Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Microscopic colitis: Etiopathology, diagnosis, and rational management | eLife

  https://elifesciences.org/articles/79397

  Microscopic colitis is an inflammatory bowel disease divided into two subtypes: collagenous colitis and lymphocytic colitis. […] The immune system and a dysregulated immune response seem to play a key role combined with risk factors (e.g. cigarette smoking) in genetically predisposed individuals. […] A number of factors are linked to an increased risk of microscopic colitis, including a positive association to a broad spectrum of autoimmune diseases (Fedor et al., 2021), for example, celiac disease, type 1 diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid arthritis, polyarthritis, and thyroiditis (Wildt et al., 2021; Fernandez-Banares et al., 2013). […] Smoking status should be carefully reviewed as cigarette smoking is another risk factor associated with microscopic colitis (Jaruvongvanich et al., 2019).

• #1 Symptoms & Causes of Microscopic Colitis – NIDDK

  https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/microscopic-colitis/symptoms-causes

  Doctors arent sure what causes microscopic colitis. Experts think the following factors may play a role in causing or increasing the risk for microscopic colitis. […] Abnormal reactions of the immune system may play a role in causing microscopic colitis. Abnormal immune reactions lead to inflammation in the colon. […] People who have certain immune disorders such as celiac disease, rheumatoid arthritis, or type 1 diabetes are more likely to develop microscopic colitis. Scientists are studying the links between microscopic colitis and these immune disorders. […] Research suggests certain genes increase the chance a person will develop microscopic colitis. […] Taking certain medicines may increase the risk of developing microscopic colitis. […] Studies suggest people who smoke cigarettes are more likely to develop microscopic colitis. Among people who develop microscopic colitis, those who smoke tend to develop the disease at a younger age. […] Researchers are studying other factors that may play a role in causing or worsening microscopic colitis.

• #1 Causes of Microscopic Colitis | Stanford Health Care

  https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/digestion-and-metabolic-health/microscopic-colitis/causes.html

  Scientists believe abnormal immune system responses cause microscopic colitis. When this happens, your bodys immune system attacks your cells and organs. […] Other possible causes for microscopic colitis include: […] Bacteria that produce toxins and irritate the lining of your colon […] Food sensitivity, which can cause symptoms when you eat trigger foods, such as dairy and gluten […] Genetic factors, which can be passed down from one generation to another […] Medications, including aspirin and ibuprofen, which can irritate the lining of your colon […] Viruses that trigger inflammation.

• #1 Microscopic (lymphocytic and collagenous) colitis: Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and management – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/microscopic-lymphocytic-and-collagenous-colitis-clinical-manifestations-diagnosis-and-management

  Microscopic colitis has also been associated with several other diseases with autoimmune background (eg, autoimmune thyroiditis, type 1 diabetes mellitus, and nonerosive, oligoarticular arthritis) [33-38]. […] Whether these associations reflect an autoimmune pathogenesis of microscopic colitis is unclear. […] The HLA-DR3-DQ2 haplotype that predisposes to celiac disease is also associated with microscopic colitis [39,40]. […] Microscopic colitis demonstrates a T helper type 1 mucosal cytokine response pattern with upregulated interferon gamma and interleukin-15, tumor necrosis factor, and nitric oxide synthase, a pattern similar to that in celiac disease [41].

• #1 Microscopic Colitis – Bowel Research UK :Bowel Research UK

  https://bowelresearchuk.org/about-bowels/inflammatory-bowel-disease/microscopic-colitis/

  Microscopic colitis is an inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that affects the colon and the rectum. […] It is not known what causes this condition but it happens when the body’s immune system attacks healthy cells in the colon, causing inflammation of the lining of the colon. […] Certain medications, as well as smoking, can also increase the likelihood of having microscopic colitis.

• #1 Microscopic colitis: A review of etiology, treatment and refractory disease

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4528022/

  Up to twenty to 60% of patients with LC and 17%-40% of patients with CC have autoimmune disease. […] While no specific genetic mutations have been identified as direct cause of MC, some studies have found common genetic abnormalities. […] Smoking is a risk factor for MC. […] Medications are often implicated as a cause of MC. […] A more recent theory centers around bacterial translocation in the gastrointestinal tract. […] No specific organisms have been identified in causing or exacerbating MC.

• #1 Microscopic colitis – IBD Clinic

  https://ibdclinic.ca/what-is-ibd/microscopic-colitis/

  Microscopic Colitis is an inflammatory bowel disease that affects the large bowel (colon and rectum) and was first recognized by doctors 40 years ago. […] The cause of Microscopic Colitis is unknown, but studies suggest there is not one single cause, but a combination of several, setting off an inflammatory response. […] Some scientists believe Microscopic Colitis may be an autoimmune response where the body’s immune system attacks healthy cells for no known reason. […] There are reports that up to four in 10 people with Microscopic Colitis have other autoimmune diseases, such as coeliac disease, rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid disorders and type 1 diabetes, and evidence of abnormal immune responses. […] The role of bacteria in the development of Microscopic Colitis is unclear. […] Some studies have suggested people infected by the bacteria Clostridium difficile and Yersinia enterocolitica are more likely to develop Microscopic Colitis. […] Research suggests certain drugs may trigger Microscopic Colitis. […] Several recent studies have demonstrated links between cigarette smoking and Microscopic Colitis, with one study showing a three fold increased risk in current smokers and a two fold increased risk in past smokers.

• #1 Microscopic colitis: Etiopathology, diagnosis, and rational management | eLife

  https://elifesciences.org/articles/79397

  A variety of environmental factors, including a wide range of drugs, have been associated with the pathophysiology of microscopic colitis; however, with variable evidence suggesting causality (Zylberberg et al., 2021; Morgan et al., 2020). […] The pathogenesis of microscopic colitis is still poorly elucidated, but it is likely a result of dysbalanced immune response involving epithelial dysfunction (Barmeyer et al., 2017), collagen metabolism, secretory diarrhea (Escudero-Hernndez et al., 2020), and microbiota (Khalili et al., 2021; Aagaard et al., 2021). […] The bacterial flora in the colon is an important luminal factor that directly or indirectly interacts with colonic epithelium, and thus, its alteration might contribute to the pathogenesis of microscopic colitis. […] A genetic component is of importance as well, and a recent genetic immunochip study with 4299 controls reported an association between the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) ancestral 8.1 haplotype and well-established collagenous colitis (314 patients) (Westerlind et al., 2017) but not with lymphocytic colitis (122 patients) (Westerlind et al., 2016).

• #1 Microscopic colitis: Etiopathology, diagnosis, and rational management | eLife

  https://elifesciences.org/articles/79397

  The findings support the role of HLA class I- and II-related mechanisms and identified potential non-HLA alleles linked to the pathogenesis of collagenous colitis (Stahl et al., 2020). […] A recent study suggested that patients with microscopic colitis are less likely to be obese compared to those in diarrhea control groups (Sandler et al., 2022). […] The influence of SARS-CoV-2 infection on the GI system is well-established, with main symptoms being diarrhea, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, vomiting, nausea, and loss of taste (Jefremow and Neurath, 2021). However, onset of lymphocytic colitis has been observed rarely following SARS-CoV-2 infection with consistently elevated levels of fecal calprotectin and persistent diarrhea, even in the absence of fecal SARS-CoV-2 RNA (Nassar et al., 2019).

• #1 Microscopic colitis: A review of etiology, treatment and refractory disease

  https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v21/i29/8804.htm

  While no specific genetic mutations have been identified as direct cause of MC, some studies have found common genetic abnormalities. […] Smoking is a risk factor for MC. […] Medications are often implicated as a cause of MC. […] A more recent theory centers around bacterial translocation in the gastrointestinal tract. […] No specific organisms have been identified in causing or exacerbating MC.

• #1 Microscopic colitis: A review of etiology, treatment and refractory disease

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4528022/

  Microscopic colitis is a common cause of chronic, nonbloody diarrhea. […] The etiology of microscopic colitis is unknown, but it is associated with autoimmune disorders, such as celiac disease, polyarthritis, and thyroid disorders. […] Smoking has been identified as a risk factor of microscopic colitis. […] Exposure to medications, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, proton pump inhibitors, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, is suspected to play a role in microscopic colitis, although their direct causal relationship has not been proven. […] The etiology of microscopic colitis (MC) is unknown. There is a strong association with autoimmune disorders, smoking, and medications, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, proton pump inhibitors, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.

• #1 Microscopic Colitis: Treatment, Symptoms & What It Is

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17227-microscopic-colitis

  Microscopic colitis (MC) is one of the lesser-known types of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). […] Scientists aren’t sure, but several factors may be involved, including: […] Exposure to certain bacteria, bacterial toxins and viruses. […] A mistake of the immune system (autoimmune response). […] Genetics. […] Some research suggests that certain medications may contribute to the problem, including: […] Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). […] Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). […] Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). […] Hormone replacement therapy (HRT). […] Beta blockers. […] Statins.

• #1 Microscopic Colitis (Collagenous and Lymphocytic Colitis): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/180664-overview

  Microscopic colitis (MC) is a chronic inflammatory condition of the colon, predominantly subdivided into collagenous colitis (CC) and lymphocytic colitis (LC). […] The etiology is likely multifactorial, potentially including luminal factors, immune dysregulation, and genetic predisposition. […] No definitive etiology has been determined for microscopic colitis (MC), but evidence indicates that drug consumption may trigger underlying inflammatory factors in the colon of affected individuals, whereas other agents may exacerbate diarrhea in patients with idiopathic microscopic colitis. […] Although many drugs, either alone or in combination, may cause diarrhea as an adverse effect, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) show a strong trend (P = 0.057) toward increasing the risk of collagenous colitis (CC), and rechallenge has been shown to cause recurrence of collagenous colitis.

• #1 Microscopic Colitis | Crohn’s & Colitis Ireland

  https://crohnscolitis.ie/support/microscopiccolitis/

  Microscopic colitis is a type of inflammation of the colon, or large intestine that can cause chronic watery diarrhea. There are two main forms of microscopic colitis: lymphocytic colitis and collagenous colitis. […] Research suggests that there may be a connection between microscopic colitis and a family history of irritable bowel syndrome. […] No one really knows what causes the inflammation of the colon found in microscopic colitis, but researchers believe that some medications, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications like diclofenac or ibuprofen can be a causative factor or a triggering factor. Other medications shown to be associated with microscopic colitis are: clozapine, sertraline, entacapone, rantidine and proton pump inhibitors like omeprazole, esompreprazole and antoprazole. Bacteria that produce toxins that irritate the lining of the colon and viruses that trigger inflammation may also cause microscopic colitis. Research has shown that microscopic colitis is more prevalent in smokers than non-smokers.

• #1 Microscopic Colitis (Collagenous and Lymphocytic Colitis): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/180664-overview

  Antidepressant agents such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) as a group increase the risk of collagenous colitis, but in this class of medications, sertraline alone significantly raises the risk of lymphocytic colitis (LC). […] Many case reports describe patients with preexisting presumed autoimmune conditions (eg, celiac sprue, psoriasis, and rheumatoid arthritis) who are subsequently diagnosed with microscopic colitis. […] Microscopic colitis and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) (Crohn disease or ulcerative colitis) have been diagnosed concurrently or sequentially in a small number of cases, with either diagnosis preceding the other. […] Smoking increases the risk of microscopic colitis as well as the age at diagnosis. […] In some patients with diabetes mellitus and diarrhea, there is evidence of an increase in the thickness of the subepithelial collagen bands.

• #1 Microscopic colitis – Guts UK

  https://gutscharity.org.uk/advice-and-information/conditions/microscopic-colitis/

  Microscopic colitis can develop at any time, but it is more common in middle-age, with those affected often diagnosed between the ages of 50 and 70. It also occurs more frequently in women and can occur earlier in people who smoke. Microscopic colitis occurs in 18 people in 100,000 people, per year. […] It is not yet clear what causes microscopic colitis. Risk factors such as bile acid malabsorption and some medications are currently being considered. […] Examples of medications that have been linked to microscopic colitis include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (such as ibuprofen and aspirin); protein pump inhibitors (such as lansoprazole); statins; some H2 antagonists (Zantac); some diabetic medications (Acarbose); some antidepressants (Sertraline); some anticoagulant medications (ticlopidine); HRT (in higher doses) and some anticonvulsants (Tegretol). […] There are two types of microscopic colitis. […] Microscopic colitis can be treated for most people. The correct diagnosis and treatment can make a huge and dramatic difference to a person’s quality of life.

• #1 Microscopic colitis – could it be caused by a medicine?

  https://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/PUArticles/December2022/Microscopic-colitis-could-it-be-caused-by-a-medicine.html

  Microscopic colitis causes chronic, watery, non-bloody diarrhoea. […] Consider medicines as a possible cause of microscopic colitis. […] Whilst the origin of microscopic colitis is largely unknown, it is likely to be multifactorial. Medicines, tobacco and autoimmune conditions have been identified as possible causes. […] There is evidence that a mucosal immune response occurs in genetically predisposed individuals and may contribute to the development of microscopic colitis. […] Healthcare professionals should consider such medicines as a possible cause of microscopic colitis.

• #1 Microscopic Colitis: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment & More

  https://www.health.com/microscopic-colitis-8631112

  Some evidence suggests that microscopic colitis runs in families. Researchers are investigating possible links between inherited certain genes and the risk of microscopic colitis. […] The gut microbiome is a diverse community of bacteria and other microorganisms living in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. A balanced and diverse gut microbiome is important for maintaining good digestive health. Some research suggests that factors that cause disruptions or imbalances in the gut microbiome, such as previous infections or certain medications, may play a role in the development of microscopic colitis.

• #1 Microscopic Colitis Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://ibsguthealthclinic.co.uk/microscopic-colitis-symptoms/

  Microscopic colitis is a type of bowel disease of the intestines. Its far more common in older individuals and often leads to gut symptoms such as chronic watery diarrhoea and pain in the abdomen. […] The exact cause of this gut issue is not fully understood. However, there are theories about what might be leading to symptoms. These include: Autoimmunity, Genetics, Immune and inflammatory response to the contents of the gut, The use of certain medications, Changes in collagen metabolism. […] Microscopic colitis is common in those with autoimmune conditions. […] Another potential cause for symptoms is the immune response to the contents of the gut. The changes in the immune response in the gut (and the resulting inflammation) may target compounds travelling through the digestive tract. […] When compared with healthy individuals those with microscopic colitis has a reduced number of the beneficial gut bacteria Akkermansia. […] Microscopic colitis is more common in those with Coeliac disease and similar changes in the gut lining have been noted in Coeliac patients who consume gluten.

• #1 Microscopic Colitis – Nacogdoches Gastroenterology

  https://nacogdochesgastroenterology.com/page-view.php?id=30

  Microscopic colitis has two main forms: collagenous colitis and lymphocytic colitis. The cause of microscopic colitis is unknown. Many scientists believe it is an abnormal immune response triggered by something in the gastrointestinal tract. […] Scientists believe one’s genes may make a person more likely to develop microscopic colitis. Although a gene unique to microscopic colitis has yet to be found, dozens have been linked to other forms of IBD. […] Some people get microscopic colitis after being sick with certain harmful bacteria, including Yersinia enterocolitica, Campylobacter jejuni, and Clostridium difficile. Other people test negative for these and other harmful bacteria, but their condition improves with antibiotic treatment, suggesting normally harmless bacteria in the colon may trigger microscopic colitis in some people.

• #1 Lymphocytic Colitis | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/l/lymphocytic-colitis.html

  Experts are trying to understand what causes the inflammation of the large intestine that leads to lymphocytic colitis. Some people think that something in the GI tract sets off this abnormal immune response. This might be bacteria, pollen, or food. […] Taking certain medicines may also set off the condition in some people. These medicines can include: […] Certain bacteria may set off lymphocytic colitis in some people. You might have your first episode after getting sick from bacteria. These can include Campylobacter jejuni and Clostridium difficile. Toxins in these bacteria may harm the inner surface of your large intestine. This can cause inflammation. Some experts think that certain viruses may also play a role in lymphocytic colitis. […] Experts don’t think that food causes the condition. But certain foods may make lymphocytic colitis symptoms worse. These can include caffeine and milk products.

• #1 Microscopic Colitis – Arlington, TX: Arlington Gastroenterology Services

  https://www.agstexas.com/contents/procedures/gastrointestinal-diseases/microscopic-colitis

  Microscopic Colitis can be caused by something like unhygienic food. There are some known triggers for the disease which range from Bacterial infections and viruses to problems in the immune system to some medications which trigger the reaction. […] People with preexisting issues like celiac disease and rheumatoid arthritis can cause your body to attack healthy tissue. […] As with all Gastroenterological diseases, a sign that points to problems is age and gender. These two are the biggest factors in determining what your issue may be. Another great problem can be your immune system, followed by the largest controllable factor, which is smoking. Smoking can cause people aged 16 to 44 to experience the same issues that 50 to 70 year old patients experience.

• #1 Microscopic Colitis: Pathogenesis and Diagnosis

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/12/13/4442

  Microscopic colitis is an inflammatory bowel disease possibly caused by a chronic immune-mediated process. The pathogenesis of microscopic colitis remains unknown and is likely complex and multifactorial. The possible mechanisms include intraluminal factors, such as abnormal microbiota, genetic predisposition, bile acids, and autoimmunity, which could trigger chronic inflammation. The role that genetics have in the pathogenesis of microscopic colitis is not completely understood. It has been proposed that microscopic colitis is the result of an abnormal immune response to luminal antigens in genetically predisposed individuals. The gut microbiome is another factor that may have implications in the pathogenesis of microscopic colitis. Autoimmunity is a possible pathophysiological mechanism in microscopic colitis. The association between bile acid malabsorption and microscopic colitis remains poorly understood and is complicated by the complex physiology and metabolism of bile acids in the intestinal tract. The pathogenesis of bile acid malabsorption in patients with microscopic colitis likely has several mechanisms. In summary, these studies indicate that bile acids may have a primary or secondary effect in microscopic colitis.

• #1 BATTLING MICROSCOPIC COLITIS: PROGNOSIS, TYPES, PREVENTION, AND TREATMENT | Mya Care

  https://myacare.com/blog/battling-microscopic-colitis-prognosis-types-prevention-and-treatment

  Those with the condition often suffer from bile acid malabsorption, which means they struggle to absorb bile and dietary fats. While the cause is undetermined, bile acid malabsorption may be related to reduced sodium chloride (salt) absorption and increased chloride secretion. […] Genetics may increase the risk of contracting microscopic colitis later in life. While a causative gene remains elusive, it can run in families. […] Chronic disturbances in the gut microbiome may also increase the risk. […] It is essential to note that while these factors may trigger symptoms, they do not necessarily cause microscopic colitis. The underlying cause of microscopic colitis is still not fully understood.

• #1 Microscopic colitis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/microscopic-colitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20351478

  Microscopic colitis is swelling and irritation, called inflammation, of the large intestine. […] It’s not clear what causes the swelling and irritation, called inflammation, of the colon found in microscopic colitis. Researchers believe that the causes may include: […] Medicines that can inflame the lining of the colon. […] Bile acid not absorbed as it should be that inflames the lining of the colon. […] Bacteria that make toxins or viruses that interact with the lining of the colon. […] Autoimmune disease linked to microscopic colitis, such as rheumatoid arthritis, celiac disease or psoriasis. Autoimmune disease happens when the body’s immune system attacks healthy tissues.

• #1 Microscopic Colitis

  https://crohnsandcolitis.org.uk/info-support/information-about-crohns-and-colitis/all-information-about-crohns-and-colitis/understanding-crohns-and-colitis/microscopic-colitis

  The cause of Microscopic Colitis is not known. But there are several effective treatment options. […] We do not know what causes Microscopic Colitis. It may be caused by different factors. […] These factors include: Damage to the lining of the gut this may be caused by viruses, bacteria or certain medicines. […] Your immune system not working properly and affecting the gut microbiome. The microbiome is the natural bacteria, fungi and viruses that live in your gut. […] Your genes studies suggest that genes play an important role in Microscopic Colitis. […] Microscopic Colitis can affect anyone, from any background, age, ethnicity or sex. But there are some risk factors that may mean you are more likely to get it. […] The risk of developing Microscopic Colitis is higher in women than men. […] Having an autoimmune disease see the section on autoimmune conditions. […] Smoking cigarettes. […] Use certain medicines see the section changes to your lifestyle that can help.

• #1 Lymphocytic Colitis

  https://healthlibrary.uwmedicine.org/Library/Encyclopedia/134,610

  Lymphocytic colitis is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). […] Experts are trying to understand what causes the inflammation of the large intestine that leads to lymphocytic colitis. Some people think that something in the GI tract sets off this abnormal immune response. This might be bacteria, pollen, or food. […] Certain bacteria may set off lymphocytic colitis in some people. You might have your first episode after getting sick from bacteria. These can include Campylobacter jejuni and Clostridium difficile. Toxins in these bacteria may harm the inner surface of your large intestine. This can cause inflammation. Some experts think that certain viruses may also play a role in lymphocytic colitis. […] Experts don’t think that food causes the condition. But certain foods may make lymphocytic colitis symptoms worse. These can include caffeine and milk products.

• #1 Causes And Symptoms Of Microscopic Colitis – Klarity Health Library

  https://my.klarity.health/causes-and-symptoms-of-microscopic-colitis/

  Environmental factors such as medications, infections, and dietary habits may trigger or aggravate colon inflammation, leading to microscopic colitis. […] Changes in the gut microbiome, influenced by factors like antibiotic usage, dietary shifts, and stress, can upset its delicate balance, leading to a condition known as dysbiosis. This imbalance triggers inflammation in the colon, a critical factor in the development of inflammatory bowel diseases like microscopic colitis. […] Some researchers believe that an autoimmune component may cause microscopic colitis. This means the body’s defence system goes haywire, attacking its healthy colon cells and causing inflammation, tissue damage, and gastrointestinal dysfunction.

• #1 Microscopic colitis: Etiopathology, diagnosis, and rational management | eLife

  https://elifesciences.org/articles/79397

  With an increased use of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), that is neutralizing antibodies targeting the immune checkpoints T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) or programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)/programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1) for various malignancies, both lymphocytic colitis and collagenous colitis have been reported following therapy with these drugs (Rampersad et al., 2021; Choi et al., 2019).

• #1 Microscopic colitis: A common, yet often overlooked, cause of chronic diarrhea | MDedge

  https://medauth2.mdedge.com/content/microscopic-colitis-common-yet-often-overlooked-cause-chronic-diarrhea

  Microscopic colitis is an inflammatory disease of the colon and a frequent cause of chronic or recurrent watery diarrhea, particularly in older persons. […] The pathogenesis of MC remains largely unknown, although there are several hypotheses. The leading proposed mechanisms include reaction to luminal antigens, dysregulated collagen metabolism, genetic predisposition, autoimmunity, and bile acid malabsorption. […] MC may be caused by abnormal epithelial barrier function, leading to increased permeability and reaction to luminal antigens, including dietary antigens, certain drugs, and bacterial products, which themselves lead to the immune dysregulation and intestinal inflammation seen in MC. […] Thirdly, autoimmunity and genetic predisposition have been postulated in the pathogenesis of MC. […] Lastly, bile acid malabsorption may play a role in the etiology of MC.

• #1 BATTLING MICROSCOPIC COLITIS: PROGNOSIS, TYPES, PREVENTION, AND TREATMENT | Mya Care

  https://myacare.com/blog/battling-microscopic-colitis-prognosis-types-prevention-and-treatment

  Microscopic colitis is classified as an inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) known to affect the colon or large intestine. Chronic watery diarrhea and colonic inflammation are the hallmark features of the condition. […] The exact cause of this type remains unknown. Collagenous colitis likely arises from an abnormal immune response in the colon. […] The underlying cause of microscopic colitis remains unknown. Inflammation and changes in the gut’s lymphatic system (called the lamina propria) likely drive the severity of diarrhea. […] Current theories suggest a malfunction in the lining of the gut barrier that results in irritation and diarrhea. The malfunction can be related to either excessive collagen growth in the gut lining or heightened gut permeability, allowing for more uptake of fluids and bacteria.

• #1 Undiagnosed microscopic colitis: a hidden cause of chronic diarrhoea and a frequently missed treatment opportunity | Frontline Gastroenterology

  https://fg.bmj.com/content/11/3/228

  A lack of familiarity with MC compared with IBS, particularly in primary care where most IBS diagnoses are made, means that many of those 170 000 MC cases might have been diagnosed as IBS-D. […] The issue of undiagnosed MC is mainly one of familiarity versus better known causes of chronic diarrhoea such as IBS and other IBDs, and downward pressure on colonoscopy investigation and specialist referral. […] Current pathways restrict referral and colonoscopies for what are perceived to be non-cancer and non-IBD symptoms. […] As it currently stands, the UK system militates against diagnosing MC. […] The social and economic costs of this likely outweigh those of achieving a rapid histological diagnosis of MC, followed by treatment, which can be effective. […] Current guidelines recommend treatment with the corticosteroid budesonide for induction and maintenance of remission of symptomatic MC.

• #2 Microscopic Colitis: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment & More

  https://www.health.com/microscopic-colitis-8631112

  Microscopic colitis is an inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that causes chronic inflammation in the inner lining of the colon, leading to persistent, watery diarrhea. The exact cause of microscopic colitis is not fully understood. Evidence suggests a combination of factors contributes to an abnormal immune response that leads to inflammation in the colon. […] Although the exact cause of microscopic colitis is unknown, research suggests genetics, an imbalance of microorganisms in the gut, and abnormal immune system activity may contribute to its development. […] Inflammation in the colon’s lining may occur due to an abnormal immune response, leading the body’s immune system to mistakenly attack colon tissue and cause inflammation. […] People with certain autoimmune disorders, diseases where the immune system attacks healthy tissue, may be likelier to have intestinal inflammation. Celiac disease, type 1 diabetes, and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are autoimmune disorders that have been linked to an increased risk of microscopic colitis.

• #2 Microscopic Colitis: Pathogenesis and Diagnosis

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/12/13/4442

  Microscopic colitis is an inflammatory bowel disease possibly caused by a chronic immune-mediated process. The pathogenesis of microscopic colitis remains unknown and is likely complex and multifactorial. The possible mechanisms include intraluminal factors, such as abnormal microbiota, genetic predisposition, bile acids, and autoimmunity, which could trigger chronic inflammation. The role that genetics have in the pathogenesis of microscopic colitis is not completely understood. It has been proposed that microscopic colitis is the result of an abnormal immune response to luminal antigens in genetically predisposed individuals. The gut microbiome is another factor that may have implications in the pathogenesis of microscopic colitis. Autoimmunity is a possible pathophysiological mechanism in microscopic colitis. The association between bile acid malabsorption and microscopic colitis remains poorly understood and is complicated by the complex physiology and metabolism of bile acids in the intestinal tract. The pathogenesis of bile acid malabsorption in patients with microscopic colitis likely has several mechanisms. In summary, these studies indicate that bile acids may have a primary or secondary effect in microscopic colitis.

• #2 Microscopic colitis: A review of etiology, treatment and refractory disease

  https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v21/i29/8804.htm

  Microscopic colitis is a common cause of chronic, nonbloody diarrhea. […] The etiology of microscopic colitis is unknown, but it is associated with autoimmune disorders, such as celiac disease, polyarthritis, and thyroid disorders. […] Smoking has been identified as a risk factor of microscopic colitis. […] Exposure to medications, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, proton pump inhibitors, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, is suspected to play a role in microscopic colitis, although their direct causal relationship has not been proven. […] The etiology of MC is unknown. There is a strong association with autoimmune disorders, such as celiac disease, polyarthritis, and thyroid disorders. […] Up to twenty to 60% of patients with LC and 17%-40% of patients with CC have autoimmune disease.

• #2 Microscopic Colitis – Premier Medical Group

  https://www.premiermedicalhv.com/divisions/services/microscopic-colitis/

  What causes microscopic colitis? […] Like many gastrointestinal conditions, microscopic colitis does not have a clear, singular cause. Microscopic colitis does have potential triggers, which include: […] Autoimmune diseases. Some autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid disease, psoriasis, type 1 diabetes, and celiac disease, can increase someone’s risk of developing microscopic colitis. […] Some studies suggest a link between taking some types of medication and developing microscopic colitis. However, the scientific community does not have a consensus on whether this link actually exists.

• #2 Microscopic colitis – Guts UK

  https://gutscharity.org.uk/advice-and-information/conditions/microscopic-colitis/

  Microscopic colitis can develop at any time, but it is more common in middle-age, with those affected often diagnosed between the ages of 50 and 70. It also occurs more frequently in women and can occur earlier in people who smoke. Microscopic colitis occurs in 18 people in 100,000 people, per year. […] It is not yet clear what causes microscopic colitis. Risk factors such as bile acid malabsorption and some medications are currently being considered. […] Examples of medications that have been linked to microscopic colitis include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (such as ibuprofen and aspirin); protein pump inhibitors (such as lansoprazole); statins; some H2 antagonists (Zantac); some diabetic medications (Acarbose); some antidepressants (Sertraline); some anticoagulant medications (ticlopidine); HRT (in higher doses) and some anticonvulsants (Tegretol). […] There are two types of microscopic colitis. […] Microscopic colitis can be treated for most people. The correct diagnosis and treatment can make a huge and dramatic difference to a person’s quality of life.

• #2 Microscopic Colitis – Nacogdoches Gastroenterology

  https://nacogdochesgastroenterology.com/page-view.php?id=30

  No medications have been proven to cause microscopic colitis but several have been linked to it, including Acarbose (Prandase), Aspirin, Lansoprazole (Prevacid), Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, Ranitidine (Zantac), Sertraline (Zoloft), Ticlopidine (Ticlid). […] Certain foods appear to trigger microscopic colitis in some people. Although no specific foods have been identified, following a caffeine- or lactose-free diet sometimes improves symptoms.

• #2 Microscopic Colitis – Nacogdoches Gastroenterology

  https://www.nacogdochesgastroenterology.com/page-view.php?id=30

  Microscopic colitis has two main forms: collagenous colitis and lymphocytic colitis. The cause of microscopic colitis is unknown. Many scientists believe it is an abnormal immune response triggered by something in the gastrointestinal tract. Scientists believe one’s genes may make a person more likely to develop microscopic colitis. Although a gene unique to microscopic colitis has yet to be found, dozens have been linked to other forms of IBD. Scientists have proposed several possible substances that might trigger microscopic colitis. […] Some people get microscopic colitis after being sick with certain harmful bacteria, including Yersinia enterocolitica, Campylobacter jejuni, and Clostridium difficile. Other people test negative for these and other harmful bacteria, but their condition improves with antibiotic treatment, suggesting normally harmless bacteria in the colon may trigger microscopic colitis in some people.

• #2 Microscopic colitis: A review of etiology, treatment and refractory disease

  https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v21/i29/8804.htm

  While no specific genetic mutations have been identified as direct cause of MC, some studies have found common genetic abnormalities. […] Smoking is a risk factor for MC. […] Medications are often implicated as a cause of MC. […] A more recent theory centers around bacterial translocation in the gastrointestinal tract. […] No specific organisms have been identified in causing or exacerbating MC.

• #2 Causes of Microscopic Colitis | Stanford Health Care

  https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/digestion-and-metabolic-health/microscopic-colitis/causes.html

  Scientists believe abnormal immune system responses cause microscopic colitis. When this happens, your bodys immune system attacks your cells and organs. […] Other possible causes for microscopic colitis include: […] Bacteria that produce toxins and irritate the lining of your colon […] Food sensitivity, which can cause symptoms when you eat trigger foods, such as dairy and gluten […] Genetic factors, which can be passed down from one generation to another […] Medications, including aspirin and ibuprofen, which can irritate the lining of your colon […] Viruses that trigger inflammation.

• #2 Microscopic Colitis: Types, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/ibd-crohns-disease/microscopic-colitis

  Experts aren’t sure why people get microscopic colitis, but bacteria, toxins, or viruses are possible causes. Smoking plays a role, too. It could also be related to a problem with your immune system. Your body may react to a false threat and start to attack the cells in your own digestive tract. […] Some medications can make you more likely to get microscopic colitis, including: Aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), Heartburn drugs, Certain antidepressants. […] Anyone can get microscopic colitis. But it’s more common in women and in people 45 or older. It may also run in families.

• #2 Microscopic Colitis – Nacogdoches Gastroenterology

  https://www.nacogdochesgastroenterology.com/page-view.php?id=30

  No medications have been proven to cause microscopic colitis but several have been linked to it, including Acarbose (Prandase), Aspirin, Lansoprazole (Prevacid), Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, Ranitidine (Zantac), Sertraline (Zoloft), Ticlopidine (Ticlid). […] Certain foods appear to trigger microscopic colitis in some people. Although no specific foods have been identified, following a caffeine- or lactose-free diet sometimes improves symptoms.

• #2 Microscopic colitis – could it be caused by a medicine?

  https://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/PUArticles/December2022/Microscopic-colitis-could-it-be-caused-by-a-medicine.html

  Microscopic colitis causes chronic, watery, non-bloody diarrhoea. […] Consider medicines as a possible cause of microscopic colitis. […] Whilst the origin of microscopic colitis is largely unknown, it is likely to be multifactorial. Medicines, tobacco and autoimmune conditions have been identified as possible causes. […] There is evidence that a mucosal immune response occurs in genetically predisposed individuals and may contribute to the development of microscopic colitis. […] Healthcare professionals should consider such medicines as a possible cause of microscopic colitis.

• #2 Undiagnosed microscopic colitis: a hidden cause of chronic diarrhoea and a frequently missed treatment opportunity | Frontline Gastroenterology

  https://fg.bmj.com/content/11/3/228

  The estimated rate of clinical remission combined with histological improvement in patients with symptomatic MC treated with budesonide is 81%. […] The issue of undiagnosed MC is mainly one of familiarity versus better known causes of chronic diarrhoea such as IBS and other IBDs, and downward pressure on colonoscopy investigation and specialist referral. […] Awareness of MC as a prevalent, yet highly treatable cause of chronic diarrhoea needs to increase and the pathways for its management clarified.

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