis include: […] Acute interstitial nephritis (AIN) is inflammation of the kidneys. It is usually caused by a medicine, such as an antibiotic or a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug like naproxen or ibuprofen. AIN may also be caused by a streptococcal, viral, or Legionella infection.

• #27 Acute Kidney Injury – Zero To Finals

  https://zerotofinals.com/medicine/renal/aki/

  Acute interstitial nephritis (AIN) is a common cause of acute kidney injury. It involves acute inflammation of the interstitium (the space between the tubules and vessels). It is caused by an immune reaction associated with: Drugs (e.g. NSAIDs or antibiotics), Infections (e.g., E. coli or HIV), Autoimmune conditions (e.g., sarcoidosis or SLE).

• #28 Acute Kidney Injury Causes

  https://mobile.fpnotebook.com/Renal/Failure/ActKdnyInjryCs.htm

  Group A beta hemolytic Streptococcus (classic) […] Legionella […] Yersinia […] Staphylococcus or Streptococcus infection […] Mycobacterium […] Toxoplasmosis […] Mycoplasma […] Leptospira […] Rickettsia […] Syphilis […] Herpes viruses (e.g. CMV, EBV, HSV) […] Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) […] Hantavirus […] Hepatitis C […] Mumps […] Candidiasis […] Histoplasmosis […] Intrinsic Renal Failure – Tubular Injury […] Most common cause of intrinsic Acute Renal Failure cases […] Final common pathway of Kidney injury resulting in cell death and necrosis (analogous to ARDS) […] Mechanism […] Tubules injured in most but not all acute failure […] Renal ischemia (hypoperfusion with 500 ml urine/day) […] Trauma with Hemorrhage (common) […] Sepsis (common)

• #29 Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) – Genitourinary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/genitourinary-disorders/acute-kidney-injury/acute-kidney-injury-aki

  Acute kidney injury is a rapid decrease in renal function over days to weeks, causing an accumulation of nitrogenous products in the blood (azotemia) with or without reduction in amount of urine output. […] Causes of acute kidney injury (AKI; see table Major Causes of Acute Kidney Injury) can be classified as […] Prerenal AKI is due to inadequate renal perfusion. The main causes are […] Renal causes of AKI involve intrinsic kidney disease or damage. Disorders may involve the blood vessels, glomeruli, tubules, or interstitium. The most common causes are […] Postrenal AKI (obstructive nephropathy) is due to various types of obstruction in the voiding and collecting parts of the urinary system. […] To produce significant AKI, obstruction at the level of the ureter requires involvement of both ureters unless the patient has only a single functioning kidney.

• #30 Acute Kidney Injury Causes

  https://mobile.fpnotebook.com/Renal/Failure/ActKdnyInjryCs.htm

  Cardiac Arrest […] Interrupted renal Blood Flow during surgery […] Toxins: Nephrotoxic Drugs, pigmenturia and crystals (typically not oliguric) […] Tubular obstruction […] Abnormal material inspissates and plugs flow […] Back-leak […] Tubular cells loose integrity […] Back-leaks ultrafiltrate […] Results in poor waste clearance […] Postrenal Failure (Renal outflow obstruction) […] Intrarenal (distal tubules) […] Nephrolithiasis […] Multiple MyelomaProtein […] Medications predisposing to Uric Acid crystals (Hyperuricemia, Gout) […] Extra-Ureteral Obstruction […] Prostate Cancer […] Bladder Cancer […] Cervical Cancer […] Retroperitoneal fibrosis […] Accidental ureteral ligation during pelvic surgery […] Ureteral Obstruction (Bilateral in Renal Failure)

• #31 Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) – Genitourinary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/genitourinary-disorders/acute-kidney-injury/acute-kidney-injury-aki

  Bladder outlet obstruction due to an enlarged prostate is probably the most common cause of sudden, and often total, cessation of urinary output in men. […] Prerenal causes are often apparent clinically. If so, correction of an underlying hemodynamic abnormality should be attempted. […] Postrenal causes should be sought in most cases of AKI.

• #32 Acute Kidney Injury Causes

  https://mobile.fpnotebook.com/Renal/Failure/ActKdnyInjryCs.htm

  Nephrolithiasis […] Thrombosis […] Pyogenic debris or sloughed papillae […] Edema from retrograde pyelography […] Bladder neck obstruction […] Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy (BPH) […] Neurogenic Bladder […] Prostate Cancer […] Bladder Cancer […] Autonomic Neuropathy […] Ganglionic blocking medication […] Urethral Obstruction […] Urethral valves […] Urethral Stricture […] Most common causes in children […] Neurologic conditions (17%) […] Urinary Tract Infection (13%) […] Medications (13%) […] Local inflammation (7%) […] Local invasive cancer (6%) […] Benign obstructive causes (6%) […] Constipation (13%) […] Incarcerated Hernias (2%) […] Mechanism […] Specific Examples […] Renal Ischemia […] Tubular obstruction and back-leak […] Aminoglycoside Antibiotics […] Decreased Glomerular Filtration Rate […] Tubular cell injury […] Rhabdomyolysis […] Decreased afferent Blood Flow […] Renal tubular obstruction

• #33 Acute Kidney Injury: Medical Causes and Pathogenesis

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/12/1/375

  Other factors contribute to making AKI more complex as, in most cases, numerous factors contribute not only to AKI initiation but also to its progression. […] AKI may develop more commonly after exposure to certain insults or in susceptible groups and many common pathophysiological factors play into the pathogenesis of AKI. […] The timely and accurate identification of AKI and a better understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms that cause kidney dysfunction are essential. […] The use of medications that alter renal blood flow and intrarenal hemodynamics are also associated with AKI. […] AKI can be caused by various medications, but certain medications are more likely to cause AKI. […] AKI associated with medications is reported in 14.4–37.5% of adults in different studies, depending on the definition and study population. […] Infections cause several forms of renal injuries, including AKI, acute or chronic glomerulonephritis, and tubule–interstitial nephritis. […] The pathophysiology of HRS is not fully understood, but the complex interaction between several different factors is implicated.

• #34 Acute Kidney Injury – Symptoms, causes, treatment | National Kidney Foundation

  https://www.kidney.org/kidney-topics/acute-kidney-injury-aki

  Urgent or emergent health concerns: Acute tubular necrosis (ATN), a situation causing very low blood flow to the kidneys; Anaphylaxis (severe allergic reaction); Blood clot or cholesterol blocking a blood vessel in your kidney(s); Hypotension (very low blood pressure) or shock; Hemorrhage (severe loss of blood); Injury; Major surgery; Pregnancy complications; Sepsis; Severe dehydration (not getting enough water or fluids for your body’s needs); Severe diarrhea and/or vomiting; Severe skin burns. […] Medications and other substances: Items in this list may not cause AKI by themselves, but when combined with other factors from the other 2 categories above, your risk of AKI goes up significantly. Certain antibiotics, especially ones given for severe infections; Certain blood pressure medicines, like ACE inhibitors/ARBs or diuretics (water pills); Certain pain medicines known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS), especially at higher doses. Examples include: ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil), indomethacin (Indocin), naproxen (Aleve, Naprosyn), diclofenac tablets or capsules (Cataflam, Zipsor), celecoxib (Celebrex), meloxicam (Mobic), aspirin (only if more than 325 mg per day); Iodine-based contrast dye (used for CT scans and other forms of medical imaging); Recreational drugs, such as heroin or cocaine; Some medicines used for cancer or HIV; Toxic alcohols, such as methanol, ethylene glycol (antifreeze), or isopropyl/isopropanol (rubbing alcohol).

• #35

  https://journals.lww.com/cjasn/fulltext/2019/12000/the_incidence,_causes,_and_risk_factors_of_acute.7.aspx

  Immune checkpoint inhibitor use in oncology is increasing rapidly. We sought to determine the frequency, severity, cause, and predictors of AKI in a real-world population receiving checkpoint inhibitors. […] A total of 169 patients (17%) experienced AKI, defined by an increase in creatinine at least 1.5 times the baseline within 12 months; 82 patients (8%) experienced sustained AKI and 30 patients (3%) had potential checkpoint inhibitor-related AKI. […] AKI is common in patients receiving checkpoint inhibitor therapy. The causes of sustained AKI in this population are heterogenous and merit thorough evaluation. The role of PPI and other nephritis-inducing drugs in the development of sustained AKI needs to be better defined.

• #36 Acute Renal Failure: Causes and Risk Factors

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/acute-renal-failure-causes-risk-factors-4016945

  Sepsis is a severe physical response that is often associated with septicemia (an infection that involves the blood). These conditions can cause acute renal failure as a result of shock and/or the spread of infection to the kidneys. […] Acute renal failure can develop in the first few days after surgery. […] Risk factors that increase the chances of acute renal failure after surgery include: Advancing age is more often associated with acute renal failure after surgery than young age, particularly for people who already have kidney disease. […] A person who already has diminished kidney function is more likely to experience acute renal failure after surgery than someone who does not have kidney problems. […] If you have high blood pressure, heart disease, or diabetes, you are at a higher risk of acute renal failure after surgery.

• #37 Pathophysiology and Etiology of Acute Kidney Injury | Abdominal Key

  https://abdominalkey.com/pathophysiology-and-etiology-of-acute-kidney-injury/

  The tubular cell may be injured because of ischemia, with resulting depletion of cellular energy stores (ATP), or from direct cytotoxic injury. […] Factors that affect the integrity and function of the renal tubular epithelial cells and contribute to the reduction in GFR include cell death, disruption of actin cytoskeleton, cast obstruction, and backleak. […] Although ischemia causes direct renal cytotoxicity, tissue inflammation during reperfusion also contributes to renal injury and may cause some of the systemic effects of AKI.

• #38 Acute kidney injury: Causes, phases, and early detection

  https://www.myamericannurse.com/acute-kidney-injury/

  […] […] Despite treatment advances, AKI mortality remains highabout 40% in critically ill patients. Factors that may influence high mortality include the increasing age of the patient population and development of multisystem failure. Patients who fail to recover from AKI have a 25% chance of dying within 1 year. Also, in postoperative patients like Mr. Stevens and in AKI patients who need renal replacement therapy (dialysis), AKI is linked to an increased risk of death. […] […] […] AKI carries a high economic toll as well. Many patients dont recover, suffering end-stage renal disease (ESRD), which necessitates lifelong dialysis. Average costs for postoperative patients with AKI are twice those of the average patient. Incidence of AKI leading to ESRD and the need for dialysis has risen fourfold from 1996 to 2010. According to the National Kidney Foundation, annual Medicare costs per patient (including patients who experience AKI) exceed $87,945 for those needing hemodialysis.

• #39 Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/acute-kidney-injury

  There are some diseases and conditions that can damage your kidneys directly and lead to AKI. […] These conditions include: Sepsis. This is a potentially life-threatening complication of an infection in the blood that triggers inflammatory responses throughout the body. […] Multiple myeloma. This is a cancer that forms in a type of white blood cell called a plasma cell, which can help you fight infections by making antibodies that recognize and attack germs. […] Other kidney diseases including tubular necrosis, glomerulonephritis, vasculitis, or thrombotic microangiopathy. […] Overuse of medications (such as ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen) in critical care situations to control other conditions can overtax the kidneys abilities to filter, which can also lead to AKI.

• #40 Pathophysiology and Etiology of Acute Kidney Injury | Abdominal Key

  https://abdominalkey.com/pathophysiology-and-etiology-of-acute-kidney-injury/

  An unusual cause of pre-renal AKI is the hyperoncotic state. […] In any patient presenting with AKI, an obstructive cause must be excluded because prompt intervention can result in improvement or complete recovery of renal function. […] Post-renal forms of AKI are divided into intratubular and extrarenal. […] Tubular precipitation of insoluble crystals (phosphate, oxalate, uric acid, methotrexate, acyclovir, sulfonamides, indinavir, triamterene) or protein (hemoglobin, myoglobin, paraprotein) can increase intratubular pressure. […] Obstructive uropathy is common in older men with prostatic disease and in patients with a single kidney or intra-abdominal, particularly pelvic, cancer. […] Acute tubular necrosis commonly occurs in high-risk settings, which include vascular and cardiac surgery, severe burns, pancreatitis, sepsis, and chronic liver disease.

• #41 Acute kidney injury – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_kidney_injury

  The causes of acute kidney injury are commonly categorized into prerenal, intrinsic, and postrenal. […] AKI can be caused by systemic disease (such as a manifestation of an autoimmune disease, e.g., lupus nephritis), crush injury, contrast agents, some antibiotics, and more. […] Acute kidney injury occurs in up to 30% of patients following cardiac surgery. […] Mortality increases by 60-80% in post-cardiopulmonary bypass patients who go on to require renal replacement therapy. […] Pediatric AKI is defined using the KDIGO definition and the modified neonatal KDIGO criteria for neonates.

• #42 Acute Renal Failure: Causes and Risk Factors

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/acute-renal-failure-causes-risk-factors-4016945

  Having a major surgical procedure on your heart or blood vessels causes changes in blood flow and may increase your risk of acute renal failure after surgery. […] Traumatic injuries, significant blood loss, low blood pressure, decreased oxygen levels, or septic shock before, during, or after surgery can also increase the chances of developing acute renal failure. […] A major allergic reaction is generally rapid in progression and can affect heart function and blood flow to the extent that the kidneys may be deprived of adequate blood and oxygen. Acute renal failure is the consequence. […] Glomerulonephritis is inflammation of the kidneys and generally occurs slowly, causing progressive kidney damage. However, it can reach a point at which it suddenly becomes apparent, causing severe and rapidly progressive symptoms similar to those of acute renal failure.

• #43 Acute Kidney Injury – Causes – Management – TeachMeSurgery

  https://teachmesurgery.com/perioperative/urinary/acute-kidney-injury/

  The causes of acute kidney injury can be categorised into pre-, intra- or post- renal causes. […] Perioperatively, pre-renal causes are the most common but it is still important to consider and exclude the other causes (most common causes have been placed in bold). […] Important to remember that any intra-operative damage to the renal arteries can also cause pre-renal AKI. This is common in vascular procedures, such as from accidental graft occlusion, endovascular emboli, or proximal aortic clamp applied for too long. […] The causes of acute kidney injury can be categorised into pre-, intra- or post- renal causes. […] Important to remember that any intra-operative damage to the renal arteries can also cause pre-renal AKI. This is common in vascular procedures, such as from accidental graft occlusion, endovascular emboli, or proximal aortic clamp applied for too long.

• #44 Acute kidney injury | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-021-00284-z

  Acute kidney injury (AKI) is defined by a sudden loss of excretory kidney function. […] In low-income and middle-income countries, infections and hypovolaemic shock are the predominant causes of AKI. In high-income countries, AKI mostly occurs in elderly patients who are in hospital, and is related to sepsis, drugs or invasive procedures. […] The large spectrum of AKI implies diverse pathophysiological mechanisms. […] Long-term consequences of AKI and AKD include CKD and cardiovascular morbidity. […] Thus, prevention and early detection of AKI are essential.

• #45 Causes and outcome of acute kidney injury amongst adults patients in two hospitals of different category in Cameroon; a 5 year retrospective comparative study | BMC Nephrology | Full Text

  https://bmcnephrol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12882-022-02992-4

  Acute kidney injury (AKI) is an under-recognized disorder, which is associated with a high risk for mortality, development of chronic kidney disease (CKD). […] We sought to describe and compare the causes and outcomes of AKI amongst adult patients in Douala general hospital (DGH) and Buea regional hospital (BRH). […] Community acquired AKI were more present in BRH 87.12% (n=115) than DGH 84.79% (n=184) (p=0.001). […] Pre-renal AKI was more common (p=0.013) in DGH (65.44%, n=142) than BRH (46.97%, n=62). […] Sepsis and volume depletion were more prevalent in urban area with (64.51 and 30.41% vs. 46.21 and 25.75%) while severe malaria was more present in Semi-urban area (8.33% vs. 1.84%, p=0.011). […] AKI was mainly due to sepsis, volume depletion and nephrotoxicity. […] The cause of AKI is often multifactorial with pre-existing comorbidities further increasing the risk, and include sepsis, volume depletion, nephrotoxic agents, major surgery, cardiogenic shock, complications with medications, hepato-renal syndrome, obstructive uropathy.

• #46 Causes of Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) | infoKID

  https://infokid.org.uk/conditions/acute-kidney-injury/causes-of-acute-kidney-injury-aki/

  In renal AKI, there is a problem inside the kidneys. It is also called intrinsic or intra-renal AKI and can be caused by: […] Haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) is the most common cause of renal AKI in children. […] Glomerulonephritis is a group of diseases where the tiny filters of the kidney (the glomeruli) are damaged. […] Interstitial nephritis (also known as tubulo-interstitial nephritis), where parts of the kidney become inflamed (swollen). […] Acute tubular necrosis (ATN) which is when the kidneys do not get enough oxygen from the body. […] Renal vein thrombosis when the renal vein, the blood vessel that carries blood out of the kidney, is blocked with a blood clot. […] Vasculitis the blood vessels become inflamed or swollen, especially in the skin. […] Hepatitis the liver becomes inflamed.

• #47

  https://journals.lww.com/sjkd/fulltext/2019/30030/epidemiology,_diagnosis,_and_etiology_of_acute.16.aspx

  The main causes of obstructive AKI include prostate adenoma, prostate cancer, cervical uterine tumors, and retroperitoneal pathologies. […] Prerenal or ischemic AKI is responsible for the largest proportion of AKI in the elderly. […] According to various authors, dehydration represents the main cause of functional AKI. Its frequency ranges from 38.3% to 74.4% in functional AKI and from 21.7% to 27.9% in overall AKI. […] In our study, dehydration accounted for 64% of functional AKI and 20% of total AKI cases, joining both international and national studies results. […] The causes of AKI in the elderly and adults differ in their distribution. In the elderly, the two most common mechanisms are absolute or relative hypovolemia causing functional renal impairment and second, urinary tract obstruction.

• #48

  https://journals.lww.com/sjkd/fulltext/2019/30030/epidemiology,_diagnosis,_and_etiology_of_acute.16.aspx

  The increased incidence of the acute kidney injury (AKI) in the elderly is becoming a disturbing reality in our days, mainly with the aging of the general population, and the predisposition of old persons to chronic diseases, drug toxicity, and infections. […] Organic etiologies were observed more frequently (53.8%) followed by functional etiologies (37.6%) and then by obstructive ones (8.5%). […] The origin of AKI was organic in 53.8% of cases, functional in 37.6%, and obstructive in 8.5% of them. […] Etiology of functional AKI was dominated by dehydration, noted in 50% of cases. Acute interstitial nephritis was the main etiology of organic AKI, affecting 65.1% of cases. […] Organic AKI is, according to several authors, the most common cause of AKI. […] AIN was the most common etiology; about 65% of organic AKI cases and 35% of the study population, probably due to the frequency of infectious etiology, especially in the fragile, elderly population.

• #49 Etiology and diagnosis of prerenal disease and acute tubular necrosis in acute kidney injury in adults – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/etiology-and-diagnosis-of-prerenal-disease-and-acute-tubular-necrosis-in-acute-kidney-injury-in-adults

  Etiology and diagnosis of prerenal disease and acute tubular necrosis in acute kidney injury in adults […] The two major causes of AKI that occur in the hospital are prerenal disease and acute tubular necrosis (ATN). Together, they account for approximately 65 to 75 percent of cases of AKI. […] Causes of prerenal disease […] Causes of acute tubular necrosis […] Kidney ischemia […] Sepsis […] Nephrotoxins.

• #50 Acute kidney injury – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kidney-failure/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20369053

  Treatment for acute kidney injury involves finding the illness or injury that damaged your kidneys. Your treatment depends on the cause. It might involve stopping a medicine that’s damaging your kidneys. […] If a lack of fluids in your blood is the cause of your acute kidney injury, you may need fluids through a vein, called intravenous (IV) fluids. […] If wastes build up in your blood, you may need hemodialysis for a time. Also called dialysis, it helps remove poisons and excess fluids from your body while your kidneys heal.

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