Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Risk Factors of Postpartum Depression

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9711915/

  Postpartum depression (PPD) is a widespread mental health problem and one of the prime causes of maternal suffering and ill health. On a global level, the prevalence of the disorder is about 10 to 15%. Symptoms generally appear within the first four to six weeks, which is the high-risk period. However, it may develop up to one year post-delivery. PPD presents with symptoms of classical depression, including mood fluctuations, bouts of crying, lack of interest in the child, and even thoughts of suicide. PPD not only has adverse effects on the mothers health but also hampers the growth and development of the child. It hampers the formation of a healthy mother-child bond, which in turn may impact feeding practices. The social environment of the infant during the first few months is primarily provided by the mother, and PPD may thus impact the childs development. It also increases the childs susceptibility to malnutrition.

• #1 Postpartum depression – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/postpartum-depression/symptoms-causes/syc-20376617

  There is no single cause of postpartum depression, but genetics, physical changes and emotional issues may play a role. […] Studies show that having a family history of postpartum depression especially if it was major increases the risk of experiencing postpartum depression. […] After childbirth, a dramatic drop in the hormones estrogen and progesterone in your body may contribute to postpartum depression. Other hormones produced by your thyroid gland also may drop sharply which can leave you feeling tired, sluggish and depressed. […] When you’re sleep deprived and overwhelmed, you may have trouble handling even minor problems. You may be anxious about your ability to care for a newborn. You may feel less attractive, struggle with your sense of identity or feel that you’ve lost control over your life. Any of these issues can contribute to postpartum depression.

• #1 Postpartum Depression | ACOG

  https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/postpartum-depression

  Postpartum depression probably is caused by a combination of factors. These factors include the following: […] Changes in hormone levels Levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease sharply in the hours after childbirth. These changes may trigger depression in the same way that smaller changes in hormone levels trigger mood swings and tension before menstrual periods. […] History of depression People who have had depression at any time before, during, or after pregnancy or who currently are being treated for depression have an increased risk of developing postpartum depression. […] Emotional factors Feelings of doubt about pregnancy are common. If the pregnancy is not planned or is not wanted, this can affect the way a couple feels about the pregnancy and the fetus. Even when a pregnancy is planned, it can take a long time to adjust to the idea of having a new baby. Parents of babies who are sick or who need to stay in the hospital may feel sad, angry, or guilty.

• #1 Perinatal Depression – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519070/

  Obstetric risk factors: A high-risk pregnancy, hospitalization during pregnancy, and traumatic events during childbirth that include emergency cesarean section, in-utero meconium passage, umbilical cord prolapse, preterm or low birth weight infant, and low hemoglobin. […] Social factors: Lack of social support, domestic violence in the form of spousal abuse (eg, sexual, physical, or verbal), smoking, and young maternal age during pregnancy. […] Lifestyle: Poor eating habits, decreased physical activity and exercise, vitamin B6 deficiency (via its conversion to tryptophan and, later on, serotonin, which, in turn, affects mood), and lack of sleep; exercise decreases low self-esteem caused by depression and increases endogenous endorphins and opioids, which brings positive effects on mental health and improves self-confidence and problem-solving capacity. […] Family history of psychiatric disorders: Recent studies have shown that a family history of psychiatric disorders is a risk factor for developing perinatal depression.

• #1 Postpartum Depression: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment | Hiwell

  https://www.hiwellapp.com/en/blog/postpartum-depression-symptoms-causes-and-treatment

  Given that these biological changes occur in every woman who gives birth, but not every woman who gives birth develops postpartum depression, it has been determined that psychosocial factors play a role in this condition. It is well known that factors such as a person’s stress, interpersonal relationships, and social support systems are effective. Postpartum social support is especially important for mothers, and if it is not provided, the mother’s stress and anxiety will skyrocket. There is a social support lack for mothers suffering from postpartum depression.

• #1 Postnatal depression (PND) | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/postnatal-depression-pnd

  Now parents can develop postnatal depression (PND) within the first few months after the arrival of their newborn baby. […] The exact causes of PND are not known, but the enormous physical, emotional and social changes involved in becoming a parent seem to play a significant role. […] The exact causes of PND are still not known. Some contributing factors might include: […] Physical changes even a relatively easy birth is an overwhelming experience for a woman’s body. In addition, the sudden drop in pregnancy hormones affects brain chemicals (neurotransmitters). Broken sleep and exhaustion can also contribute to depression. […] Emotional changes adapting to parenthood is daunting. A new mother has to deal with the constant demands of her baby, a different dynamic in her relationships and the loss of independence. Such changes are hard at the best of times, but are even more overwhelming when physically recovering from childbirth and coping with broken sleep. […] Social changes society puts lots of demands and expectations on a new mother, which a woman may feel she needs to live up to. She may find herself less able to keep up contact with her friends and workmates. Adapting to living on one wage may also be difficult.

• #1 Postpartum Depression: Symptoms, Causes, Risks, Types, Tests, Professional and Self-Care

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/postpartum-depression

  Theres no one cause of postpartum depression, but these physical and emotional issues may contribute: Hormones. The dramatic drop in estrogen and progesterone after you give birth may play a role. Other hormones produced by your thyroid gland also may drop sharply and make you feel tired, sluggish and depressed. […] Lack of sleep. When you’re sleep-deprived and overwhelmed, you may have trouble handling even minor problems. […] Anxiety. You may be anxious about your ability to care for a newborn. […] Self-image. You may feel less attractive, struggle with your sense of identity, or feel that you’ve lost control over your life. Any of these issues can contribute to postpartum depression.

• #1 Department of Health | Maternal and Child Health | About Perinatal Mood Disorders

  https://www.nj.gov/health/fhs/maternalchild/mentalhealth/about-disorders/

  What Causes Perinatal Mood Disorders? The exact causes are unknown. Here are some factors that may contribute: […] Ten percent of women experience depression during pregnancy and one in every eight to 10 women experiences postpartum depression (PPD) within the first year after childbirth, miscarriage or stillbirth. […] Risk factors include previous trauma, such as rape or sexual abuse.

• #1 Male Postpartum Depression

  https://www.unitypoint.org/news-and-articles/male-postpartum-depression–unitypoint-health

  Male postpartum depression is also known as paternal postnatal depression (PPND). […] We know that 50 percent of men whose partner has postpartum depression, have an increased risk of postpartum depression themselves. […] With male postpartum depression, research suggests there’s a hormone change in men in the form of changes to testosterone levels when baby is born. […] A few other differences between male postpartum depression and female postpartum depression: 1 in 10 men experience postpartum depression compared to 1 in 7 women. […] Male postpartum depression is a genuine and often overlooked condition that can significantly impact new fathers and their families.

• #1 Postpartum Depression: Overview, Risk Factors for Postpartum Mood Disorders, Screening for Postpartum Mood Disorders

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/271662-overview

  Signs and symptoms of postpartum depression are clinically indistinguishable from major depression that occurs in women at other times. […] Failure to treat or inadequate treatment may result in deterioration of the relationship between the mother and the baby or the partner. […] It can also increase the risk of morbidity in both mother and infant, as well as compromise the infant’s social and educational development.

• #1 Postpartum Depression: Etiology, Treatment, and Consequences for Maternal Care

  https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/14/9/865

  PPD may also be associated with different sensitivity to hormonal fluctuations. […] Biological theories have demonstrated that other changes, such as those of gonadal hormones but also neuroactive steroid levels after birth, altered cytokines and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis hormones fluctuations, acid-altered fats, and oxytocin and arginine vasopressin levels are involved in the production of PPD onset in predisposed women. […] Biological factors and social factors create intertwined rings that make women susceptible to PPD by affecting each other. […] The genetic risk for PPD may have a component that overlaps with the genetic risk for major depressive disorder (MDD) and/or bipolar disorder and, in addition, a component that is specific to PPD itself. […] The aim of this review was to cover a broad range of issues in PPD, such as risk factors, with particular attention to ones that may be useful to identify at-risk pregnant and postpartum women; psychiatric diagnosis and biological diagnosis; clinical manifestations of PPD; genetic background associated with PPD; psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy trials, with an emphasis on therapy modifications that are specific to PPD.

• #2 Perinatal Depression – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519070/

  Perinatal depression stems from a combination of hormonal changes, genetic predisposition, and environmental factors, yet up to 50% of cases remain undiagnosed due to the stigma surrounding the condition and patients’ reluctance to disclose symptoms. […] The exact cause of perinatal depression and postpartum blues is not fully understood, but potential underlying etiologies contributing to the development of these conditions include hormonal changes, genetic predisposition, and psychosocial stressors. […] In a meta-analysis of 33 studies, gestational diabetes, having boy infants, a history of depression, and epidural anesthesia use were noted as risk factors for perinatal depression. […] Factors associated with a high risk of developing perinatal depression or postpartum blues include: Psychological: A personal history of depression and anxiety, premenstrual syndrome, a negative attitude towards the baby, the reluctance of the baby’s sex, and a history of sexual abuse.

• #2 Postpartum Depression: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9312-postpartum-depression

  Postpartum depression (PPD) is a type of depression that happens after you give birth. Postpartum depression doesn’t just affect the birth mother. It can affect surrogates and adoptive parents, too. It’s common to experience hormonal, physical, emotional, financial and social changes after having a baby. These changes can cause symptoms of postpartum depression. […] More research is needed to determine the link between the rapid drop in hormones after delivery and depression. The levels of estrogen and progesterone increase tenfold during pregnancy but drop sharply after delivery. By three days postpartum, levels of these hormones drop back to pre-pregnancy levels. […] In addition to these chemical changes, the social and psychological changes associated with having a baby increase your risk of postpartum depression. Examples of these changes include physical changes to your body, lack of sleep, worries about parenting or changes to your relationships.

• #2 Perinatal Depression – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519070/

  Obstetric risk factors: A high-risk pregnancy, hospitalization during pregnancy, and traumatic events during childbirth that include emergency cesarean section, in-utero meconium passage, umbilical cord prolapse, preterm or low birth weight infant, and low hemoglobin. […] Social factors: Lack of social support, domestic violence in the form of spousal abuse (eg, sexual, physical, or verbal), smoking, and young maternal age during pregnancy. […] Lifestyle: Poor eating habits, decreased physical activity and exercise, vitamin B6 deficiency (via its conversion to tryptophan and, later on, serotonin, which, in turn, affects mood), and lack of sleep; exercise decreases low self-esteem caused by depression and increases endogenous endorphins and opioids, which brings positive effects on mental health and improves self-confidence and problem-solving capacity. […] Family history of psychiatric disorders: Recent studies have shown that a family history of psychiatric disorders is a risk factor for developing perinatal depression.

• #2 Postpartum Major Depression | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2010/1015/p926.html

  Postpartum major depression is a disorder that is often unrecognized and must be distinguished from baby blues. Antenatal depressive symptoms, a history of major depressive disorder, or previous postpartum major depression significantly increase the risk of postpartum major depression. […] The etiology of postpartum major depression remains unclear. Some women may be sensitive to hormonal changes during reproductive events, specifically menses, pregnancy, and menopause. The drop in hormone levels after delivery may play a role. An association between cortisol levels and depressive symptoms during pregnancy and postpartum has been reported. Major depression may also begin during pregnancy and continue into the postpartum period. […] The strongest risk factor is a history of postpartum major depression with a previous pregnancy. Studies report that 25 to 50 percent of women who experience postpartum major depression will have a recurrence after a subsequent pregnancy. Other important risk factors include antenatal depressive symptoms (relative risk [RR] = 5.6), a history of major depressive disorder (RR = 4.5), poor social support (RR = 2.6), major life events or stressors during pregnancy (RR = 2.5), and a family history of postpartum major depression (RR = 2.4). Women with gestational diabetes and who give birth to multiples may also be at higher risk of postpartum major depression. […] If left untreated, postpartum major depression can lead to poor mother-infant bonding, delays in infant growth and development, and an increased risk of anxiety or depressive symptoms in the infant later in life.

• #2 Postnatal depression (PND) | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/postnatal-depression-pnd

  Now parents can develop postnatal depression (PND) within the first few months after the arrival of their newborn baby. […] The exact causes of PND are not known, but the enormous physical, emotional and social changes involved in becoming a parent seem to play a significant role. […] The exact causes of PND are still not known. Some contributing factors might include: […] Physical changes even a relatively easy birth is an overwhelming experience for a woman’s body. In addition, the sudden drop in pregnancy hormones affects brain chemicals (neurotransmitters). Broken sleep and exhaustion can also contribute to depression. […] Emotional changes adapting to parenthood is daunting. A new mother has to deal with the constant demands of her baby, a different dynamic in her relationships and the loss of independence. Such changes are hard at the best of times, but are even more overwhelming when physically recovering from childbirth and coping with broken sleep. […] Social changes society puts lots of demands and expectations on a new mother, which a woman may feel she needs to live up to. She may find herself less able to keep up contact with her friends and workmates. Adapting to living on one wage may also be difficult.

• #2 Postpartum Depression: Symptoms, Causes, Risks, Types, Tests, Professional and Self-Care

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/postpartum-depression

  Theres no one cause of postpartum depression, but these physical and emotional issues may contribute: Hormones. The dramatic drop in estrogen and progesterone after you give birth may play a role. Other hormones produced by your thyroid gland also may drop sharply and make you feel tired, sluggish and depressed. […] Lack of sleep. When you’re sleep-deprived and overwhelmed, you may have trouble handling even minor problems. […] Anxiety. You may be anxious about your ability to care for a newborn. […] Self-image. You may feel less attractive, struggle with your sense of identity, or feel that you’ve lost control over your life. Any of these issues can contribute to postpartum depression.

• #2 Causes of Postpartum Depression – Why Causes PPD To Develop?

  https://www.postpartumdepression.org/postpartum-depression/causes/

  Sleep deprivation may also play a significant role in causing postpartum depression. Following childbirth, women often do not get enough sleep due to the new responsibilities of caring for their babies. […] Other causes of postpartum depression can be attributed to a womans emotional and mental state after giving birth and in the weeks that follow. […] The postpartum period can be an incredibly stressful time, especially for new mothers who are still adjusting to their new lives and responsibilities. […] Experiencing birth or labor trauma can also trigger PPD to develop, as these events can leave women with painful memories and associations. […] Stressful life events such as losing a job or the death of a loved one may also encourage the onset of PPD. […] Identifying a singular cause of postpartum depression is difficult, so its better to isolate specific factors that put women at a greater risk of developing PPD.

• #2 Postpartum Depression Causes, Symptoms, Treatments | Evernorth

  https://www.evernorth.com/articles/postpartum-depression

  In actuality, a diagnosis of PPD increases a patient’s risk level to 30% for subsequent pregnancies. […] PPD is commonly thought of as a condition that only new mothers suffer from, but about 10% of new fathers also experience PPD as a result of changes in their hormone levels, new relationship dynamics and increased feelings of pressure or guilt associated with parenthood.

• #2 Postpartum depression

  https://womenshealth.gov/mental-health/mental-health-conditions/postpartum-depression

  Researchers believe postpartum depression in a mother can affect the healthy development of her child which can cause: Delays in language development and problems learning, Problems with mother-child bonding, Behavior problems, More crying or agitation, Shorter height and higher risk of obesity in pre-schoolers, Problems dealing with stress and adjusting to school and other social situations.

• #2 Understanding Postpartum Depression | Women’s Health

  https://www.tcrh.org/womens-health-services/understanding-postpartum-depression

  Postpartum depression and anxiety are the No. 1 complication of having a baby. […] Postpartum depression describes a spectrum of mood disorders that occur in 15 to 20 percent of postpartum patients. Many of these mothers were depressed during pregnancy or had a history of depression or anxiety. […] There is no single cause or reason a woman has postpartum depression/anxiety. Postpartum depression/anxiety results from a combination of biologic, hormonal, environmental and psychological factors.

• #3 Postpartum Depression Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments

  https://www.upmc.com/services/womens-health/conditions/postpartum-depression

  Postpartum depression is the most common complication of childbirth. Any person who has had a baby, miscarriage, stillbirth, or termination can get postpartum depression. It affects first-time parents as well as those with large families. […] Although the exact cause of PPD remains unclear, several factors are likely involved. Changing family roles, new baby stress, marital strife, and a family history of mental illness can all contribute to postpartum depression. […] Physiological changes play a role, too. After childbirth, the levels of the hormones estrogen and progesterone in the brain quickly drop. This dramatic shift leads to chemical changes in the brain that may trigger mood swings. […] Also, many new parents find it difficult to get the rest they need after giving birth. Sleep deprivation can lead to body pain and exhaustion, which also may contribute to the symptoms of postpartum depression.

• #3 SciELO Brazil – Postpartum depression: we know the risks, can it be prevented? Postpartum depression: we know the risks, can it be prevented?

  https://www.scielo.br/j/rbp/a/zpYNMyNLHGbyJNcj7fcmHjj/

  Although a few studies show promising results, more rigorous trials are required. […] The abounding negative evidence in the literature indicates that postpartum depression cannot be easily prevented, yet. […] Current thinking suggests that some women have a particular sensitivity to hormonal changes, beginning at the onset of menarche, which increases their vulnerability to psychological, environmental, and physiological stressors during the reproductive years. […] In susceptible women, these stressors trigger a change from an already vulnerable state to the manifestation of a female-specific mood disorder at times of high hormonal fluctuations such as parturition. […] The most intriguing evidence for a significant hormonal role has been demonstrated by an experiment that simulated supraphysiological levels of estradiol and progesterone in late pregnancy and subsequent withdrawal (i.e., parturition), in women with or without a history of PPD.

• #3 Postpartum Depression: Overview, Risk Factors for Postpartum Mood Disorders, Screening for Postpartum Mood Disorders

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/271662-overview

  Furthermore, women with a previous history of postpartum depression or psychosis have a risk of recurrence of up to 90%. […] Postpartum depression is more persistent and debilitating than postpartum blues, often interfering with the mother’s ability to care for herself or her child. […] The postpartum period is the most vulnerable time for a woman to develop psychiatric illness with postpartum depression occurring in 10-15% of women in the general population. […] Women at highest risk for postpartum depression are those with a personal history of depression, who have suffered a previous episode of postpartum depression, or who have experienced depression during pregnancy. […] In addition to a history of depression, recent stressful life events and daily stressors, such as childcare, lack of social support (especially from the partner), unintended pregnancy, and insurance status, have been validated as risk factors.

• #3 Postpartum Depression Statistics | Research and Data On PPD (2024)

  https://www.postpartumdepression.org/resources/statistics/

  Postpartum depression is a condition that takes many forms and can remain undiagnosed for long periods of time. […] There is no known cause of postpartum depression. Instead, there are a number of risk factors such as health problems occurring during labor and a lack of social support that increase your likelihood of developing it. […] Women with a history of depression, anxiety disorders, or serious mood disorders are 30% to 35% more likely to develop postpartum depression. […] If a pregnant woman has experienced postpartum depression with previous births, she has an increased risk (10% to 50%) of experiencing it again. […] It is believed that 50% of women who develop postpartum depression begin experiencing symptoms during pregnancy. This proves the case for early symptom recognition, depression screening, and access to treatment options.

• #3 Perinatal Depression – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519070/

  Perinatal depression stems from a combination of hormonal changes, genetic predisposition, and environmental factors, yet up to 50% of cases remain undiagnosed due to the stigma surrounding the condition and patients’ reluctance to disclose symptoms. […] The exact cause of perinatal depression and postpartum blues is not fully understood, but potential underlying etiologies contributing to the development of these conditions include hormonal changes, genetic predisposition, and psychosocial stressors. […] In a meta-analysis of 33 studies, gestational diabetes, having boy infants, a history of depression, and epidural anesthesia use were noted as risk factors for perinatal depression. […] Factors associated with a high risk of developing perinatal depression or postpartum blues include: Psychological: A personal history of depression and anxiety, premenstrual syndrome, a negative attitude towards the baby, the reluctance of the baby’s sex, and a history of sexual abuse.

• #3 Postnatal depression – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/post-natal-depression/overview/

  Postnatal depression is a type of depression that many parents experience after having a baby. […] The cause of postnatal depression is not completely clear. […] There are a number of things that may make you more likely to have postnatal depression. These include: a history of mental health problems, particularly depression, earlier in life; a history of mental health problems during pregnancy; having no close family or friends to support you; a difficult relationship with your partner; recent stressful life events, such as a bereavement; physical or psychological trauma, such as domestic violence. […] Even if you do not have any of these, having a baby is a life-changing event that can sometimes trigger depression.

• #3

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/postnatal-depression/causes/

  Postnatal depression is thought to be caused by a number of things working together. […] If you have a history of depression or had it in pregnancy before, you have a higher chance of experiencing postnatal depression. […] You may be more likely to suffer depression after having a baby if you do not have support from your partner or family. […] This sense of loss can be difficult to cope with. It can contribute to the development of depression. […] The birth of a baby can also have a huge impact on your relationships with your partner, family and friends. This can sometimes cause enormous strain. […] Recent life events, such as bereavement or serious illness, may mean that you were stressed before your baby was born. […] Media and online images can make you feel that new mothers should be attractive, energetic and live in a perfect home with a supportive partner.

• #3 Risk Factors of Postpartum Depression

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9711915/

  The identification of agents posing and elevating the risk of developing PPD in mothers has been the subject of extensive research. A literature review and meta-analysis carried out by Zhao et al. found 48 articles identifying factors having a positive correlation with the development of postpartum depression. These include delivery by cesarean section, gestational diabetes, violence and abuse, socioeconomic status, immigration, lack of spousal and societal support, past depressive history, factors causing depression, unwanted pregnancy, obese and overweight mothers, vitamin D deficiency, diet and nutrition, parity, infant-related factors, sleep-related factors in the postpartum period, and postpartum anemia. […] Numerous factors have thus been implicated as being positively correlated with PPD across various studies. As described by Klainin et al., the risk factors in this review have been classified into sociodemographic, physical and biological, psychological, obstetric and pediatric, and cultural factors. […] A previous history of depression or psychiatric illness, depressive symptoms during pregnancy, and a low level of spousal and social support were the most powerful factors. Other significant factors include complications during pregnancy, low socioeconomic status, and stressful life events.

• #3 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Causes-of-Postnatal-Depression-in-Fathers.aspx

  Paternal postnatal depression (PPND) is a real but underdiagnosed entity. This may be due to the masculine reluctance to talk about their feelings, to admit failure in their perceived roles as fathers or husbands, or the lack of support. […] Paternal PND is more insidious in onset than in mothers. Its incidence is lowest after a child is born, possibly because of minimal involvement in caring for the baby at this time, in addition to the feelings of love and pride associated with having a new baby. […] Many studies suggest that lack of support from the female partner is associated with a higher risk of paternal PND. This may be because of failure to return to pre-pregnancy levels of sexual activity, maternal PND, and increased stress to provide financial and domestic support within the family.

• #3 Postpartum Depression: Overview, Risk Factors for Postpartum Mood Disorders, Screening for Postpartum Mood Disorders

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/271662-overview

  Signs and symptoms of postpartum depression are clinically indistinguishable from major depression that occurs in women at other times. […] Failure to treat or inadequate treatment may result in deterioration of the relationship between the mother and the baby or the partner. […] It can also increase the risk of morbidity in both mother and infant, as well as compromise the infant’s social and educational development.

• #4 Postpartum Major Depression | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2010/1015/p926.html

  Postpartum major depression is a disorder that is often unrecognized and must be distinguished from baby blues. Antenatal depressive symptoms, a history of major depressive disorder, or previous postpartum major depression significantly increase the risk of postpartum major depression. […] The etiology of postpartum major depression remains unclear. Some women may be sensitive to hormonal changes during reproductive events, specifically menses, pregnancy, and menopause. The drop in hormone levels after delivery may play a role. An association between cortisol levels and depressive symptoms during pregnancy and postpartum has been reported. Major depression may also begin during pregnancy and continue into the postpartum period. […] The strongest risk factor is a history of postpartum major depression with a previous pregnancy. Studies report that 25 to 50 percent of women who experience postpartum major depression will have a recurrence after a subsequent pregnancy. Other important risk factors include antenatal depressive symptoms (relative risk [RR] = 5.6), a history of major depressive disorder (RR = 4.5), poor social support (RR = 2.6), major life events or stressors during pregnancy (RR = 2.5), and a family history of postpartum major depression (RR = 2.4). Women with gestational diabetes and who give birth to multiples may also be at higher risk of postpartum major depression. […] If left untreated, postpartum major depression can lead to poor mother-infant bonding, delays in infant growth and development, and an increased risk of anxiety or depressive symptoms in the infant later in life.

• #4 Postpartum Depression Statistics | Research and Data On PPD (2024)

  https://www.postpartumdepression.org/resources/statistics/

  Postpartum depression is a condition that takes many forms and can remain undiagnosed for long periods of time. […] There is no known cause of postpartum depression. Instead, there are a number of risk factors such as health problems occurring during labor and a lack of social support that increase your likelihood of developing it. […] Women with a history of depression, anxiety disorders, or serious mood disorders are 30% to 35% more likely to develop postpartum depression. […] If a pregnant woman has experienced postpartum depression with previous births, she has an increased risk (10% to 50%) of experiencing it again. […] It is believed that 50% of women who develop postpartum depression begin experiencing symptoms during pregnancy. This proves the case for early symptom recognition, depression screening, and access to treatment options.

• #4 Postpartum depression: Symptoms, causes, and diagnosis

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/237109

  In the United States, around 1 in 160 pregnancies end in stillbirth, after 20 weeks of pregnancy. This may increase the risk of postpartum depression. […] Experts report that 14.8% of people who experience pregnancy loss have postpartum depression, compared with 8.3% of those with regular deliveries.

• #4 Postpartum Depression: Symptoms, Causes, Risks, Types, Tests, Professional and Self-Care

  https://www.webmd.com/depression/postpartum-depression

  Postpartum depression is linked to chemical, social, and psychological changes that happen when having a baby. […] The chemical changes involve a rapid drop in hormones after delivery. The actual link between this drop and depression is still not clear. […] In addition to these chemical changes, the social and psychological changes of having a baby create an increased risk of depression. […] Some things that can raise the chances of postpartum depression include: a history of depression prior to becoming pregnant, or during pregnancy; age at time of pregnancy (the younger you are, the higher the chances); ambivalence about the pregnancy; children (the more you have, the more likely you are to be depressed in a later pregnancy); family history of mood disorders; going through an extremely stressful event, like a job loss or health crisis; having a child with special needs or health problems; having twins or triplets; having a history of depression or premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD); limited social support; living alone; marital conflict.

• #4 Postpartum Depression (PPD): Meaning, Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-postpartum-depression-4847104

  Normal fluctuations in hormonal levels during pregnancy and after delivery can lead to changes in sleep patterns. And these interruptions in sleep can contribute to the onset of postpartum depression. […] One study found that difficulty falling asleep during the first three months after delivery can be a risk factor.

• #4 Postpartum depression – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/postpartum-depression/symptoms-causes/syc-20376617

  There is no single cause of postpartum depression, but genetics, physical changes and emotional issues may play a role. […] Studies show that having a family history of postpartum depression especially if it was major increases the risk of experiencing postpartum depression. […] After childbirth, a dramatic drop in the hormones estrogen and progesterone in your body may contribute to postpartum depression. Other hormones produced by your thyroid gland also may drop sharply which can leave you feeling tired, sluggish and depressed. […] When you’re sleep deprived and overwhelmed, you may have trouble handling even minor problems. You may be anxious about your ability to care for a newborn. You may feel less attractive, struggle with your sense of identity or feel that you’ve lost control over your life. Any of these issues can contribute to postpartum depression.

• #4 Psychiatry.org – What is Perinatal Depression (formerly Postpartum)?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/peripartum-depression/what-is-peripartum-depression

  Research suggests that rapid changes in sex and stress hormones and thyroid hormone levels during pregnancy and after delivery have a strong effect on moods and may contribute to perinatal depression. Other factors include physical changes related to pregnancy, having a child in the NICU, medical complications for mother/birthing individual or child, changes in relationships and at work, worries about parenting, and lack of sleep. […] One of the known risk factors for perinatal depression is a history of trauma or adverse life events. Latina women are more likely to have experienced adverse or traumatic events (Guintivano et al, 2018b; Howell et al, 2005).

• #4 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Causes-of-Postnatal-Depression-in-Fathers.aspx

  Level of many hormones, including the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen, the stress hormone cortisol, and bonding hormones such as vasopressin and prolactin, fluctuate during the postpartum period. These may contribute to the risk of PND. […] The presence of depression in the mother is consistently linked to a 2.5 fold increase in the rate of depression in fathers 6 weeks after childbirth. This is the most closely associated risk factor, and men whose wives suffer from PND have a 24 to 50 percent incidence of depression themselves. […] Other factors include: The need to earn more to provide for a new baby and possibly a depressed or sick wife, Lack of sleep, Loss of free time for recreation, family dates, and building relationships with the partner, Stress from having to care for sick or fussy babies, Fear of inadvertently harming the baby, Fear about the baby’s health, Lack of social support, Lack of know-how with respect to baby care, Increased need to help out at home.

• #4 Risk Factors of Postpartum Depression

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9711915/

  Postpartum depression (PPD) is a widespread mental health problem and one of the prime causes of maternal suffering and ill health. On a global level, the prevalence of the disorder is about 10 to 15%. Symptoms generally appear within the first four to six weeks, which is the high-risk period. However, it may develop up to one year post-delivery. PPD presents with symptoms of classical depression, including mood fluctuations, bouts of crying, lack of interest in the child, and even thoughts of suicide. PPD not only has adverse effects on the mothers health but also hampers the growth and development of the child. It hampers the formation of a healthy mother-child bond, which in turn may impact feeding practices. The social environment of the infant during the first few months is primarily provided by the mother, and PPD may thus impact the childs development. It also increases the childs susceptibility to malnutrition.

• #4 Causes of Postpartum Depression – Why Causes PPD To Develop?

  https://www.postpartumdepression.org/postpartum-depression/causes/

  Postpartum depression (PPD) is a form of major depression and mental disorder that affects women after childbirth. It can last for up to the first year. […] Instead, medical professionals believe that postpartum depression can have multiple causes. Each woman who develops this type of depression has risk factors that make her more susceptible to it. […] Women with postpartum depression should understand that it is not the result of something they did or did not do. In other words, it is never the new moms fault that postpartum depression develops. […] Most potential causes of postpartum depression can be placed into one of two categories: physical causes or mental and emotional causes. […] Many medical experts believe that postpartum depression stems from drastic hormonal changes that happen during and after childbirth.

• #5 Postpartum depression – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/postpartum-depression/symptoms-causes/syc-20376617

  There is no single cause of postpartum depression, but genetics, physical changes and emotional issues may play a role. […] Studies show that having a family history of postpartum depression especially if it was major increases the risk of experiencing postpartum depression. […] After childbirth, a dramatic drop in the hormones estrogen and progesterone in your body may contribute to postpartum depression. Other hormones produced by your thyroid gland also may drop sharply which can leave you feeling tired, sluggish and depressed. […] When you’re sleep deprived and overwhelmed, you may have trouble handling even minor problems. You may be anxious about your ability to care for a newborn. You may feel less attractive, struggle with your sense of identity or feel that you’ve lost control over your life. Any of these issues can contribute to postpartum depression.

• #5 Postpartum Depression: Overview, Risk Factors for Postpartum Mood Disorders, Screening for Postpartum Mood Disorders

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/271662-overview

  Although predicting who is at risk for postpartum psychiatric illness is difficult, hormonal, psychosocial, and biologic factors are considered to be risk factors for postpartum mood disorders. […] Women who report inadequate social supports, marital discord or dissatisfaction, or recent negative life events, such as a death in the family, financial difficulties, or loss of employment, are more likely to experience postpartum depression. […] Women with a previous history of depression, a family history of a mood disorder, or depression during the current pregnancy are at increased risk for postpartum depression. […] A meta-analysis by Zacher Kjeldsen et al found that women who have a family history of any psychiatric disorder have almost two times the risk of postpartum depression as do women without such a history.

• #5 Postpartum Depression: Causes, Risks, and Prevention

  https://www.caryobgyn.com/postpartum-depression-causes-risk-factors-and-prevention-strategies/

  History of depression or bipolar disorder: Women who have previously had clinical depression are much more likely to develop PPD. […] Severe PMS: Because postpartum depression seems partly triggered by hormonal changes after childbirth (and possibly after weaning), many experts believe that previous hormonal sensitivity raises a red flag. PPD risk may increase in women with a history of severe PMS, or in women who experienced negative mood changes while taking birth control pills.

• #5 Postpartum Depression Statistics | Research and Data On PPD (2024)

  https://www.postpartumdepression.org/resources/statistics/

  While postpartum depression can affect people of all backgrounds, people in poverty or who have poor access to education and health care may run a higher risk. […] Data suggests that 25% of people with a lower income level and lack access to quality health care and education will develop postpartum depression. […] One study found that new moms of low socioeconomic status were 11 times more likely to develop postpartum depression symptoms than women of higher socioeconomic status.

• #5 Perinatal Depression – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519070/

  Obstetric risk factors: A high-risk pregnancy, hospitalization during pregnancy, and traumatic events during childbirth that include emergency cesarean section, in-utero meconium passage, umbilical cord prolapse, preterm or low birth weight infant, and low hemoglobin. […] Social factors: Lack of social support, domestic violence in the form of spousal abuse (eg, sexual, physical, or verbal), smoking, and young maternal age during pregnancy. […] Lifestyle: Poor eating habits, decreased physical activity and exercise, vitamin B6 deficiency (via its conversion to tryptophan and, later on, serotonin, which, in turn, affects mood), and lack of sleep; exercise decreases low self-esteem caused by depression and increases endogenous endorphins and opioids, which brings positive effects on mental health and improves self-confidence and problem-solving capacity. […] Family history of psychiatric disorders: Recent studies have shown that a family history of psychiatric disorders is a risk factor for developing perinatal depression.

• #5 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Causes-of-Postnatal-Depression-in-Fathers.aspx

  Level of many hormones, including the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen, the stress hormone cortisol, and bonding hormones such as vasopressin and prolactin, fluctuate during the postpartum period. These may contribute to the risk of PND. […] The presence of depression in the mother is consistently linked to a 2.5 fold increase in the rate of depression in fathers 6 weeks after childbirth. This is the most closely associated risk factor, and men whose wives suffer from PND have a 24 to 50 percent incidence of depression themselves. […] Other factors include: The need to earn more to provide for a new baby and possibly a depressed or sick wife, Lack of sleep, Loss of free time for recreation, family dates, and building relationships with the partner, Stress from having to care for sick or fussy babies, Fear of inadvertently harming the baby, Fear about the baby’s health, Lack of social support, Lack of know-how with respect to baby care, Increased need to help out at home.

• #5 Postpartum depression – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/postpartum-depression/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20376623

  Postpartum depression is often treated with psychotherapy also called talk therapy or mental health counseling medicine or both. […] Brexanolone slows the rapid drop of certain hormones after childbirth that may lead to postpartum depression. […] With appropriate treatment, postpartum depression symptoms usually improve. In some cases, postpartum depression can continue and become long term, which is called chronic depression. […] Postpartum psychosis requires immediate treatment, usually in the hospital. Treatment may include: […] Your health care provider may recommend an antidepressant. If you’re breastfeeding, any medicine you take will enter your breast milk. However, most antidepressants can be used during breastfeeding with little risk of side effects for your baby. Work with your provider to weigh the potential risks and benefits of specific antidepressants.

• #6 Postpartum depression | March of Dimes

  https://www.marchofdimes.org/find-support/topics/postpartum/postpartum-depression

  Changing hormone levels after pregnancy. Hormones are chemicals in your body. Some help control your emotions and mood. During pregnancy, your body has higher levels of the hormones estrogen and progesterone. But in the first 24 hours after giving birth, these hormones quickly go back to their normal levels. This rapid drop in hormone levels may lead to PPD. […] Low levels of thyroid hormones. The thyroid is a gland in your neck that helps your body use and store energy from food.

• #6 Postpartum Depression: Etiology, Treatment, and Consequences for Maternal Care

  https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4418/14/9/865

  PPD may also be associated with different sensitivity to hormonal fluctuations. […] Biological theories have demonstrated that other changes, such as those of gonadal hormones but also neuroactive steroid levels after birth, altered cytokines and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis hormones fluctuations, acid-altered fats, and oxytocin and arginine vasopressin levels are involved in the production of PPD onset in predisposed women. […] Biological factors and social factors create intertwined rings that make women susceptible to PPD by affecting each other. […] The genetic risk for PPD may have a component that overlaps with the genetic risk for major depressive disorder (MDD) and/or bipolar disorder and, in addition, a component that is specific to PPD itself. […] The aim of this review was to cover a broad range of issues in PPD, such as risk factors, with particular attention to ones that may be useful to identify at-risk pregnant and postpartum women; psychiatric diagnosis and biological diagnosis; clinical manifestations of PPD; genetic background associated with PPD; psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy trials, with an emphasis on therapy modifications that are specific to PPD.

• #6 Causes of Postpartum Depression – Why Causes PPD To Develop?

  https://www.postpartumdepression.org/postpartum-depression/causes/

  Genetic and other medical factors can play a significant role in whether a woman develops PPD and are unfortunately out of her control. […] A recent study from the Canadian Medical Association Journal revealed that women who live in big cities have the highest rates of PPD. […] Recent experiences in a womans life that affect her mentally or emotionally can also play a significant role in whether she develops PPD. […] There are a variety of other possible risk factors that play a role in whether a woman will develop postpartum depression.

• #6 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Causes-of-Postnatal-Depression-in-Fathers.aspx

  Sexual frustration due to dramatic changes in the life phase, fatigue, and less sexual interest on the part of the partner, lack of earlier intimacy due to busyness or other obstacles, and possibly having to adjust to the presence of in-laws for a short or long period. […] Slow bonding with the baby – unlike the almost immediate mother-infant bonding, fathers bond to their babies over a longer period, extending over the first two months of postpartum life. […] Feelings of negativity towards the infant for disrupting the quality of the husband-wife relationship. […] The father may feel jealous or left out because of the long and rewarding time the baby gets to spend with the mother, and the attention the spouse gives to the baby rather than to him. […] Lack of positive feedback from the baby during the times of interaction removes one of the greatest rewards of having a baby.

• #7 Postpartum Depression: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment | Hiwell

  https://www.hiwellapp.com/en/blog/postpartum-depression-symptoms-causes-and-treatment

  What Causes Postpartum Depression? Knowing the risk factors for postpartum depression ahead of time is critical for protecting new mothers and babies. According to research, the following are the major risk factors: Prenatal depression and/or anxiety, Experiencing childcare-related stress, Marriage not going well, Low self-confidence, Socioeconomic status, Whether pregnancy was desired or not, Family history of depression, Number of births, Education level, Premature birth, Problems during pregnancy. […] Although the exact cause of postpartum depression is unknown, biological and psychosocial factors are known to be effective. The abrupt drop in postpartum estrogen, which increases during pregnancy, has been linked to postpartum depression for biological reasons. Thyroid disorders are also linked to late-onset postpartum depression.

• #7 What is postpartum depression? | Live Science

  https://www.livescience.com/postpartum-depression

  Other factors that increase the risk of postpartum depression include a history of depression and anxiety, financial stress, lack of social support, being a first time mother, or very young or older mother, and having a baby with special needs, according to the American Psychological Association (APA). Postpartum depression also has a genetic component, Byatt said, because having a family history of postpartum depression increases a person’s risk of developing it. […] Fathers can also get postpartum depression, Byatt said. It’s treated the same way as maternal postpartum depression but can have different symptoms in fathers, she said. For example, parental postpartum depression could present more as increased irritability, aggression, isolation or even substance abuse.

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