Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Mastoiditis: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24469-mastoiditis

  Mastoiditis is a bacterial infection in a part of your temporal bone the big bone behind your ear. Mastoiditis starts as a middle ear infection. […] Mastoiditis typically happens when middle ear infections go untreated, allowing the infection to spread into the nearby bone. […] Rarely, people develop mastoiditis without a middle ear infection. This happens when a condition called cholesteatoma causes mastoiditis. Cholesteatoma is an abnormal skin growth in your middle ear. It can block fluids that need to drain from your middle ear and lead to mastoiditis.

• #2 Mastoiditis (Acute & Chronic): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/cold-and-flu/ear-infection/mastoiditis-symptoms-causes-treatments

  Mastoiditis is a bacterial infection of the mastoid air cells surrounding the inner and middle ear. […] When the mastoid cells become infected or inflamed, often as a result of an unresolved middle ear infection (otitis media), mastoiditis can develop. […] As mentioned above, mastoiditis most often develops as a result of a middle ear infection. Bacteria from the middle ear can travel into the air cells of the mastoid bone. Less commonly, a growing collection of skin cells called a cholesteatoma, may block drainage of the ear, leading to mastoiditis. […] If left untreated, mastoiditis can cause serious, even life-threatening, health complications, including hearing loss, blood clot, meningitis, or a brain abscess.

• #3 Mastoiditis – Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/ear-nose-and-throat-disorders/middle-ear-disorders/mastoiditis

  Mastoiditis usually occurs when untreated or inadequately treated acute otitis media spreads from the middle ear into the surrounding bone the mastoid process (part of the temporal bone the skull bone that contains part of the ear canal, the middle ear, and the inner ear). […] Most mastoid infections are caused by pneumococcus bacteria. […] Inadequately treated mastoiditis can result in deafness, blood poisoning (sepsis), infection of the tissues covering the brain (meningitis), brain abscess, or death.

• #4 Mastoiditis Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/mastoiditis

  Mastoiditis is most often caused by a middle ear infection (acute otitis media). The infection may spread from the ear to the mastoid bone. This bone has a honeycomb-like structure that fills with infected material and may break down. […] Before antibiotics, mastoiditis was one of the leading causes of death in children. The condition does not occur very often today. It is also much less dangerous. […] Prompt and thorough treatment of ear infections reduces the risk for mastoiditis.

• #5 Mastoiditis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560877/

  Mastoiditis can subdivide into three different categories based on the mechanism of infection, as detailed below: […] Incipient Mastoiditis: Infection of the mastoid air cells alone with no continuation with the middle ear cavity. […] Acute Coalescent Mastoiditis (most common presentation): Inflammation of the epithelial lining with erosion through the boney septations of the mastoid air cells. This erosion can progress to intracavity abscess formation, which can extend further to adjacent structures. […] Subacute Mastoiditis: Persistent middle ear infection or recurrent episodes of acute otitis media with inadequate antimicrobial therapy lead to persistent infection of the middle ear and mastoid air cells resulting in erosion of boney septations between mastoid air cells. […] The most common pathogen in mastoiditis is streptococcal pneumonia. Other common pathogens include Group A beta-hemolytic streptococci, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Haemophilus influenzae. Risk factors for mastoiditis include age less than two years old, immunocompromised state, recurrent acute otitis media, or incomplete pneumatization of the mastoid process.

• #6 Mastoiditis: Practice Essentials, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2056657-overview

  A purist’s definition of mastoiditis includes all inflammatory processes of the mastoid air cells of the temporal bone. […] Acute mastoiditis is associated with AOM. In some patients, the infection spreads beyond the mucosa of the middle ear cleft, and they develop osteitis within the mastoid air-cell system or periosteitis of the mastoid process, either directly by bone erosion through the cortex or indirectly via the emissary vein of the mastoid. […] Chronic mastoiditis is most commonly associated with chronic suppurative otitis media and particularly with cholesteatoma formation. […] As with most infectious processes, consider host and microbial factors when evaluating surgical mastoiditis. Host factors include mucosal immunology, temporal bone anatomy, and systemic immunity. Microbial factors include protective coating, antimicrobial resistance, and ability to penetrate local tissue or vessels (ie, invasive strains).

• #7 Mastoiditis: Practice Essentials, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/966099-overview

  A purist’s definition of mastoiditis includes all inflammatory processes of the mastoid air cells of the temporal bone. […] Acute mastoiditis is associated with AOM. In some patients, the infection spreads beyond the mucosa of the middle ear cleft, and they develop osteitis within the mastoid air-cell system or periosteitis of the mastoid process, either directly by bone erosion through the cortex or indirectly via the emissary vein of the mastoid. […] Chronic mastoiditis is most commonly associated with chronic suppurative otitis media and particularly with cholesteatoma formation. […] As with most infectious processes, consider host and microbial factors when evaluating surgical mastoiditis. Host factors include mucosal immunology, temporal bone anatomy, and systemic immunity. Microbial factors include protective coating, antimicrobial resistance, and ability to penetrate local tissue or vessels (ie, invasive strains).

• #8 Mastoiditis: Practice Essentials, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2056657-overview

  Persistent acute infection within the mastoid cavity may lead to a rarifying osteitis, which destroys the bony trabeculae that form the mastoid cells (hence the term coalescent mastoiditis). […] Reported pathogens in mastoiditis include the following: Streptococcus pneumoniae Most frequently isolated pathogen in acute mastoiditis, prevalence of approximately 25%. […] Because acute otitis media (AOM) is the antecedent disease, the most common etiologic agent causing surgical mastoiditis is Streptococcus pneumoniae, followed by Haemophilus influenzae and group A Streptococcus pyogenes (GAS). […] The literature and the authors’ experience indicate that a high frequency of multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae (MDRSP) is now associated with ASM, and this may alter selection of antimicrobials (40-50% penicillin resistant, approximately 25% ceftriaxone resistant). […] Gram-negative organisms and Staphylococcus aureus are recovered more frequently from patients with chronic mastoiditis.

• #9 Mastoiditis: Practice Essentials, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/966099-overview

  Most children presenting with acute surgical mastoiditis (ASM) are younger than age 2 years and have little history of otitis media. […] Persistent acute infection within the mastoid cavity may lead to a rarifying osteitis, which destroys the bony trabeculae that form the mastoid cells (hence the term coalescent mastoiditis). […] Reported pathogens in mastoiditis include the following: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Group A beta-hemolytic streptococci, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Moraxella catarrhalis, Haemophilus influenzae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Mycobacterium species, Aspergillus fumigatus and other fungi, Nocardia asteroides. […] Because acute otitis media (AOM) is the antecedent disease, the most common etiologic agent causing surgical mastoiditis is Streptococcus pneumoniae, followed by Haemophilus influenzae and group A Streptococcus pyogenes (GAS).

• #10 Mastoiditis | nidirect

  https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/conditions/mastoiditis

  Mastoiditis usually occurs following an untreated middle ear infection. Bacteria from the middle ear can spread to the inner ear, infecting the mastoid cells of the mastoid bone. […] Cholesteatoma can also cause mastoiditis. This is an abnormal collection of skin cells inside the ear. This may prevent the ear draining properly, leading to infection.

• #11 Mastoiditis – ENT Clinic Sydney

  https://ent-surgery.com.au/mastoiditis/

  The most common cause of mastoiditis is a middle ear infection which has been untreated and spread to the mastoid process. […] Another less common cause of mastoiditis is cholesteatoma. Cholesteatoma is an abnormal skin growth that forms behind the tympanic membrane (ear drum) which can impair the drainage of the middle ear, which can then lead to mastoiditis. […] Mastoiditis is typically a bacterial infection. The bacteria implicated mirror those which are implicated in ear infections. Common causative bacteria include: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis. […] Bacteria that are less commonly implicated include staphylococcus aureus and pseudomonas.

• #12 Acute mastoiditis in children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7947742/

  Acute mastoiditis is the most common complication of acute otitis media. […] The main pathogen of the acute mastoiditis is Streptococcus pneumoniae, followed by Streptococcus piogenes, Haemophilus influentiae, and Staphylococcus aureus. […] The main etiopathogenetic factor is represented by the closure of the aditus ad antrum due to oedema or granulation tissue which prevents the drainage of the purulent exudate from the mastoid air cells. […] The most frequent complication is the subperiosteal abscess, following the progression of the inflammatory process; periostitis, the release of cytokine with osteoclasts activation and consequent decalcification and bone resorption (coalescent mastoiditis). […] In the current opinion, Streptococcus pneumoniae is considered the predominant pathogen in children affected by AM.

• #13 Mastoiditis: Practice Essentials, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/966099-overview

  The literature and the authors’ experience indicate that a high frequency of multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae (MDRSP) is now associated with ASM, and this may alter selection of antimicrobials. […] Gram-negative organisms and Staphylococcus aureus are recovered more frequently from patients with chronic mastoiditis. […] Half of children admitted with acute mastoiditis have no previous history of recurrent AOM. In those children, Streptococcus pneumoniae has been the leading pathogen, while Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been more prevalent in children with recurrent AOM.

• #14 Mastoiditis

  https://mobile.fpnotebook.com/ENT/ID/Mstdts.htm

  Rare now since the use of Antibiotics in Otitis Media […] Extension of middle ear disease […] Abscess and destruction of mastoid bone […] Acute Otitis Media extension (most common, esp. children) […] Chronic Otitis Media with secondary Cholesteatoma with obstruction of Ear Drainage […] Bacteria associated with Acute Otitis Media […] Streptococcus Pneumoniae (22%) […] Streptococcus Pyogenes (16%) […] Staphylococcus Aureus (7%) […] Haemophilus Influenzae (4%, likely much lower Incidence post-Hib Vaccine) […] Bacteria associated with Chronic Otitis Media […] Staphylococcus Aureus (7% overall Mastoiditis cases) […] Pseudomonas Aeruginosa (4% overall Mastoiditis cases) […] Anaerobic Bacteria […] Other atypical causes of Chronic Mastoiditis […] Nocardia […] Actinomyces […] Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

• #15 Mastoiditis | 5-Minute Pediatric Consult

  https://peds.unboundmedicine.com/pedscentral/view/5-Minute-Pediatric-Consult/617689/all/Mastoiditis?q=Sepsis

  Acute mastoiditis is generally caused by an extension of the inflammation and infection of acute otitis media into the mastoid air cells. However, 2050% of patients may present without evidence of preceding otitis media. […] The bacteria isolated from middle ear drainage or from the mastoid are usually Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus. Many patients cultures are sterile which may be related to antibiotic use prior to retrieval of fluid. […] Chronic mastoiditis is usually caused by S. aureus, anaerobic bacteria, enteric bacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, or multiple-organism infection. […] Unusual agents of chronic mastoiditis include Mycobacterium tuberculosis, nontuberculous mycobacteria, Nocardia asteroides, and Histoplasma capsulatum. […] Cholesteatomas may contribute to the development of mastoiditis by impeding mastoid drainage or erosion of underlying bone.

• #16 Acute mastoiditis in children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7947742/

  The role of Pseudomonas aeruginosa is still controversial. […] In our experience, S. pneumoniae was the predominant bacterium (21-77%), followed by Streptococcus pyogenes (9-33%), Hemophilus influenzae (6-22%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (2-7%). […] Most studies underline the necessity of carrying out in every case a middle ear culture for a more specific choice of antibiotic. […] Considering the high incidence of S. pneumoniae and its specific sensitivity to cephalosporins (less frequently to penicillins), this antibiotic, in particular, Ceftriaxone sodium, is widely used in the treatment of AM. […] The introduction of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) in 2000, subsequently replaced by a polyvalent version (PCV13), has certainly reduced the incidence of pneumococcal infections and consequently of AOM. […] Despite the increasingly effective antibiotic and vaccine treatments, the AM is still a worrying disease that even seems to be growing in pediatric age due to ever-increasing antibiotic resistances.

• #17 Mastoiditis: Symptoms, Causes, Risk Factors & Treatment | Medanta

  https://www.medanta.org/hospitals-near-me/gurugram-hospital/speciality/ent/disease/mastoiditis-symptoms-causes-risk-treatment

  Mastoiditis is usually caused by a bacterial infection that spreads from the middle ear to the mastoid bone. […] When a bacterial infection develops in the middle ear, it can cause inflammation and fluid buildup. If the infection is not treated promptly or if it is not adequately treated with antibiotics, the bacteria can spread from the middle ear to the mastoid air cells and cause an infection in the mastoid bone. The most common type of bacteria that causes Mastoiditis is Streptococcus pneumoniae, but other types of bacteria, such as Haemophilus influenza and Moraxella catarrhalis, can also cause the infection. […] In addition to ear infections, Mastoiditis can also develop as a complication of other ear-related conditions, such as cholesteatoma, which is a benign growth of skin cells in the middle ear that can erode the mastoid bone. Mastoiditis can also occur after a head injury that damages the mastoid bone or after surgery to the ear or mastoid bone. The use of certain medical devices, such as hearing aids or ear tubes, can also increase the risk of developing mastoiditis.

• #18 Mastoiditis: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://patient.info/doctor/mastoiditis

  Mastoiditis occurs when suppurative infection extends from a middle ear affected by otitis media to the mastoid air cells. The infective process causes inflammation of the mastoid and surrounding tissues and may lead to bony destruction. […] Mastoiditis is acute inflammation of the mastoid periosteum and air cells occurring when AOM infection spreads out from the middle ear. […] There is a rising incidence, however, which is connected to restrained antibiotic therapy of AOM, inadequate dosing, choice of antibiotics and increasing resistance of bacteria. […] Pre-existence of cholesteatoma is a risk factor for subsequent mastoiditis. […] The usual initial therapy is high-dose, broad-spectrum intravenous (IV) antibiotics, given for at least 1-2 days (eg, with a third-generation cephalosporin).

• #19 Mastoiditis: Symptoms, causes, and diagnosis

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/324280

  Mastoiditis is a serious infection of the mastoid, the hard, prominent bone just behind and under the ear. It is rare and can be life threatening without treatment. […] Usually, the cause is an untreated or antibiotic-resistant ear infection. This can spread to surrounding structures, including the mastoid. […] Middle ear infections are often the cause of mastoiditis. These infections are most common in babies under 2 years of age. […] Ear infections, and particularly middle ear infections, are the most common cause of mastoiditis. […] The bacteria responsible can spread without effective treatment. This may happen, for example, if a person stops the course of treatment before it is complete. It may also happen if the bacteria are resistant to the prescribed antibiotics. […] Less often, an abnormal growth of skin cells in the middle ear, called a cholesteatoma, can cause a blockage that allows bacteria to multiply and leads to mastoiditis. Cholesteatomas can also cause ear polyps that may result in further obstruction.

• #20 Mastoiditis: risky consequence of middle ear inflammation – USZ

  https://www.usz.ch/en/disease/mastoiditis/

  Mastoiditis is usually a secondary disease or complication of an inflammation of the middle ear. […] This is caused by a child’s infection with bacteria such as pneumococci, streptococci and Haemophilus influenzae type b. […] Mastoiditis is usually preceded by a whole series of viral infections that cause inflammation of the throat and pharynx. […] Some risks can promote mastoiditis. This includes that secretions can drain from your ear with difficulty, your immune system is weakened, antibiotic treatment for the middle ear infection did not work, for example because you stopped taking the antibiotic too early, there is a particularly high virulence (infectious power) of the pathogens.

• #21 Acute & Chronic Mastoiditis | Tampa General Hospital

  https://www.tgh.org/institutes-and-services/conditions/mastoiditis

  Mastoiditis occurs when the mastoid processa small, honeycomb-like structure located behind the earbecomes infected with bacteria. […] Most cases of mastoiditis result from an untreated middle ear infection (otitis media). Pneumococcus bacteria is usually at the root of mastoiditis, although widespread administration of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine has significantly reduced the occurrence of this condition. […] Less commonly, a cholesteatoma is to blame for mastoiditis. This rare growth can occur when skill cells collect deep within the ear.

• #22 Mastoiditis (Acute & Chronic): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/mastoiditis-7501178

  Mastoiditis is often a rare complication when a middle ear infection spreads to the nearby mastoid process. […] Although rare, mastoiditis can occur without an ear infection. A cholesteatoma (skin growth) can develop in the middle ear, behind the eardrum, which can become infected. […] The best way to help prevent mastoiditis is early recognition and proper treatment of ear infections. Pneumococcal vaccines may benefit in preventing ear infections caused by certain types of bacteria that lead to mastoiditis.

• #23 Acute mastoiditis | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/acute-mastoiditis?lang=us

  Acute mastoiditis refers to a suppurative infection of the mastoid air cells. It is the most common complication of acute otitis media. […] Acute mastoiditis with periostitis is pathologically characterized by spread of infection through the mastoid emissary veins into the periosteum. Acute coalescent mastoiditis is characterized by infiltration and destruction of the bone, essentially osteomyelitis. […] It is most frequently due to bacterial infections, with Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae accounting for 65-80% of cases. […] H. influenzae, although less common, is the more aggressive agent, more frequently resulting in complications, especially meningitis. […] Etiology: Streptococcus pneumoniae: most common […] Haemophilus influenzae: common and more aggressive than pneumococcus […] Aspergillus: aggressive; seen in older patients; frequently associated with facial nerve dysfunction […] tuberculous otomastoiditis: increasing frequency due to greater immunocompromised population.

• #24 Mastoiditis: Causes, Symptoms, and Diagnosis

  https://www.healthline.com/health/mastoiditis

  Mastoiditis is a serious infection of the mastoid bone in your inner ear. It can develop from an untreated middle ear infection. The most common cause of mastoiditis is a middle ear infection that has been left untreated. It can spread to your inner ear, invading the sacs of the mastoid bone, without treatment. This can cause the mastoid bone to begin to disintegrate. […] Although the condition is most common in children, it can also occur in adults. […] You can prevent mastoiditis by effectively treating all ear infections. Seek prompt medical attention and follow your doctors advice if you develop an ear infection. This may include taking oral antibiotics for 7 to 10 days.

• #25 Mastoiditis Causes, Symptoms, Treatment Guidelines & Surgery

  https://www.medicinenet.com/mastoiditis/article.htm

  Mastoiditis is an infection of the mastoid bone. The most common cause of mastoiditis is an untreated inner ear infection (acute otitis media). Less frequently, a condition called cholesteatoma can cause mastoiditis. Cholesteatoma is an abnormal growing collection of skin cells inside the ear that can prevent the ear from draining, which can lead to mastoiditis. […] The best way to prevent mastoiditis is to prevent ear infections (otitis media) and treat any ear infection you have with antibiotic therapy.

• #26 Mastoiditis in Children

  https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/conditions/health-library/mastoiditis-in-children

  Mastoiditis is a bacterial infection of the mastoid bone with inflammation. […] Mastoiditis is a complication of a middle ear infection. It happens when the infection in the middle ear spreads into the mastoid bone. […] It is a complication of a middle ear bacterial infection. It happens when the infection in the middle ear spreads into the mastoid bone. […] Treatment often includes antibiotic medicine and draining the middle ear. […] Complications can include hearing loss, facial nerve damage, and meningitis. Go to all follow-up appointments to check for hearing problems and other complications. […] Prompt treatment of all ear infections can help prevent mastoiditis.

• #27 Mastoiditis | Macon & Joan Brock Virginia Health Sciences EVMS Medical Group at Old Dominion University

  https://www.evmsmedicalgroup.com/specialties/ear_nose_and_throat_surgeons/pediatric_ear_nose_and_throat/ear_disorders/mastoiditis/

  Mastoiditis is usually a result of an extension of the inflammation of the middle ear infection into the mastoid air cells. […] Mastoiditis may be caused by various bacteria. […] Early and proper treatment of mastoiditis is necessary to prevent the development of these life-threatening complications.

• #28 Pediatric Mastoiditis – Conditions and Treatments | Children’s National Hospital

  https://www.childrensnational.org/get-care/health-library/mastoiditis

  Mastoiditis is a bacterial infection of the mastoid bone with inflammation. […] Mastoiditis is a complication of a middle ear infection. It happens when the infection in the middle ear spreads into the mastoid bone. […] Mastoiditis is often treated by an ear, nose and throat (ENT) healthcare provider. […] Mastoiditis is a complication of a middle ear infection. So it’s important to get medical care and treat an ear infection before it spreads to the mastoid bone.

• #29

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00405-024-08704-y

  Common respiratory infections were significantly reduced during the COVID-19 pandemic due to general protective and hygiene measures. […] The aim of this retrospective monocentric study was to evaluate the impact of NPI during the COVID-19 pandemic on the incidence and severity of acute mastoiditis (AM). […] The most important risk factor for the development of AM is young age. […] AM is mostly caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, followed by Streptococcus pyogenes and Staphylococcus aureus. […] The possible development of life-threatening complications of AM requires prompt therapeutic intervention. […] As a result of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPI), such as contact restrictions including lockdown and school closures, more accurate hand hygiene and wearing face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic, a sharp decrease of infections transmitted via the respiratory tract has been reported.

• #30

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00405-024-08704-y

  Following the lifting of NPI, the number of patients with respiratory diseases treated in emergency departments is noticeably rising again. […] The rapid increase in viral respiratory disorders after the reduction of major pandemic restrictions and the reduced peri-pandemic exposure of the immune system to infectious agents particularly in children appear to trigger invasive bacterial infections and explain the steep rise in AM since December 2022. […] Even more frequently than pneumococci, group A streptococci (GAS, S. pyogenes) were detected in microbiological probes of AM cases in 2023. […] The steep increase of AM cases starting in December 2022 was induced by S. pneumoniae and S. pyogenes. […] The lack of exposure of the immune system to pathogens due to the NPI and the consecutive progress in severe infections after lifting or reduction of NPI have been discussed especially in children.

Zobacz więcej