Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/STD-Pathophysiology.aspx

  Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are transmitted via the mucous membranes of the vagina, penis, urethra or rectum, during sexual contact with an infected individual. Transmission can also occur via membranes of the throat, respiratory tract, mouth and eyes. […] The mucous membranes are thinner than skin and allow microbes to cross them into the body. In addition, minor breaks in the skin and mucous membranes due to abrasions or cuts further increase the risk of infection. The microbes are often present in fluids secreted from the penis, vagina, saliva, faeces, urine and sweat. Sometimes, only a small amount of the microbes can lead to transmission of an STD. […] Any sexual contact including oral sex and deep kissing can lead to the transmission of certain infections, although the concentration of the microbes is often lower in saliva than in the genital fluids. Non-sexual contact such as hugging and shaking hands is not usually responsible for transmitting infection.

• #1 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/sexually-transmitted-diseases-stds/symptoms-causes/syc-20351240

  Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are caused by sexually transmitted infections (STIs). They are spread mainly by sexual contact. STIs are caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites. A sexually transmitted infection may pass from person to person in blood, semen, or vaginal and other bodily fluids. […] Sometimes sexually transmitted infections are spread in ways other than sexual contact. For example, STIs can spread to infants during pregnancy or childbirth. STIs also can spread through blood transfusions or shared needles. […] STIs don’t always cause symptoms. A person can get sexually transmitted infections from another person who seems healthy and may not even know they have an infection. […] Sexually transmitted infection symptoms may appear a few days after exposure. But it may take years before you have any noticeable problems, depending on what’s causing the STI.

• #1 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/sexually-transmitted-diseases-stds/symptoms-causes/syc-20351240

  Sexually transmitted infections can be caused by: Bacteria. Gonorrhea, syphilis and chlamydia are examples of STDs that are caused by bacteria. […] Parasites. Trichomoniasis is an STD caused by a parasite. […] Viruses. STDs caused by viruses include human papillomavirus (HPV), the herpes simplex virus, and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS. […] During pregnancy or delivery, some sexually transmitted infections can be passed from mother to infant. Examples are gonorrhea, chlamydia, HIV and syphilis. STIs in infants can cause serious problems or even death. All pregnant women should be screened for STI infections and treated as needed. […] Possible complications of sexually transmitted infections include: Pelvic pain. […] Pregnancy complications. […] Eye inflammation.

• #1 Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Part 1

  https://www.atsu.edu/faculty/chamberlain/website/lectures/lecture/stda.htm

  During primary infections the patient has a viremia and regional lymphadenopathy. Eventually local interferon as well as specific antibody and cell mediated immunity will curtail virus replication. However, during the primary infection the virus invades local nerve endings, ascends the axons, and establishes latency in the sacral ganglia. […] The organisms enter the body via minute abrasions of epithelial cell linings, by penetrating mucous membranes or via hair follicles. The organisms slowly multiply at the site of the infection and some will in time gain access to the bloodstream and the lymphatics and seed the skin, endothelial cells, cartilage, joints, bones, neurons and mucous membranes. […] The bacteria that are taken by the lymphatics to the lymph nodes will initially cause the regional lymphadenopathy seen in primary syphilis and the generalized lymphadenopathy seen in later stages of the disease. […] The organisms multiplying at the initial site of infection will in 10 to 90 days cause the hard chancre seen in primary syphilis.

• #1 Pathophysiology of Sexually transmitted diseases | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/pathophysiology-of-sexually-transmitted-diseases/231909724

  Sexually transmitted diseases are infections that are spread from person to person through intimate sexual contact. Sexually transmitted diseases are dangerous because they easily spread and it is hard to tell just by looking who has an STD. 1 in 4 will contract STD between 15-55 yrs of age STD are infections that are commonly spread by sex, especially vaginal intercourse, anal sex and oral sex. […] It is most prevalent bacterial STD It is caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis In women, symptoms may include Abnormal vaginal discharge, Burning during urination, Bleeding in between periods. […] If left untreated in both men and women, Chlamydia can infect the urinary tract and potentially lead to pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). PID can cause serious problems during pregnancy and even has the potential to cause infertility.

• #1 Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) Pathogens and Syndromes | NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

  https://www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/sti-pathogens-and-syndromes

  Some of the health complications that arise from sexually transmitted infections (STIs) include pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, tubal or ectopic pregnancy, cervical cancer, and perinatal or congenital infections in infants who have been exposed to STIs. […] BV can increase womens biological susceptibility to HIV and other STIs and can cause premature birth or low birthweight if untreated in pregnant women. […] Chlamydia is a common STI that can cause cervicitis in women and urethritis and proctitis in both men and women. […] Gonorrhea is an STI caused by the bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae. […] Hepatitis B and C can be transmitted sexually and account for most of the global hepatitis burden. […] Herpes, caused by herpes simplex virus (HSV), has two subtypes HSV-1 and HSV-2. HSV can be transmitted through sexual contact.

• #1 Pathophysiology of Sexually transmitted diseases | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/pathophysiology-of-sexually-transmitted-diseases/231909724

  Gonorrhea is caused by a bacteria known as Neisseria gonorrhoeae. This bacterium lives on moist mucous membranes in the urethra, vagina, rectum, mouth, throat, and eyes. The infection can spread through contact with the penis, vagina, mouth or anus. Symptoms in men include Burning and pain while urinating, Discharge from the penis (white, green, or yellow in color). […] If not treated, Syphilis can be very dangerous and can cause brain damage and other serious health problems. Clinical manifestations of syphilis include the ulceration of the uro-genital tract, mouth or rectum. If left untreated the symptoms worsen. […] The two most common forms of herpes are caused by infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV). HSV- 1 is typically acquired orally and causes cold sores. HSV-2 is usually acquired during sexual contact and affects the genitals, most common viral STD. Herpes is spread through skin contact with a person infected with the virus.

• #1 Core Concepts – Sexually Transmitted Infections – Co-Occurring Conditions – National HIV Curriculum

  https://www.hiv.uw.edu/go/co-occurring-conditions/sexually-transmitted-diseases-infections/core-concept/all

  Individuals with HIV typically experience the same stages and physical manifestations of syphilis as persons without HIV, although the stages are more likely to overlap, and the symptoms may be more severe. […] The risk of developing neurosyphilis is increased in persons with HIV who have low CD4 counts and high HIV RNA levels. […] Individuals with HIV tend to have more severe and chronic herpes simplex lesions, and more asymptomatic shedding of HSV-2 in the genital tract compared to persons without HIV; suppressive therapy with valacyclovir, acyclovir, or famciclovir, should be considered in persons with HIV. […] Infection with T. vaginalis has been shown to increase HIV transmission risk among both men and women with HIV, as well as to increase the risk of HIV acquisition among women.

• #1 21.4: Sexually Transmitted Infections – Biology LibreTexts

  https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Butte_College/BC%3A_BIOL_2_-_Introduction_to_Human_Biology_(Grewal)/Text/21%3A_Disease/21.4%3A_Sexually_Transmitted_Infections

  STIs are caused by many different types of pathogens. More than 30 different pathogens have been identified. Most are bacteria or viruses. A few of the pathogens are sexually transmitted parasites. […] Many STIs are caused by bacteria. Some of the most common bacterial STIs are chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. […] Syphilis is transmitted from person to person by direct contact with a syphilitic sore, known as a chancre. Chancres occur mainly on the external genitals or in the vagina or anus, but they may also occur on the lips or in the mouth. […] Without treatment, syphilis typically progresses through several stages. The progression of the disease is likely to be stopped only if a person receives appropriate antibiotic therapy. […] Genital herpes is a viral STI caused by a herpes simplex virus. The cause of genital herpes is most often herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2). […] The most common sexually transmitted infection in the United States is infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). Almost 80 million Americans are estimated to be infected with HPV, and about 14 million people are thought to become infected each year.

• #1 Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Part 1

  https://www.atsu.edu/faculty/chamberlain/website/lectures/lecture/stda.htm

  Sexually transmitted infections (STI’s) are among the most common infectious diseases in the U.S. More than 21 STI’s have now been identified, and they affect more than 20 million men and women in the U.S. each year. […] The student should be familiar with the pathogenesis of syphilis. […] Some STI’s can spread into the uterus and fallopian tubes to cause pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), which in turn is the major cause of involuntary infertility and ectopic (tubal) pregnancy. […] The virus gains access to the genital mucosa by sexual contact with an HSV infected partner. Symptomatic and asymptomatic HSV infected sexual partners can spread the infection to an uninfected partner. […] Viral replication induces an erythematous papule that swells into a fluid-filled vesicle. The vesicular fluid has many infectious virus particles and degenerating cells containing eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies and multinucleated giant cells.

• #1 Pathophysiology of Sexually transmitted diseases | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/pathophysiology-of-sexually-transmitted-diseases/231909724

  It is caused by Human papilloma virus. There are more than 70 strains. Some cause genital warts — moist, soft, cauliflower-like bumps (within 3 weeks – 8 months). […] It is caused by the single-celled protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis. Can be passed on via damp towels, washcloths, and bathing suits if someone has the parasite. Symptoms typically include inflammation of the Cervix (Cervicitis), Urethra (Urethritis), Vagina (Vaginitis). Discomfort may increase during intercourse and urination.

• #1 Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) Pathogens and Syndromes | NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

  https://www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/sti-pathogens-and-syndromes

  HIV, or human immunodeficiency virus, is the virus that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). […] Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common STI in the US, and often has no symptoms. […] Mycoplasma genitalium is a significant cause of non-gonococcal urethritis and persistent urethritis in men, and is associated with cervicitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, preterm delivery, and infertility in women. […] Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a general term that refers to infection and inflammation of the upper genital tract in women. […] Syphilis is a common STI caused by Treponema pallidum bacteria. […] Trichomoniasis can increase the risk of getting or spreading other sexually transmitted infections. […] Urethritis is a condition that can result from infection with common STI pathogens including N. gonorrhoeae, C. trachomatis, T. vaginalis.

• #1

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sexually-transmitted-infections-(stis)

  More than 30 different bacteria, viruses and parasites are known to be transmitted through sexual contact, including vaginal, anal and oral sex. […] STIs can have serious consequences beyond the immediate impact of the infection itself. […] STIs like herpes, gonorrhoea and syphilis can increase the risk of HIV acquisition. […] HPV infection causes cervical and other cancers. […] AMR of STIs in particular gonorrhoea has increased rapidly in recent years and has reduced treatment options. […] AMR for other STIs, like Mycoplasma genitalium, also exist but are not systematically monitored. […] Syndromic management is simple, assures rapid, same-day treatment, and avoids expensive or unavailable diagnostic tests for patients with symptoms. […] However, this approach results in overtreatment and missed treatment as the majority of STIs are asymptomatic. […] To interrupt transmission and prevent re-infection, treating sexual partners is an important component of STI case management.

• #1 Trichomoniasis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/230617-overview

  Trichomoniasis is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by the motile parasitic protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis. […] The high prevalence of T vaginalis infection globally and the frequency of coinfection with other STIs make trichomoniasis a compelling public health concern. […] Research has shown that T vaginalis infection is associated with an increased risk for infection with several STIs, including gonorrhea, human papillomavirus (HPV), herpes simplex virus (HSV), and, most importantly, HIV. […] T vaginalis destroys epithelial cells by direct cell contact and by the release of cytotoxic substances. […] It also binds to host plasma proteins, thereby preventing recognition of the parasite by the alternative complement pathway and host proteinases. […] During infection, the vaginal pH increases, as does the number of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs).

• #1 Sexually transmitted infections—Research priorities for new challenges | PLOS Medicine

  https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1002481

  Second, modern STI management is being increasingly challenged by AMR, which has already compromised the treatment of gonorrhoea and is expanding geographically. Some possible solutions to the threat of AMR are explored in the Collection. In their mathematical modelling study, Xavier Didelot and colleagues project how cautious use of previously abandoned antimicrobials could mitigate the spread of resistance. […] Future progress in understanding the pathogenesis of STIs in women, who bear a large proportion of the world populations burden of STIs, will rely on the innovations of high-throughput molecular sequencing methods that have revealed the complexity of the vaginal microbiome. In a Perspective, Janneke van de Wijgert discusses what we now know about interrelationships between exogenous sexually transmitted bacterial pathogens, dysbiosis affecting the lactobacillus-dominated microbiome, and pathobionts, commensal bacteria with pathogenic potential. However, improved understanding of the nature and properties of vaginal microbiomes will be required for the development of approaches for optimising vaginal health.

• #1

  https://www.jci.org/articles/view/61592

  Understanding syphilis infection has been a challenge for researchers, in part, because T. pallidum cannot be cultured or genetically manipulated. Consequently, the publication and analysis of the T. pallidum genome has enabled a better understanding of the molecular basis of syphilis pathogenesis. […] Untangling the pathogenesis and discovering an accurate diagnostic for neurosyphilis is yet another persistent challenge. Invasion of the nervous system by T. pallidum occurs early in infection, within days to weeks of inoculation. […] Understanding of the interplay between innate and cell-mediated immune responses to HSV infection is advancing. The authors review current discoveries in both pathways. […] The authors also stress that although the ideal HSV vaccine will prevent primary infection, a therapeutic vaccine to improve the clinical course in individual patients and potentially decrease HSV shedding and therefore transmission, could have a significant public health benefit.

• #1 Trichomoniasis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/230617-overview

  Despite the immune systems interaction with T vaginalis, infection produces an immunity that is only partially protective at best, and there is little evidence that a healthy immune system prevents infection. […] One study showed no association between trichomoniasis and the use of protease inhibitors or immune status in HIV-infected women. […] Another showed that HIV seropositivity did not alter the rate of infection in males. […] T vaginalis infection is also strongly associated with the presence of other STIs, including gonorrhea, chlamydia, and sexually transmitted viruses. […] T vaginalis infection has even been shown to increase a patients susceptibility to sexually transmitted viruses, including herpes simplex virus, human papillomavirus, and HIV. […] One potential explanation for this is that T vaginalis disrupts the epithelial monolayer, leading to increased passage of the HIV virus.

• #1

  https://www.who.int/health-topics/sexually-transmitted-infections

  The emergence of decreased susceptibility of gonorrhoea to extended-spectrum cephalosporins, together with established high-levels of resistance to penicillins, sulphonamides, tetracyclines, quinolones and macrolides make gonorrhoea a multidrug-resistant organism. […] To adequately treat STIs it is important to take the appropriate antimicrobials, with the correct dose and duration for the specific STI to ensure adequate treatment or cure, and to prevent the development of antimicrobial resistance.

• #1 Sexually transmitted infections

  https://womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/sexually-transmitted-infections

  Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are also called sexually transmitted diseases, or STDs. STIs are usually spread by having vaginal, oral, or anal sex. More than 9 million women in the United States are diagnosed with an STI each year. Women often have more serious health problems from STIs than men, including infertility. […] An STI is an infection passed from one person to another person through sexual contact. An infection is when a bacteria, virus, or parasite enters and grows in or on your body. STIs are also called sexually transmitted diseases, or STDs. […] Some STIs can be cured and some STIs cannot be cured. For those STIs that cannot be cured, there are medicines to manage the symptoms. […] Yes. Each STI causes different health problems for women. Certain types of untreated STIs can cause or lead to: Problems getting pregnant or permanent infertility, Problems during pregnancy and health problems for the unborn baby, Infection in other parts of the body, Organ damage, Certain types of cancer, such as cervical cancer, Death.

• #1 Sexually Transmitted Infections – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/sexually-transmitted-infections

  There are more than 30 different bacteria, viruses and parasites known to be transmitted through sexual contact. STIs can have important health consequences, including genital symptoms, pregnancy complications, infertility, enhanced HIV transmission, and psychosocial effects. […] STIs are spread predominantly by sexual contact, including vaginal, anal and oral sex. Some STIs can also be spread through non-sexual means such as via blood or blood products. Many STIs including chlamydia, gonorrhea, primarily hepatitis B, HIV, and syphilis can also be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy and childbirth. […] STIs can have serious consequences beyond the immediate impact of the infection itself. Mother-to-child transmission of STIs can result in stillbirth, neonatal death, low-birth-weight and prematurity, sepsis, pneumonia, neonatal conjunctivitis, and congenital deformities. Some STIs such as gonorrhea and chlamydia are major causes of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and infertility in women. Others STIs like herpes and syphilis can increase the risk of HIV acquisition three-fold or more.

• #1

  https://journals.lww.com/stdjournal/fulltext/2017/04000/point_of_care_sexually_transmitted_infection.4.aspx

  The STAR STI-CTG programmatic meeting reviewed point-of-care sexually transmitted infection diagnostics including current and emerging technologies, clinical and public health benefits, international applications, regulatory considerations, and future developments. […] Early and accurate diagnosis of infection is important to provide patients with timely, appropriate, and effective treatment, thereby, limiting the spread and adverse outcomes of infection. […] Given its low specificity and sensitivity, syndromic management is unlikely to impact the burden of disease. By contrast, the development of highly specific and sensitive POC STI diagnostics could facilitate a departure from syndromic management in favor of etiological management of STIs. […] Such diagnostics could facilitate appropriately targeted treatments because of rapid specific STI detection, sparing unnecessary use of antimicrobials that may contribute to resistance.

• #1

  https://journals.lww.com/stdjournal/fulltext/2017/04000/point_of_care_sexually_transmitted_infection.4.aspx

  The goal of the point-of-care (POC) sexually transmitted infection (STI) Diagnostics meeting was to review the state-of-the-art research and develop recommendations for the use of POC STI diagnostics. […] Key points of the meeting are as follows: (i) although some rapid point-of-care tests are affordable, sensitive, specific, easy to perform, and deliverable to those who need them for select sexually transmitted infections, implementation barriers exist at the device, patient, provider, and health system levels; (ii) further investment in research and development of point-of-care tests for sexually transmitted infections is needed, and new technologies can be used to improve diagnostic testing, test uptake, and treatment; (iii) efficient deployment of self-testing in supervised (ie, pharmacies, clinics, and so on) and/or unsupervised (ie, home, offices, and so on) settings could facilitate more screening and diagnosis that will reduce the burden of sexually transmitted infections; (iv) development of novel diagnostic technologies has outpaced the generation of guidance tools and documents issued by regulatory agencies; and (v) questions regarding quality management are emerging including the mechanism by which poor-performing diagnostics are removed from the market and quality assurance of self-testing is ensured.

• #1 Current and Future Trends in the Laboratory Diagnosis of Sexually Transmitted Infections

  https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/3/1038

  The use of the most sensitive and specific tests is often impractical in resource-poor or remote areas due to their high cost and technical requirements. […] Point-of-care (POC) tests represent an answer to the problem of needing to reach a diagnosis quickly outside of a standard laboratory. […] The development and implementation of POCs for STI management is considered a priority by WHO, and target product profiles (TPPs) for POCs have been developed. […] Current PCR-based assays have reached extremely high levels of sensitivity and specificity of detection, and they are powerful tools for screening samples for multiple organisms. However, their ability to be implemented as POC tests in resource-poor settings is still hindered by their relatively high cost and the need for specialized instrumentation (thermocycler) and laboratories.

• #1 Refocusing on sexually transmitted infections (STIs) to improve reproductive health: a call to further action | Reproductive Health | Full Text

  https://reproductive-health-journal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12978-021-01296-4

  The presence of an STI magnifies the risk of acquiring or transmitting HIV by as much as two to three times. […] Despite many countries having established screening and treatment programmes for STIs, the incidence of most STIs such as chlamydia, gonorrhoea and trichomoniasis is plateauing. […] On the health systems side, across many settings, insufficient integration of STI services with existing and routine services (e.g. family planning, maternal health, HIV) at primary care challenges both effective service and continued reliance on vertical programmes contributes to duplication of services and challenges access and overall sustainability. […] For STIs such as hepatitis B, treatment is lifelong and requires regular laboratory monitoring of hepatitis B viral load, which adds to the overall cost of controlling such an STI.

• #1 Sexually Transmitted Infections – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560808/

  Sexually transmitted infections can be bacterial, viral, or parasitic. STIs invade the human body through microscopic abrasions within the mucosal membranes of the penis, vagina, anus, or any other mucosal surfaces. Transmission of STIs can include intravenous drug use and exposure during childbirth or breastfeeding. Organisms invade normal cells and overburden the immune system, creating typical signs and symptoms of the disease. […] Untreated STIs can lead to severe, lifelong health disorders, including infertility, scarring, chronic pain, sexual dysfunction, and cancers.

• #1

  https://www.jci.org/articles/view/61592

  Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) have plagued humans for millennia and can result in chronic disease, pregnancy complications, infertility, and even death. Recent technological advances have led to a better understanding of the causative agents for these infections as well as aspects of their pathogenesis that might represent novel therapeutic targets. […] The articles in this Review Series focus on three sexually transmissible microbes and also describe the microbiome of the female reproductive tract, which may play a leading role in their infectivity and pathogenesis. The authors review the diseases associated with or caused by the pathogens, new discoveries of their pathogenesis, and the contributions of molecular technologies and genomic advances to this knowledge and offer suggestions regarding where our future research needs to focus regarding vaccine development and prevention efforts.

• #2 Sexually Transmitted Infections – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560808/

  Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), previously known as sexually transmitted diseases, involve the transmission of an organism between sexual partners through different routes of sexual contact, either oral, anal, or vaginal. STIs affect all people and can be prevented with proper education and barrier control. The most common STIs include both curable (gonorrhea, chlamydia, syphilis, trichomonas) and treatable (herpes viruses, human papillomavirus, human immunodeficiency virus) conditions. The correlating symptoms generally fall into 2 categories: discharge/dysuria or ulcerative lesions. The likelihood of contracting these conditions depends on the prevalence of the disease, patient behavior, and underlying comorbidities. Early screening and recognition of STIs are key to preventing disease spread, morbidity, and mortality. These infections are more frequently underrecognized and have a higher incidence in medically underserved populations.

• #2 About Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) | STI | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/sti/about/index.html

  A sexually transmitted infection (STI) is a virus, bacteria, fungus, or parasite people can get through sexual contact. […] The primary goal of public health and healthcare is to prevent and treat infections before they develop into disease. […] Many STIs have no symptoms or may only cause mild symptoms, so people can have an infection but not know it. […] STIs pass from one person to another through vaginal, oral, and anal sex. […] STIs are common. Many are curable – all are preventable.

• #2 Sexually transmitted disease pathophysiology – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Sexually_transmitted_disease_pathophysiology

  Many STIs are (more easily) transmitted through the mucous membranes of the penis, vulva, and (less often) the mouth. The visible membrane covering the head of the penis is a mucous membrane, though it produces no mucus (similar to the lips of the mouth). Mucous membranes differ from skin in that they allow certain pathogens into the body. […] This is one reason that the probability of transmitting many infections is far higher from sex than by more casual means of transmission, such as non-sexual contact touching, hugging, shaking hands but it is not the only reason. Although mucous membranes exist in the mouth as in the genitals, many STIs seem to be easier to transmit through oral sex than through deep kissing. […] According to this chart, many infections that are easily transmitted from the mouth to the genitals or from the genitals to the mouth, are much harder to transmit from one mouth to another. With HIV, genital fluids happen to contain much more of the pathogen than saliva. Some infections labeled as STIs can be transmitted by direct skin contact. Herpes simplex and HPV are both examples.

• #2 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/STD-Pathophysiology.aspx

  The causative agents of STDs include bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses. […] This is one of the most common STDs. […] This is a bacterial infection that can be transmitted through any sort of unprotected sex. […] This is a bacterial infection that has several phases of development. […] Herpes is caused by the herpes simplex virus. […] The HIV virus attacks and damages the body’s immune system. […] This is caused by a parasite that is transmitted during unprotected sex. […] Pubic lice can also spread via unprotected sexual contact. […] This is caused by mites that burrow into the skin and can be picked up through sexual or intimate contact or from using clothing and towels in which mites are present.

• #2 Overview of sexually transmitted infections – Summary of relevant conditions | BMJ Best Practice

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/46

  Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also known as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), includes a range of clinical syndromes that can be acquired and transmitted through sexual activity and may be caused by various types of pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites. Early detection and treatment of STIs reduces the spread of infection and may avoid or delay serious complications and consequences. […] Entry of the Treponema pallidum organism into tissues probably occurs via areas of minor abrasion (at genital and mucous membrane sites) that result from trauma during sexual intercourse. Oro-genital sex is an important route of transmission and, therefore, transmission can occur despite the use of condoms. […] Diagnosis is usually straightforward after clinical exam and serological testing. Untreated syphilis facilitates HIV transmission and causes considerable morbidity, such as cardiovascular and neurological disease, as well as a congenital syndrome in newborn babies.

• #2 Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) Pathogens and Syndromes | NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

  https://www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/sti-pathogens-and-syndromes

  Some of the health complications that arise from sexually transmitted infections (STIs) include pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, tubal or ectopic pregnancy, cervical cancer, and perinatal or congenital infections in infants who have been exposed to STIs. […] BV can increase womens biological susceptibility to HIV and other STIs and can cause premature birth or low birthweight if untreated in pregnant women. […] Chlamydia is a common STI that can cause cervicitis in women and urethritis and proctitis in both men and women. […] Gonorrhea is an STI caused by the bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae. […] Hepatitis B and C can be transmitted sexually and account for most of the global hepatitis burden. […] Herpes, caused by herpes simplex virus (HSV), has two subtypes HSV-1 and HSV-2. HSV can be transmitted through sexual contact.

• #2 Sexually transmitted infections

  https://womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/sexually-transmitted-infections

  Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are also called sexually transmitted diseases, or STDs. STIs are usually spread by having vaginal, oral, or anal sex. More than 9 million women in the United States are diagnosed with an STI each year. Women often have more serious health problems from STIs than men, including infertility. […] An STI is an infection passed from one person to another person through sexual contact. An infection is when a bacteria, virus, or parasite enters and grows in or on your body. STIs are also called sexually transmitted diseases, or STDs. […] Some STIs can be cured and some STIs cannot be cured. For those STIs that cannot be cured, there are medicines to manage the symptoms. […] Yes. Each STI causes different health problems for women. Certain types of untreated STIs can cause or lead to: Problems getting pregnant or permanent infertility, Problems during pregnancy and health problems for the unborn baby, Infection in other parts of the body, Organ damage, Certain types of cancer, such as cervical cancer, Death.

• #2 Core Concepts – Sexually Transmitted Infections – Co-Occurring Conditions – National HIV Curriculum

  https://www.hiv.uw.edu/go/co-occurring-conditions/sexually-transmitted-diseases-infections/core-concept/all

  Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) incorporate a variety of clinical syndromes caused by sexually transmitted infections (STIs) that may be acquired and transmitted through sexual activity. Among persons with HIV (and those at increased risk of acquiring HIV), the diagnosis and treatment of STIs is important for three main reasons: (1) STIs are common, (2) HIV can potentially impact the severity and response to treatment of STIs, and (3) development of STIs can impact the acquisition and transmission of HIV. […] Available data suggest that inflammatory sexually transmitted infections enhance transmission of HIV, so routine screening and treatment of gonorrhea may indirectly reduce the risk of HIV transmission to sex partners. […] Screening asymptomatic women for chlamydia has been proven to lower both overall chlamydial infection rates and the rate of pelvic inflammatory disease. Available data also suggest that persons with HIV who have inflammatory STIs have an increased risk of transmitting HIV, primarily through increased shedding of HIV in the genital tract, so routine screening for chlamydia may indirectly reduce the risk of HIV transmission to sex partners.

• #2 Syphilis: Cause, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4622-syphilis

  Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) that spreads when you have vaginal, anal or oral sex with someone who has the infection. A bacteria causes it. Antibiotic medication treats syphilis. Untreated syphilis can lead to serious health problems, including blindness and damage to your brain, heart, eyes and nervous system. […] The bacteria Treponema pallidum causes syphilis. An infected person spreads the bacteria through vaginal, anal or oral sex. The bacteria can enter your body through your anus, vagina, penis, mouth or broken skin. The bacteria continues to spread throughout your body, which can eventually damage certain organs. […] If you dont receive treatment and syphilis progresses to the last stage of the infection, youre at risk for life-threatening complications. Damage to your body gets worse the longer you have syphilis. […] Antibiotics can treat syphilis in the early stages. Syphilis doesnt cause long-term health problems if you receive treatment early. Without treatment, syphilis can cause severe health problems. It can damage your heart, bones, brain, eyes, muscles and nerves, and it can be fatal.

• #2 Sexually transmitted disease (STD) symptoms

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/sexually-transmitted-diseases-stds/in-depth/std-symptoms/art-20047081

  Sexually transmitted diseases are infections spread mainly by contact with genitals or bodily fluids. Also called STDs, STIs or venereal disease, sexually transmitted infections are caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites. […] Some STIs are easy to treat and cure. Others are more complicated. Treatment is important so you don’t spread the disease. Treatment also can help prevent fertility trouble, organ damage or some cancers. […] The only way you know if you have HIV is to be tested. […] Without treatment, the chronic stage of HIV infection may progress to AIDS in about 10 years. AIDS is life-threatening. Symptoms of AIDS can include: […] Without treatment, syphilis bacteria can spread. This can lead to serious internal organ damage and death years after the original infection.

• #2 Pathophysiology of Sexually transmitted diseases | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/pathophysiology-of-sexually-transmitted-diseases/231909724

  Gonorrhea is caused by a bacteria known as Neisseria gonorrhoeae. This bacterium lives on moist mucous membranes in the urethra, vagina, rectum, mouth, throat, and eyes. The infection can spread through contact with the penis, vagina, mouth or anus. Symptoms in men include Burning and pain while urinating, Discharge from the penis (white, green, or yellow in color). […] If not treated, Syphilis can be very dangerous and can cause brain damage and other serious health problems. Clinical manifestations of syphilis include the ulceration of the uro-genital tract, mouth or rectum. If left untreated the symptoms worsen. […] The two most common forms of herpes are caused by infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV). HSV- 1 is typically acquired orally and causes cold sores. HSV-2 is usually acquired during sexual contact and affects the genitals, most common viral STD. Herpes is spread through skin contact with a person infected with the virus.

• #2 Core Concepts – Sexually Transmitted Infections – Co-Occurring Conditions – National HIV Curriculum

  https://www.hiv.uw.edu/go/co-occurring-conditions/sexually-transmitted-diseases-infections/core-concept/all

  Individuals with HIV typically experience the same stages and physical manifestations of syphilis as persons without HIV, although the stages are more likely to overlap, and the symptoms may be more severe. […] The risk of developing neurosyphilis is increased in persons with HIV who have low CD4 counts and high HIV RNA levels. […] Individuals with HIV tend to have more severe and chronic herpes simplex lesions, and more asymptomatic shedding of HSV-2 in the genital tract compared to persons without HIV; suppressive therapy with valacyclovir, acyclovir, or famciclovir, should be considered in persons with HIV. […] Infection with T. vaginalis has been shown to increase HIV transmission risk among both men and women with HIV, as well as to increase the risk of HIV acquisition among women.

• #2 Sexually transmitted infections: What doctors wish patients knew | American Medical Association

  https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/public-health/sexually-transmitted-infections-what-doctors-wish-patients-knew

  For HPV, getting vaccinated to prevent getting most strains of HPV that can cause cancer is incredibly effective not just for preventing cervical cancer in women, but also for throat and rectal cancer in men, Dr. Zucker said, emphasizing that everybody benefits from HPV vaccination. […] PrEP is an incredible intervention, Dr. Zucker noted. If you take one pill once a dayor for men who have sex with men, take a pill before and after sexyou can with almost 100% success prevent HIV. […] It really is an underused intervention for people who may be exposed to HIV, he added. […] Theres too much STI-related stigma. We all need to be more open about sexual health and STIs, talk about it more and encourage people to get tested, Dr. Zucker said. […] You should not hesitate to talk with your doctor about sexually transmitted infections and sex in general, Dr. Zucker said.

• #2 Refocusing on sexually transmitted infections (STIs) to improve reproductive health: a call to further action | Reproductive Health | Full Text

  https://reproductive-health-journal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12978-021-01296-4

  The presence of an STI magnifies the risk of acquiring or transmitting HIV by as much as two to three times. […] Despite many countries having established screening and treatment programmes for STIs, the incidence of most STIs such as chlamydia, gonorrhoea and trichomoniasis is plateauing. […] On the health systems side, across many settings, insufficient integration of STI services with existing and routine services (e.g. family planning, maternal health, HIV) at primary care challenges both effective service and continued reliance on vertical programmes contributes to duplication of services and challenges access and overall sustainability. […] For STIs such as hepatitis B, treatment is lifelong and requires regular laboratory monitoring of hepatitis B viral load, which adds to the overall cost of controlling such an STI.

• #2 Pathophysiology of Sexually transmitted diseases | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/pathophysiology-of-sexually-transmitted-diseases/231909724

  It is caused by Human papilloma virus. There are more than 70 strains. Some cause genital warts — moist, soft, cauliflower-like bumps (within 3 weeks – 8 months). […] It is caused by the single-celled protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis. Can be passed on via damp towels, washcloths, and bathing suits if someone has the parasite. Symptoms typically include inflammation of the Cervix (Cervicitis), Urethra (Urethritis), Vagina (Vaginitis). Discomfort may increase during intercourse and urination.

• #2 Trichomoniasis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/230617-overview

  Despite the immune systems interaction with T vaginalis, infection produces an immunity that is only partially protective at best, and there is little evidence that a healthy immune system prevents infection. […] One study showed no association between trichomoniasis and the use of protease inhibitors or immune status in HIV-infected women. […] Another showed that HIV seropositivity did not alter the rate of infection in males. […] T vaginalis infection is also strongly associated with the presence of other STIs, including gonorrhea, chlamydia, and sexually transmitted viruses. […] T vaginalis infection has even been shown to increase a patients susceptibility to sexually transmitted viruses, including herpes simplex virus, human papillomavirus, and HIV. […] One potential explanation for this is that T vaginalis disrupts the epithelial monolayer, leading to increased passage of the HIV virus.

• #2

  https://www.jci.org/articles/view/61592

  Understanding syphilis infection has been a challenge for researchers, in part, because T. pallidum cannot be cultured or genetically manipulated. Consequently, the publication and analysis of the T. pallidum genome has enabled a better understanding of the molecular basis of syphilis pathogenesis. […] Untangling the pathogenesis and discovering an accurate diagnostic for neurosyphilis is yet another persistent challenge. Invasion of the nervous system by T. pallidum occurs early in infection, within days to weeks of inoculation. […] Understanding of the interplay between innate and cell-mediated immune responses to HSV infection is advancing. The authors review current discoveries in both pathways. […] The authors also stress that although the ideal HSV vaccine will prevent primary infection, a therapeutic vaccine to improve the clinical course in individual patients and potentially decrease HSV shedding and therefore transmission, could have a significant public health benefit.

• #2 Confidence in biological medicines

  https://nibsc.org/science_and_research/bacteriology/stis.aspx

  Sexually transmitted infections (STI) are common worldwide and those caused by bacteria, in particular, are increasing. The most common bacteria causing STIs are Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoea, Mycoplasma genitalium and Treponema pallidium. STIs have varying clinical presentations including urogenital, pharyngeal and rectal involvement, alongside asymptomatic infections, which contribute to the rapid spread of infections. […] Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in sexually transmitted infections (STIs) is a major public health concern, with Neisseria gonorrhoeae being designated as a high priority antibiotic resistant pathogen by the World Health Organization (WHO). Emergence of extensively drug resistant isolates globally have led to treatment failures and thus there is an urgent need for new antibiotics. Treatment failures mostly occur in pharyngeal gonococcal infection, recognised as a common route of transmission and the development of AMR. Treating pharyngeal infection and thus breaking the chain of gonococcal transmission is a key target area in the control efforts.

• #2 Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) Pathogens and Syndromes | NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

  https://www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/sti-pathogens-and-syndromes

  HIV, or human immunodeficiency virus, is the virus that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). […] Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common STI in the US, and often has no symptoms. […] Mycoplasma genitalium is a significant cause of non-gonococcal urethritis and persistent urethritis in men, and is associated with cervicitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, preterm delivery, and infertility in women. […] Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a general term that refers to infection and inflammation of the upper genital tract in women. […] Syphilis is a common STI caused by Treponema pallidum bacteria. […] Trichomoniasis can increase the risk of getting or spreading other sexually transmitted infections. […] Urethritis is a condition that can result from infection with common STI pathogens including N. gonorrhoeae, C. trachomatis, T. vaginalis.

• #2 Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/sexually-transmitted-diseases-stds/symptoms-causes/syc-20351240

  Sexually transmitted infections can be caused by: Bacteria. Gonorrhea, syphilis and chlamydia are examples of STDs that are caused by bacteria. […] Parasites. Trichomoniasis is an STD caused by a parasite. […] Viruses. STDs caused by viruses include human papillomavirus (HPV), the herpes simplex virus, and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS. […] During pregnancy or delivery, some sexually transmitted infections can be passed from mother to infant. Examples are gonorrhea, chlamydia, HIV and syphilis. STIs in infants can cause serious problems or even death. All pregnant women should be screened for STI infections and treated as needed. […] Possible complications of sexually transmitted infections include: Pelvic pain. […] Pregnancy complications. […] Eye inflammation.

• #2 Current and Future Trends in the Laboratory Diagnosis of Sexually Transmitted Infections

  https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/3/1038

  Furthermore, STIs increase the susceptibility to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and its transmission risk due to augmented viral shedding in genital secretions. […] The clinical presentation per se does not always allow a specific STI to be identified. In these cases, etiological diagnosis via laboratory confirmation of the underlying organisms is essential. Other than supporting a more rational use of antimicrobials, laboratory confirmation is pivotal in surveillance (to determine the true scale of the spread of STIs in communities) and in screening (i.e., testing of at-risk people without recognized signs or symptoms). […] Approximately 30 different pathogens can be transmitted sexually, ranging from different bacterial species, viruses, fungi, and parasites, so the choice of the appropriate diagnostic approach can be difficult for physicians.

• #2 Sexually Transmitted Infections – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/sexually-transmitted-infections

  Resistance of STIs in particular gonorrhea to antibiotics has increased rapidly in recent years and has reduced treatment options. The emergence of decreased susceptibility of gonorrhea to the last line treatment option (oral and injectable cephalosporins) together with antimicrobial resistance already shown to penicillins, sulphonamides, tetracyclines, quinolones and macrolides make gonorrhea a multidrug-resistant organism. Antimicrobial resistance for other STIs, though less common, also exists, making prevention and prompt treatment critical. […] Syndromic management is simple, assures rapid, same-day treatment, and avoids expensive or unavailable diagnostic tests. However, this approach misses infections that do not demonstrate any syndromes – the majority of STIs globally.

• #2 21.4: Sexually Transmitted Infections – Biology LibreTexts

  https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Butte_College/BC%3A_BIOL_2_-_Introduction_to_Human_Biology_(Grewal)/Text/21%3A_Disease/21.4%3A_Sexually_Transmitted_Infections

  Syphilis is one of many sexually transmitted infections. A sexually transmitted infection (STI) is an infection caused by a pathogen that spreads mainly through sexual contact. This generally involves direct contact between mucous membranes or their secretions. […] Most of the pathogens that cause STIs are either bacteria or viruses that enter the body through mucous membranes of the reproductive organs and often through the oral and anal mucosa as well. Pathogens that can only infect the body via direct contact between mucous membranes generally cannot spread through non-sexual skin contact, such as touching, hugging, or shaking hands. All sexual behaviors that involve contact between mucous membranes put a person at risk for infection with STIs. […] Most STIs are treatable if not curable, but the correct treatment depends on diagnosing the pathogen that is causing the infection. STIs caused by bacteria can generally be cured with antibiotics, although some bacteria may be evolving antibiotic resistance. STIs caused by viruses cannot be successfully treated or cured with antibiotics. Instead, viral STIs are treated with antiviral drugs, which may help control but usually not eliminate the virus.

• #2

  https://www.jci.org/articles/view/61592

  The articles in this Review Series provide excellent updates of the recent advances in understanding the pathogenesis of some very important and persistent STIs. Furthermore, the review of the vaginal microbiome stresses the importance of considering each pathogen in the broader context of the environment of the individual who it infects.

• #3 Sexually Transmitted Infections – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/sexually-transmitted-infections

  There are more than 30 different bacteria, viruses and parasites known to be transmitted through sexual contact. STIs can have important health consequences, including genital symptoms, pregnancy complications, infertility, enhanced HIV transmission, and psychosocial effects. […] STIs are spread predominantly by sexual contact, including vaginal, anal and oral sex. Some STIs can also be spread through non-sexual means such as via blood or blood products. Many STIs including chlamydia, gonorrhea, primarily hepatitis B, HIV, and syphilis can also be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy and childbirth. […] STIs can have serious consequences beyond the immediate impact of the infection itself. Mother-to-child transmission of STIs can result in stillbirth, neonatal death, low-birth-weight and prematurity, sepsis, pneumonia, neonatal conjunctivitis, and congenital deformities. Some STIs such as gonorrhea and chlamydia are major causes of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and infertility in women. Others STIs like herpes and syphilis can increase the risk of HIV acquisition three-fold or more.

• #3

  https://www.who.int/health-topics/sexually-transmitted-infections

  The emergence of decreased susceptibility of gonorrhoea to extended-spectrum cephalosporins, together with established high-levels of resistance to penicillins, sulphonamides, tetracyclines, quinolones and macrolides make gonorrhoea a multidrug-resistant organism. […] To adequately treat STIs it is important to take the appropriate antimicrobials, with the correct dose and duration for the specific STI to ensure adequate treatment or cure, and to prevent the development of antimicrobial resistance.

• #3

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sexually-transmitted-infections-(stis)

  More than 30 different bacteria, viruses and parasites are known to be transmitted through sexual contact, including vaginal, anal and oral sex. […] STIs can have serious consequences beyond the immediate impact of the infection itself. […] STIs like herpes, gonorrhoea and syphilis can increase the risk of HIV acquisition. […] HPV infection causes cervical and other cancers. […] AMR of STIs in particular gonorrhoea has increased rapidly in recent years and has reduced treatment options. […] AMR for other STIs, like Mycoplasma genitalium, also exist but are not systematically monitored. […] Syndromic management is simple, assures rapid, same-day treatment, and avoids expensive or unavailable diagnostic tests for patients with symptoms. […] However, this approach results in overtreatment and missed treatment as the majority of STIs are asymptomatic. […] To interrupt transmission and prevent re-infection, treating sexual partners is an important component of STI case management.

• #3 Core Concepts – Sexually Transmitted Infections – Co-Occurring Conditions – National HIV Curriculum

  https://www.hiv.uw.edu/go/co-occurring-conditions/sexually-transmitted-diseases-infections/core-concept/all

  Individuals with HIV typically experience the same stages and physical manifestations of syphilis as persons without HIV, although the stages are more likely to overlap, and the symptoms may be more severe. […] The risk of developing neurosyphilis is increased in persons with HIV who have low CD4 counts and high HIV RNA levels. […] Individuals with HIV tend to have more severe and chronic herpes simplex lesions, and more asymptomatic shedding of HSV-2 in the genital tract compared to persons without HIV; suppressive therapy with valacyclovir, acyclovir, or famciclovir, should be considered in persons with HIV. […] Infection with T. vaginalis has been shown to increase HIV transmission risk among both men and women with HIV, as well as to increase the risk of HIV acquisition among women.

• #3 Trichomoniasis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/230617-overview

  Despite the immune systems interaction with T vaginalis, infection produces an immunity that is only partially protective at best, and there is little evidence that a healthy immune system prevents infection. […] One study showed no association between trichomoniasis and the use of protease inhibitors or immune status in HIV-infected women. […] Another showed that HIV seropositivity did not alter the rate of infection in males. […] T vaginalis infection is also strongly associated with the presence of other STIs, including gonorrhea, chlamydia, and sexually transmitted viruses. […] T vaginalis infection has even been shown to increase a patients susceptibility to sexually transmitted viruses, including herpes simplex virus, human papillomavirus, and HIV. […] One potential explanation for this is that T vaginalis disrupts the epithelial monolayer, leading to increased passage of the HIV virus.

• #3 STI-associated syndromes guide: Syndromic management – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/infectious-diseases/sexual-health-sexually-transmitted-infections/canadian-guidelines/sti-associated-syndromes.html

  This guide provides an overview of the management of the following sexually transmitted infection (STI)-associated syndromes: anogenital ulcers, cervicitis, epididymitis, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), proctitis, urethritis and vaginitis. […] These syndromes may be caused by an STI, another infection or have a non-infectious cause. The probability that a syndrome is caused by an STI, a non-sexually transmitted infection or a non-infectious cause varies by syndrome and a person’s risk. […] Although STI may present as a syndrome, many STI are frequently asymptomatic. Screening for sexually transmitted and blood-borne infections (STBBI) permits early detection and treatment of asymptomatic infections, thereby preventing or limiting complications and lessening the potential for transmission.

• #3

• #3 Current and Future Trends in the Laboratory Diagnosis of Sexually Transmitted Infections

  https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/3/1038

  Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) continue to exert a considerable public health and social burden globally, particularly for developing countries. Due to the high prevalence of asymptomatic infections and the limitations of symptom-based (syndromic) diagnosis, confirmation of infection using laboratory tools is essential to choose the most appropriate course of treatment and to screen at-risk groups. Numerous laboratory tests and platforms have been developed for gonorrhea, chlamydia, syphilis, trichomoniasis, genital mycoplasmas, herpesviruses, and human papillomavirus. […] STIs represent a considerable burden for public health, which is difficult to assess because asymptomatic cases are very common. Undetected infections which are not treated can have serious complications, which disproportionately affect women and their newborn babies. Congenital syphilis can cause spontaneous abortion and premature delivery, and the WHO estimates that this condition is responsible for more than 300,000 fetal and neonatal deaths, and for an increased risk of premature death for 215,000 infants each year.

• #3

  https://journals.lww.com/stdjournal/fulltext/2017/04000/point_of_care_sexually_transmitted_infection.4.aspx

  The STAR STI-CTG programmatic meeting reviewed point-of-care sexually transmitted infection diagnostics including current and emerging technologies, clinical and public health benefits, international applications, regulatory considerations, and future developments. […] Early and accurate diagnosis of infection is important to provide patients with timely, appropriate, and effective treatment, thereby, limiting the spread and adverse outcomes of infection. […] Given its low specificity and sensitivity, syndromic management is unlikely to impact the burden of disease. By contrast, the development of highly specific and sensitive POC STI diagnostics could facilitate a departure from syndromic management in favor of etiological management of STIs. […] Such diagnostics could facilitate appropriately targeted treatments because of rapid specific STI detection, sparing unnecessary use of antimicrobials that may contribute to resistance.

• #4 Trichomoniasis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/230617-overview

  Another posits that T vaginalis induces immune activation, specifically lymphocyte activation and replication and cytokine production, leading to increased viral replication in HIV-infected cells. […] Further research is needed to clarify the exact mechanism by which T vaginalis increases the risk for HIV infection.

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