Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Kidney Failure: Stages, ESRD, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17689-kidney-failure

  Kidney failure symptoms may include feeling sick, confusion, swelling and peeing a lot. […] Kidney failure symptoms vary between people. If your kidneys aren’t working properly, you may notice one or more of the following signs: Extreme tiredness (fatigue), Nausea and vomiting, Confusion or trouble concentrating, Swelling (edema), particularly around your hands, ankles or face, A change in how often you pee, Cramps (muscle spasms), Dry or itchy skin, Poor appetite, or food may taste metallic. […] Acute kidney failure (acute kidney injury) is when your kidneys suddenly lose their ability to function. Acute kidney failure may develop within hours or days. It’s often temporary.

• #1 Acute kidney injury (AKI) | American Kidney Fund

  https://www.kidneyfund.org/all-about-kidneys/other-kidney-problems/acute-kidney-injury-aki

  In milder forms of AKI, there may not be any signs or symptoms and your doctor may find it when doing tests to look for other things. […] In more severe forms of AKI, signs and symptoms may include: Urinating (peeing) less often, Swelling in your legs, ankles or feet, Feeling weak and tired, Feeling like you cannot catch your breath, Feeling confused, Feeling sick to your stomach, Feeling pain or pressure in your chest, Seizures or coma (in severe cases of AKI). […] If you notice a combination of any of these symptoms, talk to your doctor. […] In some cases, AKI may get better in a couple of days with observation, or medicine and fluids if needed. But sometimes the AKI is severe or affects other parts of the body, and recovery may take weeks or months.

• #1 Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/acute-kidney-injury

  Symptoms include decreased urine output […] There are rarely any symptoms until the condition has progressed to a late stage. […] However, if there are symptoms, the most common one is a decrease in urine output. […] Decreased urine output can be observed by a doctor. […] In mild acute kidney injury, patients experience less than 0.5 ml/kg/hr of urine output for 6 to 12 hours or have an increase in creatinine by 0.3 mg/dl over 48 hours or by 50% over seven days. […] As acute kidney injury progresses to the second stage, the urine output may be lower, and the creatinine level doubles. […] In the late stages of acute kidney injury, urine output is lower still and the creatinine has tripled. […] If left untreated, AKI has a very high mortality rate. […] Your prognosis will depend on how much damage has been done to the kidneys.

• #1 Acute kidney injury – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kidney-failure/symptoms-causes/syc-20369048

  Acute kidney injury happens when the kidneys suddenly can’t filter waste products from the blood. When the kidneys can’t filter wastes, harmful levels of wastes may build up. The blood’s chemical makeup may get out of balance. […] Symptoms of acute kidney injury may include: Less urine output. Fluid buildup, which can cause shortness of breath and swelling in the legs, ankles or feet. Tiredness. Confusion or fogginess. Nausea. Pain in the belly or in the side below the rib cage. Weakness. Irregular heartbeat. Itching. Loss of appetite. Chest pain or pressure. Seizures or coma in severe cases. […] Sometimes acute kidney injury causes no symptoms. Then it may be found through lab tests done for something else. […] Acute kidney injury ranges from mild to severe. If severe, ongoing and not treated, it can be fatal. But it also can be reversed. People in otherwise good health may get back typical or nearly typical use of their kidneys.

• #1 Acute kidney injury

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/acute-kidney-injury/

  Acute kidney injury (AKI) is where your kidneys suddenly stop working properly. It can range from minor loss of kidney function to complete kidney failure. […] It’s essential that AKI is detected early and treated promptly. […] Symptoms of AKI include: feeling sick or being sick, diarrhoea, dehydration, peeing less than usual, confusion, drowsiness. […] Even if it does not progress to complete kidney failure, AKI needs to be taken seriously. […] Most people with AKI make a full recovery, but some people go on to develop chronic kidney disease or long-term kidney failure as a result.

• #1 Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) – Genitourinary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/genitourinary-disorders/acute-kidney-injury/acute-kidney-injury-aki

  Acute kidney injury is a rapid decrease in renal function over days to weeks, causing an accumulation of nitrogenous products in the blood (azotemia) with or without reduction in amount of urine output. Symptoms may include anorexia, nausea, and vomiting. Seizures and coma may occur if the condition is untreated. […] Symptoms of uremia may develop later as nitrogenous products accumulate. Such symptoms include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, weakness, myoclonic jerks, seizures, confusion, and coma. […] Amount of urine output during acute kidney injury (AKI) does not clearly differentiate between prerenal, renal, or postrenal causes. In acute tubular injury, urine output may have 3 phases: The prodromal phase usually has normal urine output and varies in duration depending on causative factors. The oliguric phase has urine output typically between 50 and 500 mL/day. The duration of the oliguric phase is unpredictable, depending on etiology of AKI and time to treatment. However, many patients are never oliguric. Nonoliguric patients have lower mortality and morbidity and less need for dialysis. In the postoliguric phase, urine output gradually returns to normal, but serum creatinine and urea levels may not fall for several more days.

• #1 Acute kidney injury

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4288292/

  Acute kidney injury is a frequent and serious complication in hospitalized patients. Mortality rates have not substantially been decreased during the last 20 years. Clinical manifestations result from diminished excretion of water, electrolytes, and endogenous / exogenous waste products. Patients are endangered by cardiovascular complications such as hypertension, heart failure, and arrhythmia. The prognosis has not significantly been improved during the last 20-30 years, although substantial progress has been achieved in intensive care medicine and dialysis treatment, respectively. In the mid-nineteen seventies 70% of all patients with AKI died. Mortality moderately decreased until the early nineties (30-50%) and remained stable over the last 20 years. The poor prognosis partly results from the disease leading to AKI per se but also ensues from complications associated with AKI. AKI is defined as acute deterioration of kidney function, as reflected by a significant increase in serum creatinine. In most patients (70%) urine output is reduced as well. The definition of the syndrome is periodically refined and according to the latest KDIGO-Guidelines, AKI can be diagnosed if the following criteria are fulfilled: (I) a serum creatinine increase of greater than 0.3 mg/dl within 48 hours, or (II) a 1.5-fold serum creatinine increase within seven days (as compared to a known or suspected baseline value), and / or (III) a reduction in urine output to less than 0.5 ml/kg/day for at least 6 hours. The severity of AKI varies and there are several scores allowing to differentiate certain degrees of acute renal dysfunction. The RIFLE criteria distinguish between risk (R), injury (I), failure (F), loss (L), and end-stage renal disease (E), depending on the relative increase in serum creatinine and/or depending on the relative decrease in urine output. Such criteria are not necessarily relevant in therapeutic but in prognostic terms since the prognosis significantly declines with progressive severity of renal damage. Patients with AKI do not suffer from clinical symptoms more or less specific for the disease. On one hand, they may present manifestations of the underlying disease (e.g. heart failure, sepsis, systemic vasculitis, thrombotic microangiopathy). If renal function is truly affected the typical course of AKI includes 4 stages: (I) initiation, (II) oligo-anuria, (III) polyuria, and (IV) restitution. In this dynamic process, clinical signs of renal dysfunction emerge during stage 2 (oligo-anuria). Urine output is diminished in 70% of AKI and the consequences may involve fluid retention with aggravated hypertension and heart failure with pulmonary edema. Due to diminished excretion of electrolytes and endogenous / exogenous waste products, the whole organism is affected. The term uremia describes such toxification and it is associated with diverse and heterogenous symptoms including pruritus, neurological manifestations, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite with anorexia, cardiac arhythmia, and insomnia. The presence of uremia is important since in most cases dialysis treatment becomes mandatory. If the process of renal recovery lasts longer than 3 months, AKI has been transformed into chronic kidney disease or CKD. The prognosis of AKI is still poor. As pointed out earlier, between 30 and 50% of all AKI patients die despite treatment has been initiated. Such high mortality has two reasons: in many situations the prognosis is significantly determined by the disease leading to AKI. For instance, sepsis is a generalized inflammatory syndrome, affecting kidney, lung, heart, brain, and the immune system. The impact of the latter is illustrated by the prognosis of CKD patients undergoing dialysis treatment on a regular basis. It becomes evident that the fundamental goal remains to establish therapies that promote the recovery process of the kidney tissue per se.

• #1 Acute Kidney Injury – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441896/

  Acute kidney injury (AKI), previously known as acute renal failure, denotes a sudden and often reversible reduction in kidney function, as measured by increased creatinine or decreased urine volume. […] AKI can lead to the accumulation of water, sodium, and other metabolic products. AKI can also result in other electrolyte disturbances. […] AKI is a prevalent condition, especially among hospitalized patients, and can be seen in up to 7% of hospital admissions and 30% of ICU admissions. […] The most common causes of AKI in hospitalized patients are as follows: ATN, 45%; Prerenal disease, 21%; AKI superimposed on CKD, 13%; Urinary tract obstruction, 10%; Glomerulonephritis or vasculitis, 4%; AIN, 2%; Atheroemboli, 1%. […] Most prerenal AKI cases recover completely with correction of the underlying insult if treated early; however, the persistence of the underlying insult may lead to ATN, in which case the damage may not be completely reversible. […] The in-hospital mortality rate for AKI is 40% to 50%, and the mortality for ICU patients is more than 50%.

• #1 Kidney failure – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney_failure

  Acute kidney injury (AKI), previously called acute renal failure (ARF), is a rapidly progressive loss of renal function, generally characterized by oliguria (decreased urine production, quantified as less than 400 mL per day in adults, less than 0.5 mL/kg/h in children or less than 1 mL/kg/h in infants); and fluid and electrolyte imbalance. […] The underlying cause must be identified and treated to arrest the progress, and dialysis may be necessary to bridge the time gap required for treating these fundamental causes. […] Acute kidney injuries can be present on top of chronic kidney disease, a condition called acute-on-chronic kidney failure (AoCRF). The acute part of AoCRF may be reversible, and the goal of treatment, as with AKI, is to return the person to baseline kidney function, typically measured by serum creatinine. […] The treatment of acute kidney injury depends on the cause.

• #1 Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) – Genitourinary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/genitourinary-disorders/acute-kidney-injury/acute-kidney-injury-aki

  Prognosis for recovery of renal function after acute kidney injury (AKI) correlates with premorbid kidney function. Patients with underlying chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at greater risk of developing AKI, requiring dialysis for treatment of AKI, and progressing to end-stage kidney disease (ESKD).

• #1 Acute Kidney Injury: Diagnosis and Management | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2019/1201/p687.html

  Acute kidney injury is a clinical syndrome characterized by a rapid decline in glomerular filtration rate and resultant accumulation of metabolic waste products. Acute kidney injury is associated with an increased risk of mortality, cardiovascular events, and progression to chronic kidney disease. […] Patients with acute kidney injury requiring renal dialysis and other forms of renal replacement therapy are 50 times more likely to progress to chronic kidney disease than those not requiring renal replacement therapy. […] Acute kidney injury care bundles are associated with improved in-hospital mortality rates and reduced risk of progression. […] Observational studies have shown an increased risk of developing chronic kidney disease following acute kidney injury. […] In a cohort study that followed hospitalized Medicare beneficiaries for two years after discharge, acute kidney injury was associated with a 13-fold increased risk of end-stage renal disease in patients without preexisting chronic kidney disease and a 40-fold increase in patients with both acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease. […] Stage 3 acute kidney injury requiring renal replacement therapy is associated with mortality rates between 44% and 52%.

• #1 Acute Kidney Injury: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment Strategies

  https://www.upstatemedicine.com/2024/09/06/acute-kidney-injury-causes-symptoms-and-treatment-strategies/

  The prognosis for AKI varies. It depends on the severity and underlying cause. With prompt treatment, many patients recover fully, but some may develop chronic kidney disease. […] If you suspect you have AKI, seek medical attention immediately. Early diagnosis and treatment are critical for preventing long-term damage to your kidneys.

• #1 Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) Clinical Presentation: History, Physical Examination, Complications

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/243492-clinical

  Patients with advanced heart failure leading to depressed renal perfusion may present with orthopnea and paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea. […] Patients can be divided into those with glomerular etiologies and those with tubular etiologies of AKI. […] Nephritic syndrome of hematuria, edema, and hypertension indicates a glomerular etiology for AKI. […] Acute tubular necrosis (ATN) should be suspected in any patient presenting after a period of hypotension secondary to cardiac arrest, hemorrhage, sepsis, drug overdose, or surgery. […] Postrenal failure usually occurs in older men with prostatic obstruction and symptoms of urgency, frequency, and hesitancy. […] Flank pain and hematuria should raise concern about renal calculi or papillary necrosis as the source of urinary obstruction.

• #1 Acute Kidney Injury | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/acute-kidney-injury

  Symptoms of an acute kidney injury come on suddenly, over the course of hours or days. They depend on the underlying cause, but some of the most common symptoms include: […] Symptoms may appear over the course of hours or days. […] If your child has these symptoms, they may be especially at risk of AKI if she has or has had any of the following: Recent infection, Dehydration, Recent surgery, Trauma, Exposure to heavy metals or toxic solvents. […] Most children with acute kidney injury get better. After an episode of AKI, your child should consider kidney care to be a permanent part of her health care routine. […] In some severe episodes of AKI, particularly if your child has another disease or condition, the kidneys may not gain back normal functionality, and your child may be a candidate for long-term dialysis and/or kidney transplant.

• #1 Acute kidney injury – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment | BMJ Best Practice

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/3000117

  Acute kidney injury (AKI) is commonly associated with sepsis, hypovolaemia, and/or hypotension (pre-kidney AKI and intrinsic AKI); nephrotoxins such as aminoglycoside antibiotics (e.g., gentamicin) and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (intrinsic AKI); or urinary outflow obstruction (post-kidney AKI). Rarer causes of AKI include vasculitis or interstitial nephritis (intrinsic AKI). […] Usually occurs in patients with intercurrent illness, without symptoms or signs specific to the kidneys, and is only identified when kidney function tests are performed. Patients may present in many different ways (e.g., with sepsis, hypotension, decreased urine output, lower urinary tract symptoms, or oedema). […] Suspect AKI when there is an acute rise in serum creatinine and/or a fall in urine output. More severe AKI can be complicated by hyperkalaemia and acidaemia along with uraemic encephalopathy or pericarditis. Pulmonary oedema can also occur in patients with AKI secondary to obstructive uropathy or renal artery stenosis (flash pulmonary oedema) but is usually iatrogenic due to inappropriate fluid resuscitation (e.g., when excessive fluid is given to patients who are oliguric and/or have heart failure). […] Prompt recognition and treatment is important; AKI occurs in 10% to 20% of emergency admissions and has an inpatient mortality 20% (35% for stage 3 AKI).

• #1 Kidney – acute kidney injury | Healthify

  https://healthify.nz/health-a-z/k/kidney-acute-kidney-injury

  Sometimes AKI can occur without any signs and symptoms and can only be picked up by a blood test and/or urine test. […] After AKI you can make a full recovery and have normal kidney function or you can make a partial recovery with lower levels of kidney function. Some people may have permanent kidney damage that requires dialysis. After AKI your kidney function can continue to recover over time. People who have a history of AKI have a higher risk of chronic kidney disease. It’s recommended that you get your kidney function checked out by your healthcare provider every year for the first 3 years following an AKI.

• #1 :: YMJ :: Yonsei Medical Journal

  https://eymj.org/DOIx.php?id=10.3349/ymj.2023.0306

  The purpose of this review was to provide recent updates on the clinical significance of AKD, including the transition from AKI to CKD, and explore the related mechanistic insights and therapeutic approaches. […] AKD is currently defined as kidney functional or structural impairment lasting for a period of less than 3 months. […] If a patient’s kidney function decline is confirmed within less than 3 months and does not deteriorate rapidly enough to meet the diagnostic criteria for AKI within the initial 7 days, this clinical scenario could be characterized as AKD without AKI. […] AKD encompasses a spectrum of kidney conditions, ranging from mild and self-limiting to severe and persistent, and it can also develop gradually, unlike the rapid onset typically seen in AKI. […] Despite the lack of comprehensive data on the incidence and prognosis of AKD, the clinical significance of AKD has gradually emerged from recent studies utilizing the AKD concept.

• #1 :: YMJ :: Yonsei Medical Journal

  https://eymj.org/DOIx.php?id=10.3349/ymj.2023.0306

  The severity of AKI is a robust predictor of CKD progression, with three significant prediction models showing good accuracy in identifying at-risk patients. […] These findings emphasize that not only AKI severity, but also recovery patterns such as duration and frequency, as reflected in various AKI trajectories, ultimately influence long-term kidney health and the progression from AKI to CKD. […] On the other hand, CKD is an important risk factor for the development and detection of AKI. […] Consequently, it is reasonable to view AKI and CKD as interconnected syndromes rather than distinct disease entities. […] Therefore, the importance of defining the concept of acute kidney disease (AKD) as a transition stage between AKI and CKD, or as a separate disease entity, is gaining attention.

• #2 Acute kidney injury – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kidney-failure/symptoms-causes/syc-20369048

  Acute kidney injury happens when the kidneys suddenly can’t filter waste products from the blood. When the kidneys can’t filter wastes, harmful levels of wastes may build up. The blood’s chemical makeup may get out of balance. […] Symptoms of acute kidney injury may include: Less urine output. Fluid buildup, which can cause shortness of breath and swelling in the legs, ankles or feet. Tiredness. Confusion or fogginess. Nausea. Pain in the belly or in the side below the rib cage. Weakness. Irregular heartbeat. Itching. Loss of appetite. Chest pain or pressure. Seizures or coma in severe cases. […] Sometimes acute kidney injury causes no symptoms. Then it may be found through lab tests done for something else. […] Acute kidney injury ranges from mild to severe. If severe, ongoing and not treated, it can be fatal. But it also can be reversed. People in otherwise good health may get back typical or nearly typical use of their kidneys.

• #2 Acute Kidney (Renal) Failure: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment & Prevention

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-acute-kidney-failure

  You may not have any symptoms of acute kidney failure. Your doctor may discover you have this condition while doing lab tests for another reason. […] If you do have symptoms, theyll depend on how bad your loss of kidney function is, how quickly you lose kidney function, and the reasons for your kidney failure. Symptoms may include: Peeing less than normal, Swelling in your legs, ankles, and feet (caused by your body holding on to fluid), Feeling drowsy or very tired, Shortness of breath, Itching, Joint pain, swelling, Loss of appetite, Confusion, Throwing up or feeling like youre going to, Chest pain or pressure, Muscle twitching, Seizures or coma (in severe cases), Stomach and back pain, Fever, Rash, Nosebleed.

• #2 Acute Renal Failure: Stages, Symptoms, Treatment, and More

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/acute-renal-failure-overview-3156851

  There are three categories that describe the amount of urine output during acute kidney injury: Non-oliguric: This describes a situation in which a person continues to make an adequate amount of urine, which is generally more than 400 milliliters per day, or more, depending on health status and fluid intake. Oliguric: This describes a situation in which a person makes 400 milliliters of urine or less per day. Anuric: This describes a situation in which a person makes less than 100 milliliters of urine per day. […] The treatment of acute renal failure depends on the cause of the problem, as well as the severity of the situation. Many people improve with treatment and do not experience long-term problems or chronic renal failure. Identifying the problem, and obtaining treatment as quickly as possible, is the best way to prevent kidney damage that causes a lifetime of kidney issues or requires dialysis treatments.

• #2 Acute kidney injury

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/acute-kidney-injury/

  Acute kidney injury (AKI) is where your kidneys suddenly stop working properly. It can range from minor loss of kidney function to complete kidney failure. […] It’s essential that AKI is detected early and treated promptly. […] Symptoms of AKI include: feeling sick or being sick, diarrhoea, dehydration, peeing less than usual, confusion, drowsiness. […] Even if it does not progress to complete kidney failure, AKI needs to be taken seriously. […] Most people with AKI make a full recovery, but some people go on to develop chronic kidney disease or long-term kidney failure as a result.

• #2 Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) – Genitourinary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/genitourinary-disorders/acute-kidney-injury/acute-kidney-injury-aki

  Acute kidney injury is a rapid decrease in renal function over days to weeks, causing an accumulation of nitrogenous products in the blood (azotemia) with or without reduction in amount of urine output. Symptoms may include anorexia, nausea, and vomiting. Seizures and coma may occur if the condition is untreated. […] Symptoms of uremia may develop later as nitrogenous products accumulate. Such symptoms include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, weakness, myoclonic jerks, seizures, confusion, and coma. […] Amount of urine output during acute kidney injury (AKI) does not clearly differentiate between prerenal, renal, or postrenal causes. In acute tubular injury, urine output may have 3 phases: The prodromal phase usually has normal urine output and varies in duration depending on causative factors. The oliguric phase has urine output typically between 50 and 500 mL/day. The duration of the oliguric phase is unpredictable, depending on etiology of AKI and time to treatment. However, many patients are never oliguric. Nonoliguric patients have lower mortality and morbidity and less need for dialysis. In the postoliguric phase, urine output gradually returns to normal, but serum creatinine and urea levels may not fall for several more days.

• #2 Acute kidney injury

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4288292/

  Acute kidney injury is a frequent and serious complication in hospitalized patients. Mortality rates have not substantially been decreased during the last 20 years. Clinical manifestations result from diminished excretion of water, electrolytes, and endogenous / exogenous waste products. Patients are endangered by cardiovascular complications such as hypertension, heart failure, and arrhythmia. The prognosis has not significantly been improved during the last 20-30 years, although substantial progress has been achieved in intensive care medicine and dialysis treatment, respectively. In the mid-nineteen seventies 70% of all patients with AKI died. Mortality moderately decreased until the early nineties (30-50%) and remained stable over the last 20 years. The poor prognosis partly results from the disease leading to AKI per se but also ensues from complications associated with AKI. AKI is defined as acute deterioration of kidney function, as reflected by a significant increase in serum creatinine. In most patients (70%) urine output is reduced as well. The definition of the syndrome is periodically refined and according to the latest KDIGO-Guidelines, AKI can be diagnosed if the following criteria are fulfilled: (I) a serum creatinine increase of greater than 0.3 mg/dl within 48 hours, or (II) a 1.5-fold serum creatinine increase within seven days (as compared to a known or suspected baseline value), and / or (III) a reduction in urine output to less than 0.5 ml/kg/day for at least 6 hours. The severity of AKI varies and there are several scores allowing to differentiate certain degrees of acute renal dysfunction. The RIFLE criteria distinguish between risk (R), injury (I), failure (F), loss (L), and end-stage renal disease (E), depending on the relative increase in serum creatinine and/or depending on the relative decrease in urine output. Such criteria are not necessarily relevant in therapeutic but in prognostic terms since the prognosis significantly declines with progressive severity of renal damage. Patients with AKI do not suffer from clinical symptoms more or less specific for the disease. On one hand, they may present manifestations of the underlying disease (e.g. heart failure, sepsis, systemic vasculitis, thrombotic microangiopathy). If renal function is truly affected the typical course of AKI includes 4 stages: (I) initiation, (II) oligo-anuria, (III) polyuria, and (IV) restitution. In this dynamic process, clinical signs of renal dysfunction emerge during stage 2 (oligo-anuria). Urine output is diminished in 70% of AKI and the consequences may involve fluid retention with aggravated hypertension and heart failure with pulmonary edema. Due to diminished excretion of electrolytes and endogenous / exogenous waste products, the whole organism is affected. The term uremia describes such toxification and it is associated with diverse and heterogenous symptoms including pruritus, neurological manifestations, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite with anorexia, cardiac arhythmia, and insomnia. The presence of uremia is important since in most cases dialysis treatment becomes mandatory. If the process of renal recovery lasts longer than 3 months, AKI has been transformed into chronic kidney disease or CKD. The prognosis of AKI is still poor. As pointed out earlier, between 30 and 50% of all AKI patients die despite treatment has been initiated. Such high mortality has two reasons: in many situations the prognosis is significantly determined by the disease leading to AKI. For instance, sepsis is a generalized inflammatory syndrome, affecting kidney, lung, heart, brain, and the immune system. The impact of the latter is illustrated by the prognosis of CKD patients undergoing dialysis treatment on a regular basis. It becomes evident that the fundamental goal remains to establish therapies that promote the recovery process of the kidney tissue per se.

• #2 Acute kidney injury (AKI): causes, symptoms, treatment and diagnosis

  https://www.kidneyresearchuk.org/conditions-symptoms/acute-kidney-injury/

  The most obvious sign of AKI is a reduction in the amount of urine a person passes, especially if this coincides with a bout of severe illness or a recent operation or accident. However, not all forms of AKI cause this – some patients with severe AKI (particularly those caused by back pressure) can continue to pass normal amounts of urine. […] For many people, AKI is mild and causes no lasting kidney problems – especially if they are generally healthy. But others may be left with a long term reduction in kidney function, which is known as chronic kidney disease. Chronic kidney disease can also develop two to three years after an episode of AKI. […] Very occasionally, a small proportion of people with AKI don’t recover their kidney function and end up with end-stage kidney disease (ESKD).

• #2 Acute Kidney Injury: Causes and Symptoms

  https://www.urology-textbook.com/acute-kidney-injury.html

  Uremia resulting from acute renal failure causes non-specific complaints. The underlying diseases cause most symptoms. […] Symptoms of Prerenal Kidney Failure: Thirst, decreased skin turgor, Oliguria or anuria, Hypotension, tachycardia, Signs and symptoms of underlying diseases such as trauma, cardiac diseases, or dehydration. […] Symptoms of Renal Kidney Failure: Usually, a risk situation for renal ischemia or toxic renal damage is observable. […] Symptoms of Postrenal Kidney Failure: Flank pain, lower abdominal pain, LUTS, or neurological symptoms. […] Symptoms due to Complications of Acute Kidney Injury: Dyspnea (pulmonary edema), Arrhythmia (hyperkalemia), Gastrointestinal bleeding, Hypotension and shock (infections, metabolic acidosis), Coma and death (metabolic acidosis, hyperkalemia, uremia), Polyuria and electrolyte imbalance after recovery of renal function.

• #2 Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia

  https://www.chop.edu/conditions-diseases/acute-kidney-injury-aki

  Acute kidney injury (AKI) is the term for sudden failure of the kidneys over a period of hours or a few days, usually as a complication of a disease or condition. […] There may be no physical signs of acute kidney injury at first. Then symptoms can appear suddenly and grow more intense quickly. […] Early signs of AKI may include: A decrease in the amount of urine produced, Brown or red urine (a sign of blood in the urine). […] As kidney function declines, other symptoms may include: Swelling of the hands or feet or in the face around the eyes, Nausea and vomiting, Extreme tiredness and lack of energy, Shortness of breath, Confusion, Chest or stomach pain. […] AKI can progress quickly and can be life-threatening. Call your child’s doctor or seek emergency care immediately if you notice signs of kidney problems. […] In some cases, AKI progresses to chronic kidney disease. When that happens, the goal of treatment is to prevent further kidney damage.

• #2 Acute kidney injury (AKI) | Kidney Care UK

  https://kidneycareuk.org/kidney-disease-information/kidney-conditions/patient-info-acute-kidney-injury-aki/

  If you do have symptoms, these may include: producing less urine […] These symptoms may appear suddenly over just a few days. […] AKI is more common in people over the age of 65, especially if they have other health conditions, but it can affect people of all ages.

• #2 Acute Kidney Injury: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment Strategies

  https://www.upstatemedicine.com/2024/09/06/acute-kidney-injury-causes-symptoms-and-treatment-strategies/

  Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) is a serious medical condition that affects millions of people each year. […] If you or a loved one has been diagnosed with AKI, it is crucial to understand what it means, recognize the symptoms, and know your treatment options. […] Early detection of AKI is vital for effective treatment. Initial symptoms can be subtle but may include reduced urine output, swelling in the legs and ankles, and fatigue. […] As AKI progresses, more severe symptoms can develop. These include difficulty breathing, confusion, nausea, and chest pain. If you experience these symptoms, promptly seek medical attention. […] If you notice any changes in your urinary habits or other symptoms of AKI, it is essential to consult a healthcare provider. Early intervention can significantly improve outcomes.

• #2 :: YMJ :: Yonsei Medical Journal

  https://eymj.org/DOIx.php?id=10.3349/ymj.2023.0306

  They found that AKD without AKI was about three times more common than AKI in patients without previous CKD. […] Similar to AKI, AKD without AKI increased the risk of mortality and progression to CKD. […] The combination of AKD and CKD resulted in the highest risk of progression to kidney failure, while the combination of CKD and AKI posed the greatest risk of death. […] These studies have confirmed the burden and poor prognosis of AKD and indicated the need to prioritize clinical interventions and research strategies to mitigate these risks. […] The interconnected relationship between AKI and CKD presents a substantial public health challenge due to their high prevalence and economic impact. […] The term of AKD has been introduced to describe the post-AKI phase of continued kidney damage lasting from 7 to 90 days. […] Understanding of the maladaptive repair pathways contributing to CKD highlights the potential for targeted interventions to disrupt this complex progression.

• #3 Acute kidney injury (AKI) | American Kidney Fund

  https://www.kidneyfund.org/all-about-kidneys/other-kidney-problems/acute-kidney-injury-aki

  In milder forms of AKI, there may not be any signs or symptoms and your doctor may find it when doing tests to look for other things. […] In more severe forms of AKI, signs and symptoms may include: Urinating (peeing) less often, Swelling in your legs, ankles or feet, Feeling weak and tired, Feeling like you cannot catch your breath, Feeling confused, Feeling sick to your stomach, Feeling pain or pressure in your chest, Seizures or coma (in severe cases of AKI). […] If you notice a combination of any of these symptoms, talk to your doctor. […] In some cases, AKI may get better in a couple of days with observation, or medicine and fluids if needed. But sometimes the AKI is severe or affects other parts of the body, and recovery may take weeks or months.

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