Bulimia nervosa
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Bulimia nervosa to złożone zaburzenie odżywiania charakteryzujące się epizodami kompulsywnego objadania się oraz kompensacyjnymi zachowaniami, takimi jak wymioty czy nadużywanie środków przeczyszczających. Neurobiologicznie obserwuje się obniżone poziomy noradrenaliny i serotoniny (5-HT) w fazie aktywnej choroby, z powrotem do normy lub przewagą po remisji, co koreluje z zaburzeniami kontroli apetytu i zachowań kompulsywnych. Dysfunkcje układu dopaminergicznego, zwłaszcza zmniejszone uwalnianie dopaminy w prążkowiu, wiążą się z częstszymi epizodami objadania się. Zmiany neuropeptydowe (m.in. neuropeptyd Y, cholecystokinina) oraz strukturalne i funkcjonalne zaburzenia w obwodach korowo-limbicznych, w tym nieprawidłowa aktywacja kory przedczołowej, wpływają na kontrolę zachowań żywieniowych i przetwarzanie obrazu ciała. Zaburzenia funkcji żołądka, takie jak zmniejszona aktywność mięśniowa i opóźnione opróżnianie, są raczej konsekwencją niż przyczyną choroby. Czynniki genetyczne, hormonalne (np. zaburzenia poziomów estradiolu, testosteronu, greliny) oraz mikrobiota jelitowa odgrywają istotną rolę w patogenezie bulimii nervosa.

Patogeneza Bulimii nervosa

Bulimia nervosa to zaburzenie odżywiania charakteryzujące się nawracającymi epizodami objadania się oraz nieodpowiednimi zachowaniami kompensacyjnymi, takimi jak wywoływanie wymiotów, nadużywanie środków przeczyszczających, moczopędnych, głodówki czy nadmierne ćwiczenia fizyczne, mającymi na celu zapobieganie przyrostowi masy ciała.12 Mimo intensywnych badań, dokładna etiologia i patomechanizmy bulimii nervosa pozostają nie w pełni wyjaśnione, a dostępne dane sugerują złożoną interakcję czynników biologicznych, psychologicznych i środowiskowych.34

Czynniki neurobiologiczne

Badania neurobiologiczne wskazują na istotne zaburzenia w funkcjonowaniu układów neuroprzekaźnikowych w mózgu pacjentów z bulimią nervosa. Dane z literatury sugerują, że w aktywnej fazie choroby poziomy noradrenaliny (norepinefryny) i serotoniny (5-hydroksytryptaminy; 5-HT) są niższe u osób z bulimią nervosa w porównaniu do zdrowych osób. Poziomy dopaminy są podobne lub niższe niż u osób zdrowych.56 Co ciekawe, po remisji choroby funkcja noradrenergiczna wraca do poziomu obserwowanego u osób zdrowych, podczas gdy funkcje dopaminergiczne i serotoninergiczne odbijają do poziomów wyższych niż u osób kontrolnych.7

Zmniejszona aktywność serotoninergiczna wiąże się z okresowym brakiem uczucia sytości, co może prowadzić do zachowań kompulsywnych i epizodów objadania się.8 Badania wykazały, że nawet niewielki poziom diet lub ograniczeń żywieniowych może powodować zmniejszenie aktywności 5-HT, przy czym zmiany te są bardziej nasilone u kobiet niż u mężczyzn, co może wskazywać na związek między dietą, płciową wrażliwością serotoninergiczną a rozwojem zaburzeń odżywiania.9

Zaburzenia w układzie dopaminergicznym również odgrywają znaczącą rolę w patogenezie bulimii. Badania z wykorzystaniem pozytonowej tomografii emisyjnej (PET) wykazały, że pacjenci z bulimią nie wykazują różnic w wiązaniu receptorów dopaminowych D2 w porównaniu do osób zdrowych, jednak niższe uwalnianie dopaminy w prążkowiu korelowało z większą częstotliwością epizodów objadania się.10 Badania modelowe na zwierzętach sugerują zmianę równowagi między neurotransmisją receptorów dopaminowych D1 i D2, co wpływa na neurotransmisję serotoninergiczną w śródmózgowiu.11

W kontekście neuropeptydów, u pacjentów z bulimią nervosa w fazie objawowej stwierdzono zmiany poziomów neuropeptydu Y, peptydu YY, β-endorfiny, hormonu uwalniającego kortykotropinę, somatostatyny, cholecystokininy i wazopresyny, z powrotem do poziomów obserwowanych u osób zdrowych po remisji.1213

Zmiany strukturalne w mózgu

Badania obrazowe mózgu wykazały istotne zmiany strukturalne i funkcjonalne u pacjentów z bulimią nervosa. Badania MRI wskazują na anatomiczne zmiany u osób cierpiących na bulimię, choć pozostaje niejasne, czy zmiany te są przyczyną, czy konsekwencją zaburzenia.14

Szczególnie ważne są zmiany w obwodach korowo-limbicznych, które są zaangażowane w kontrolę apetytu.15 Badania wykazały nieprawidłowości w aktywacji kory przedczołowej przyśrodkowej i bocznej, czyli regionów mózgu odgrywających rolę w kontroli zachowań, emocji i głodu – u pacjentów z bulimią w porównaniu ze zdrowymi osobami z grupy kontrolnej.16 Niewystarczająca aktywacja tych obszarów może bezpośrednio przyczyniać się do bardziej nasilonych, niekontrolowanych, nieprzystosowawczych zachowań żywieniowych.1718

Badania ujawniły również lewostronne zwiększenie właściwości węzłowych i połączeń między korą oczodołowo-czołową (OFC) a innymi obszarami układu nagrody mezokortykalno-limbicznego. Ta zmiana specyficzna dla półkuli stanowi interesujące zjawisko w patofizjologii bulimii nervosa.19

Ponadto, zmiany strukturalne w sieciach somatosensorycznych i przestrzenno-wzrokowych mogą być fundamentalne dla funkcjonalnych zaburzeń niewłaściwego przetwarzania sensorycznego i wizualnego obrazu ciała u pacjentów z bulimią.2021

Rola cholecystokininy

Cholecystokinina (CCK) odgrywa istotną rolę w patogenezie bulimii nervosa, szczególnie w utrwalaniu zaburzenia. U pacjentów z bulimią poposiłkowe uwalnianie CCK jest zmniejszone, co prowadzi do słabszego efektu sytości po spożyciu posiłku.2223

Badania wykazały, że powtarzające się epizody objadania się prowadzą do zwiększonej pojemności żołądka, co z kolei prowadzi do opóźnionego opróżniania żołądka i osłabionego poposiłkowego uwalniania CCK.24 Rozszerzenie żołądka zazwyczaj występuje po epizodach objadania się i objawia się bólem w górnej części brzucha, a czasami spontanicznymi wymiotami.25

Zaburzenia funkcji żołądka w bulimii charakteryzują się zmniejszoną aktywnością mięśniową żołądka związaną z posiłkiem. Obserwacja ta sugeruje, że większość zaburzeń jest raczej konsekwencją niż przyczyną niedożywienia i zmienionych wzorców posiłków.26

Czynniki genetyczne

Coraz więcej dowodów wskazuje na znaczący udział czynników genetycznych w rozwoju bulimii nervosa. Badania na dużych populacjach, w tym na bliźniętach jednojajowych, wspierają tezę, że bulimia ma podłoże genetyczne.27 Jedno z przełomowych badań wykazało podobieństwa genetyczne u 57% uczestników.28

Krewni pierwszego stopnia płci żeńskiej oraz potomstwo bliźniąt jednojajowych pacjentów z jadłowstrętem psychicznym mają wyższe wskaźniki występowania zarówno anoreksji, jak i bulimii nervosa.29 Badania sugerują również, że ryzyko wystąpienia anoreksji może wzrastać wraz z polimorfizmem regionu promotora receptora serotoniny 2a.30

Warto zauważyć, że zazwyczaj nie jest dziedziczone samo zaburzenie, ale raczej pewne cechy, takie jak reakcja na stres, które mogą zwiększać podatność na rozwój bulimii nervosa lub innych zaburzeń odżywiania.31

Rola hormonów

Hormony płciowe i neuroaktywne peptydy są często zmienione podczas aktywnej fazy zaburzeń odżywiania i wpływają na neurotransmisję w mózgu.32 Badania wykazały związek między dojrzewaniem płciowym u kobiet a rozwojem zaburzeń odżywiania, przy czym estrogen, szczególnie estradiol, odgrywa kluczową rolę.33 Badania sugerują, że nadmiar estradiolu może włączać określone geny, które mogą prowadzić do rozwoju zaburzeń odżywiania u dziewcząt.34

W jednym z badań diagnoza bulimii była skorelowana z wysokim poziomem testosteronu i niskim poziomem estrogenu, a normalizacja tych poziomów za pomocą złożonych doustnych środków antykoncepcyjnych zmniejszała głód tłuszczu i cukru.35

U pacjentów z bulimią nervosa występuje także nadmierne wydzielanie greliny, hormonu produkowanego przez błonę śluzową żołądka, który może stymulować lub hamować odpowiedź dopaminową w mózgu i zmieniać podejście do jedzenia w zaburzeniach odżywiania.3637

Interakcja z mikrobiomem jelitowym

Coraz więcej badań wskazuje na istotną rolę mikrobioty jelitowej w patogenezie zaburzeń odżywiania, w tym bulimii nervosa. Mikrobiota jelitowa wykazuje zaangażowanie w różne funkcje metaboliczne, takie jak regulacja przyrostu masy ciała, pozyskiwanie energii z diety i wydzielanie insuliny.38

Mikrobiom jelitowy produkuje różne bioaktywne produkty metaboliczne, które wchodzą do krążenia ogólnoustrojowego i mogą wywoływać istotne efekty na metabolizm, funkcję immunologiczną, ekspresję genów oraz ośrodkowy układ nerwowy (OUN).39 Badania wykazały, że u osób z zaburzeniami odżywiania występują zmiany w określonych bakteriach jelitowych (w tym Clostridium), które są związane z oceną dobrostanu psychicznego i zachowaniami żywieniowymi.40

Współwystępowanie z zaburzeniami lęku

Bulimia nervosa często współwystępuje z zaburzeniami lękowymi, a związek ten może być złożony, przy czym każdy stan może potencjalnie prowadzić do rozwoju lub utrzymywania się drugiego. Badania wykazały, że nawet 65% osób z zaburzeniami odżywiania ma również zaburzenie lękowe.41

Interesujące jest to, że lęk często poprzedza rozwój bulimii nervosa. Jedno z badań wykazało, że prawie 70% respondentów zgłosiło, że ich zaburzenie lękowe zostało zdiagnozowane przed zaburzeniem odżywiania. W rzeczywistości lęk jest często uważany za potencjalny czynnik ryzyka rozwoju jakiegokolwiek typu zaburzenia odżywiania.42

Bulimia nervosa może rozwinąć się jako nieprzystosowawczy mechanizm radzenia sobie ze stresem i lękiem, które w inny sposób nie są adresowane. Zachowania takie jak objadanie się mogą pojawić się jako sposób radzenia sobie ze stresem i lękiem, podczas gdy wymioty mogą rozwinąć się jako sposób radzenia sobie ze stresem lub poczuciem winy czy wstydu związanym z objadaniem się.43

Szczególnie wysokie ryzyko rozwoju bulimii mają kobiety zmagające się z PTSD. Historia traumy jest bardzo częstym doświadczeniem u osób z wszystkimi typami zaburzeń odżywiania, a współwystępowanie z bulimią nervosa jest szczególnie silne.44 Jedno z badań wykazało, że do 25% uczestników z bulimią wykazywało objawy zespołu stresu pourazowego.45

Implikacje terapeutyczne

Zrozumienie neurobiologicznych podstaw bulimii nervosa ma istotne implikacje dla leczenia tego zaburzenia. Leczenie farmakologiczne bulimii nervosa, które jest ukierunkowane na korektę obserwowanych zmian neurochemicznych, jest trudne ze względu na złożoność zaburzeń. Jednak takie leczenie jest konieczne i powinno być kontynuowane długo po remisji objawowej w celu zapewnienia przywrócenia homeostazy biochemicznej mózgu.46

Selektywne inhibitory wychwytu zwrotnego serotoniny (SSRI), takie jak fluoksetyna, citalopram i sertralina, wykazały skuteczność w redukcji objawów bulimii nervosa. Fluoksetyna jest jedynym lekiem zatwierdzonym przez FDA do leczenia bulimii nervosa. Wydaje się, że wyższa dawka (60 mg) jest znacznie bardziej skuteczna niż placebo w zmniejszaniu częstotliwości epizodów objadania się i wymiotów.47

Leki przeciwdepresyjne oddziałują na nierównowagę chemiczną w mózgu. Chociaż naukowcy nie są do końca pewni, w jaki sposób pomagają one osobom z bulimią, badania pokazują, że wiele osób zmagających się z epizodami objadania się i przeczyszczania poprawia się, gdy regularnie przyjmuje przepisane leki. Podejrzewa się, że u niektórych osób problemy z serotoninąpowodują zachowania bulimiczne, a ponieważ niektóre leki przeciwdepresyjne działają na te szlaki, mogą one pomóc.48

Nierównowaga poziomów serotoniny w organizmie może zwiększać pragnienie objadania się i przeczyszczania u kobiet i mężczyzn cierpiących na bulimię. Leki przeciwdepresyjne mogą zmniejszyć te pragnienia, skutecznie równoważąc poziomy neuroprzekaźników w mózgu.49

Warto jednak podkreślić, że ponieważ bulimia jest złożoną chorobą psychiczną, leczenie musi uwzględniać różne aspekty na wielu poziomach: fizycznym/biologicznym, emocjonalnym i psychologicznym. Osiągnięcie całkowitego i pełnego wyleczenia wymaga pracy z multidyscyplinarnym zespołem, co może być jednym z najlepszych narzędzi do leczenia i powrotu do zdrowia.50

Najnowsze badania sugerują, że zaburzenia równowagi między nagrodą a hamowaniem mogą przyczyniać się do zaburzeń odżywiania. W bulimii nervosa dysregulacja zarówno hamujących, jak i nagradzających mechanizmów może manifestować się w naprzemiennym nadmiernym i niedostatecznym spożyciu typowym dla tego zaburzenia.51

Badania neuroobrazowe sugerują, że objawy zaburzeń odżywiania mogą wynikać z dysfunkcji obwodów leżących u podstaw nagrody i hamowania. Cechy temperamentowe oparte na funkcji mózgu w zaburzeniach odżywiania są stabilne w trakcie choroby i powrotu do zdrowia. Sugeruje to, że leczenie, które uwzględnia te cechy i jest ukierunkowane na zaburzenia kontroli hamującej, wrażliwości na nagrody i wyrazistości, może lepiej adresować specyficzne dla choroby mechanizmy przyczyniające się do zaburzeń odżywiania.52

Model patofizjologiczny zaburzeń odżywiania powinien opierać się na mechanizmach molekularnych, które wyjaśniają zmiany w apetycie i wzorcach żywieniowych, mechanizmach leżących u podstaw zmian i przejść diagnostycznych między różnymi zaburzeniami odżywiania oraz czynnikach ryzyka, które uruchamiają ostateczną wspólną ścieżkę molekularną prowadzącą do anoreksji nervosa i/lub bulimii nervosa.53

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  1. 12.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Aetiopathogenesis and pathophysiology of bulimia nervosa: biological bases and implications for treatment – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11460890/
    Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterised by recurrent episodes of binge eating and associated efforts to purge the ingested calories through self-induced vomiting, laxative or diuretic abuse, fasting or intensive exercise. The aetiopathogenesis and pathophysiology of the disorder are currently unclear. Biological bases have been proposed repeatedly, based on several lines of evidence: hunger, satiety and food choice are regulated by neurotransmitters and neuropeptides, and impairment of eating habits may be related to alterations in the secretion of these chemicals; genetic studies suggest that these neurotransmitter systems are dysfunctional in individuals with bulimia nervosa; and the frequent comorbidity of bulimia nervosa with major depressive and obsessive-compulsive disorders, conditions in which multiple alterations of brain biochemical functions have been demonstrated.
  • #2
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200115020-00004
    Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterised by recurrent episodes of binge eating and associated efforts to purge the ingested calories through self-induced vomiting, laxative or diuretic abuse, fasting or intensive exercise. The aetiopathogenesis and pathophysiology of the disorder are currently unclear. Biological bases have been proposed repeatedly, based on several lines of evidence: hunger, satiety and food choice are regulated by neurotransmitters and neuropeptides, and impairment of eating habits may be related to alterations in the secretion of these chemicals; genetic studies suggest that these neurotransmitter systems are dysfunctional in individuals with bulimia nervosa; and the frequent comorbidity of bulimia nervosa with major depressive and obsessive-compulsive disorders, conditions in which multiple alterations of brain biochemical functions have been demonstrated.
  • #3 Bulimia nervosa – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bulimia/symptoms-causes/syc-20353615
    The exact cause of bulimia is not known. Genes may play a role in the development of bulimia and other eating disorders. Emotional health and family history may play a role. Also, pressures from society to be thin may play a role. […] Mental health and emotional problems, such as depression, anxiety or substance misuse, are linked closely with eating disorders. People with bulimia may feel badly about themselves, especially if they’re bullied about weight or shape. In some cases, distressing events and factors that cause emotional distress may play a part, such as being mistreated as a child. […] Bulimia is a complex illness that affects how your brain works and how you make decisions.
  • #4 Psychological Causes of Bulimia Nervosa
    https://withinhealth.com/learn/articles/psychological-causes-of-bulimia-nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a psychiatric disorder that involves recurrent episodes of binge eating and purging or other compensatory behaviors, as well as an intense preoccupation with weight and/or body shape. While the pathogenesis remains unknown, research suggests that a constellation of behavioral, interpersonal, and biological factors may be the causes of bulimia nervosa. […] Based on the current research available, yes it would appear bulimia nervosa may be tied to genetics. Researchers reviewed a large population-based sample (700,000) of full-sisters and maternal half-sisters born in Sweden between 1970-2005 that struggle with either anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa. Their results support the claim that BN does have genetic etiologies, which should encourage more genetic research.
  • #5 Aetiopathogenesis and pathophysiology of bulimia nervosa: biological bases and implications for treatment – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11460890/
    Data in the literature suggest that levels of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) are lower in individuals with bulimia nervosa than in healthy controls. Levels of dopamine are similar to, or lower than, those in controls. After remission of the disorder, noradrenergic function returns to that seen in controls, whereas dopaminergic and serotonergic function rebound to levels higher than in controls. Among the neuropeptides, alterations in the levels of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, beta-endorphin, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, cholecystokinin and vasopressin have been found in the symptomatic phase of bulimia nervosa, with a return to levels seen in controls after remission. Pharmacological treatment of bulimia nervosa that is directed at correction of the neurochemical alterations observed is difficult because of the complexity of the impairments. However, such treatment is necessary and should be continued long after symptomatic remission to ensure reinstitution of cerebral biochemical homeostasis.
  • #6
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200115020-00004
    Data in the literature suggest that levels of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) are lower in individuals with bulimia nervosa than in healthy controls. Levels of dopamine are similar to, or lower than, those in controls. After remission of the disorder, noradrenergic function returns to that seen in controls, whereas dopaminergic and serotonergic function rebound to levels higher than in controls. Among the neuropeptides, alterations in the levels of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, -endorphin, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, cholecystokinin and vasopressin have been found in the symptomatic phase of bulimia nervosa, with a return to levels seen in controls after remission. […] Pharmacological treatment of bulimia nervosa that is directed at correction of the neurochemical alterations observed is difficult because of the complexity of the impairments. However, such treatment is necessary and should be continued long after symptomatic remission to ensure reinstitution of cerebral biochemical homeostasis.
  • #7
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200115020-00004
    Data in the literature suggest that levels of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) are lower in individuals with bulimia nervosa than in healthy controls. Levels of dopamine are similar to, or lower than, those in controls. After remission of the disorder, noradrenergic function returns to that seen in controls, whereas dopaminergic and serotonergic function rebound to levels higher than in controls. Among the neuropeptides, alterations in the levels of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, -endorphin, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, cholecystokinin and vasopressin have been found in the symptomatic phase of bulimia nervosa, with a return to levels seen in controls after remission. […] Pharmacological treatment of bulimia nervosa that is directed at correction of the neurochemical alterations observed is difficult because of the complexity of the impairments. However, such treatment is necessary and should be continued long after symptomatic remission to ensure reinstitution of cerebral biochemical homeostasis.
  • #8 The Characteristics, Risks, Effects, and Pathophysiology of Eating Disorders -A Review
    https://www.ijraset.com/research-paper/the-characteristics-risks-effects-and-pathophysiology-of-eating-disorders
    Alterations in brain serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine – 5-HT) contribute to various aspects of eating disorders such as appetite (satiety), perfectionism, impulsiveness and mood-regulation problems. Increased 5-HT activity causes increased, or prolonged satiety results in restrictive eating behaviours and reduced 5-HT activity leads to a periodic lack of satiation that causes compulsive or binge-eating behaviours. Therefore, it can be understood that the restrictive type of anorexia nervosa corresponds with increased neurotransmission of 5-HT and the binge-purge type of anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa coincide with decreased neurotransmission of 5-HT. […] Even a minor level of dieting or restriction can cause a reduction in 5-HT activity. Studies have shown that dieting can cause significant changes in 5-HT activity more in women than in men. This indicates that alongside dieting, gender related serotonergic sensitivities can lead to changes in 5-HT transmission and are causative for eating disorders.
  • #9 The Characteristics, Risks, Effects, and Pathophysiology of Eating Disorders -A Review
    https://www.ijraset.com/research-paper/the-characteristics-risks-effects-and-pathophysiology-of-eating-disorders
    Alterations in brain serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine – 5-HT) contribute to various aspects of eating disorders such as appetite (satiety), perfectionism, impulsiveness and mood-regulation problems. Increased 5-HT activity causes increased, or prolonged satiety results in restrictive eating behaviours and reduced 5-HT activity leads to a periodic lack of satiation that causes compulsive or binge-eating behaviours. Therefore, it can be understood that the restrictive type of anorexia nervosa corresponds with increased neurotransmission of 5-HT and the binge-purge type of anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa coincide with decreased neurotransmission of 5-HT. […] Even a minor level of dieting or restriction can cause a reduction in 5-HT activity. Studies have shown that dieting can cause significant changes in 5-HT activity more in women than in men. This indicates that alongside dieting, gender related serotonergic sensitivities can lead to changes in 5-HT transmission and are causative for eating disorders.
  • #10 Bulimia Nervosa: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/286485-overview
    In summary, animal studies suggest distinct changes, especially in serotonin and dopamine neurotransmission, associated with food restriction or binge eating in eating disorders. […] Human neurotransmitter receptor studies using positron emission tomography (PET) showed higher serotonin 1A-receptor binding in AN and BN when ill and after recovery, suggesting state-independent alterations. […] Ill BN also showed no dopamine D2-receptor binding differences versus controls, but lower striatal dopamine release was associated with higher binge-eating frequency. […] Recently, higher glutamate receptor binding across several regions that was related to maturity fears characterized BN compared to controls. […] However, studies on GABA or glutamate using MRI spectroscopy in the ED population have yielded inconclusive results. […] Altogether, while the literature is limited, the studies indicate that, in particular, serotonin receptor availability is altered in AN and BN, making those receptors potential drug intervention targets. However, those neuroreceptor studies did not inform on the functionality of those receptors.
  • #11 Bulimia Nervosa: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/286485-overview
    The pathophysiology of bulimia nervosa (BN) remains unclear. Abnormal laboratory values typically normalize with regulation of eating behaviors and cessation of binge eating and purging behaviors. […] There are no animal models for BN but more broadly for binge eating behaviors, indicating acute elevations in dopamine neurotransmission but decreases in striatal dopamine receptor distribution after prolonged binge eating and anxiety when deprived of binge eating. […] Animal models have suggested a change in the balance of dopamine D1 and D2 receptor neurotransmission with disordered eating, affecting midbrain serotonin neurotransmission and indicating state-dependent inter-relationships between neurotransmitter systems. […] Sex hormones and neuroactive peptides are also frequently altered during the ill state of eating disorders and affect brain neurotransmission, as do the fat-cell-derived hormones leptin or ghrelin from the gastric mucosa that may stimulate or dampen brain dopamine response and alter food approach in eating disorders.
  • #12 Aetiopathogenesis and pathophysiology of bulimia nervosa: biological bases and implications for treatment – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11460890/
    Data in the literature suggest that levels of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) are lower in individuals with bulimia nervosa than in healthy controls. Levels of dopamine are similar to, or lower than, those in controls. After remission of the disorder, noradrenergic function returns to that seen in controls, whereas dopaminergic and serotonergic function rebound to levels higher than in controls. Among the neuropeptides, alterations in the levels of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, beta-endorphin, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, cholecystokinin and vasopressin have been found in the symptomatic phase of bulimia nervosa, with a return to levels seen in controls after remission. Pharmacological treatment of bulimia nervosa that is directed at correction of the neurochemical alterations observed is difficult because of the complexity of the impairments. However, such treatment is necessary and should be continued long after symptomatic remission to ensure reinstitution of cerebral biochemical homeostasis.
  • #13
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200115020-00004
    Data in the literature suggest that levels of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) are lower in individuals with bulimia nervosa than in healthy controls. Levels of dopamine are similar to, or lower than, those in controls. After remission of the disorder, noradrenergic function returns to that seen in controls, whereas dopaminergic and serotonergic function rebound to levels higher than in controls. Among the neuropeptides, alterations in the levels of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, -endorphin, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, cholecystokinin and vasopressin have been found in the symptomatic phase of bulimia nervosa, with a return to levels seen in controls after remission. […] Pharmacological treatment of bulimia nervosa that is directed at correction of the neurochemical alterations observed is difficult because of the complexity of the impairments. However, such treatment is necessary and should be continued long after symptomatic remission to ensure reinstitution of cerebral biochemical homeostasis.
  • #14 Psychological Causes of Bulimia Nervosa
    https://withinhealth.com/learn/articles/psychological-causes-of-bulimia-nervosa
    Brain MRI studies demonstrate anatomical changes in those who have from bulimia nervosa, however it remains unclear if these changes came as a consequence of the disorder, or if they were contributory factors to developing BN. […] Although the causes of bulimia nervosa are multifaceted and not fully understood, it is always possible to begin the process of healing from this eating disorder. Because of the complex nature of this disorder, treating people with bulimia must include careful attention to the behavioral, psychological, and social components.
  • #15 Bulimia Nervosa | Concise Medical Knowledge
    https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/bulimia-nervosa/
    Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating accompanied by inappropriate compensatory behavior. […] No consensus on pathophysiology. […] May be related to abnormal functioning of corticolimbic circuits (involved in appetite). […] Efficacy of antidepressants as well as established link between serotonin and satiety suggest the involvement of serotonin and norepinephrine in the pathophysiology of bulimia.
  • #16 Study Connects Key Neural Mechanism to Bulimia Nervosa
    https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/study-connects-key-neural-mechanism-to-bulimia-nervosa
    A study identified a key neural mechanism that may directly contribute to binge eating in patients with bulimia nervosa (BN). […] Results showed that the participants with BN made more commission errors during both tasks, and that deficient activation of the medial and lateral prefrontal cortices—the brain regions that play a role in the control of behaviors, emotions, and cravings—was identified in the participants with BN compared with healthy controls. […] BN subgroups who felt most strongly that they were binge eating during the task and those with the most severe and most frequent loss of control eating showed an abnormal reduction in bilateral ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vIPFC) activation associated with eating response inhibition. […] Our findings suggest that eating-specific impairments in inhibitory control-related activation may serve as a new target for treatment.
  • #17 Diminished activation of specific prefrontal brain region may directly contribute to binge eating in bulimia nervosa | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/02/220228103824.htm
    Diminished activation of specific prefrontal brain region may directly contribute to binge eating in bulimia nervosa. New research has revealed a key neural mechanism underlying the feeling of being unable to stop eating, the most salient aspect of binge episodes in eating disorders like bulimia nervosa. The researcher found deficient activation of the medial and lateral prefrontal cortices (brain regions known to play a role in the control of cravings, behaviors, and emotions) during eating-specific response inhibition in participants with bulimia nervosa compared with healthy controls. The findings, published February 25 in Psychological Medicine, provide initial evidence that this diminished activation of the prefrontal cortex may directly contribute to more severe, out-of-control, maladaptive eating behaviors. This supports the idea that medial and lateral prefrontal cortex dysfunction may be a promising treatment target.
  • #18 Diminished activation of specific prefrontal brain region may directly contribute to binge eating in bulimia nervosa | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/02/220228103824.htm
    Therefore, pinpointing the brain-based alterations that occur specifically during attempts to control eating could ultimately improve our understanding of, and targeted treatment for, this often chronic condition. […] Our findings suggest that eating-specific impairments in inhibitory control-related activation may serve as a new target for treatment.
  • #19 Abnormal structural brain network and hemisphere-specific changes in bulimia nervosa | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-019-0543-1
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is characterized by episodic binge eating and purging behaviors. Disrupted neural processes of self-regulation, taste-rewarding, and body image has been associated with the pathogenesis of BN. […] The hemispheric-specific change could be an important aspect of the pathophysiology of BN. […] This study revealed BN-related changes in white-matter connections across the prefrontal control, mesocorticolimbic reward, somatosensory and visuospatial systems. […] The first important finding is the left-lateralized increases in nodal properties and connections among the OFC and other mesocorticolimbic reward areas. […] The hemispheric-specific change in the prefrontal and mesocorticolimbic reward areas is an interesting phenomenon. […] The results important for understanding body image distortion is the structural changes in somatosensory and visuospatial networks of BN patients.
  • #20 Abnormal structural brain network and hemisphere-specific changes in bulimia nervosa | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-019-0543-1
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is characterized by episodic binge eating and purging behaviors. Disrupted neural processes of self-regulation, taste-rewarding, and body image has been associated with the pathogenesis of BN. […] The hemispheric-specific change could be an important aspect of the pathophysiology of BN. […] This study revealed BN-related changes in white-matter connections across the prefrontal control, mesocorticolimbic reward, somatosensory and visuospatial systems. […] The first important finding is the left-lateralized increases in nodal properties and connections among the OFC and other mesocorticolimbic reward areas. […] The hemispheric-specific change in the prefrontal and mesocorticolimbic reward areas is an interesting phenomenon. […] The results important for understanding body image distortion is the structural changes in somatosensory and visuospatial networks of BN patients.
  • #21 Abnormal structural brain network and hemisphere-specific changes in bulimia nervosa | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-019-0543-1
    Together, these structural changes in the somatosensory and visuospatial networks might be fundamental to the functional disturbances of inappropriate sensory and visual processing of body image in BN patients. […] The hemisphere-specific change in the lateral temporal cortex might be another neural mechanism underlying distorted body imaging of BN.
  • #22 Cholecystokinin in the Pathogenesis of Bulimia Nervosa
    https://www.scirp.org/html/7568.html
    Objective: This review aims to describe the role of the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) in the pathogenesis of bulimia nervosa (BN), the perpetuation of this illness and the possibility of its use as a target for future therapeutic advances. […] It is well established that CCK is altered in the pathogenesis of BN, and that its main role is in the perpetuation of the disorder rather than the cause of it. […] Interestingly, there appears to be substantial evidence of blunting CCK meal-related release in the pathogenesis of BN, producing less satiety effect when eating a meal. […] Different alterations have been described in BN disorders: decreased noradrenergic, serotoninergic and dopaminergic activity, reduced colecistoquinergic action and increased orexigenic action of PYY, suggesting that satiety is altered in patients with BN.
  • #23 Cholecystokinin in the Pathogenesis of Bulimia Nervosa
    https://www.scirp.org/html/7568.html
    In BN patients, the postprandial release of CCK is decreased, while in AN patients, both basal and food induced CCK, is normal or elevated. […] Gastric dilation typically occurs after binge-eating and becomes manifest in upper abdominal pain and sometimes in spontaneous vomiting. […] Findings of enlarged gastric capacity in normal-weight bulimics led to the proposal that repeated binge eating leads to increased stomach capacity that in turn leads to delayed gastric emptying and blunted post-meal CCK release. […] The role of CCK in the pathogenesis of BN seems to be a very important factor in the perpetuation of the disease, since it is at this stage when the patient has most problems in preventing a “normal” meal to convert into a binge because of lack of physiological satiety feedback.
  • #24 Cholecystokinin in the Pathogenesis of Bulimia Nervosa
    https://www.scirp.org/html/7568.html
    In BN patients, the postprandial release of CCK is decreased, while in AN patients, both basal and food induced CCK, is normal or elevated. […] Gastric dilation typically occurs after binge-eating and becomes manifest in upper abdominal pain and sometimes in spontaneous vomiting. […] Findings of enlarged gastric capacity in normal-weight bulimics led to the proposal that repeated binge eating leads to increased stomach capacity that in turn leads to delayed gastric emptying and blunted post-meal CCK release. […] The role of CCK in the pathogenesis of BN seems to be a very important factor in the perpetuation of the disease, since it is at this stage when the patient has most problems in preventing a “normal” meal to convert into a binge because of lack of physiological satiety feedback.
  • #25 Cholecystokinin in the Pathogenesis of Bulimia Nervosa
    https://www.scirp.org/html/7568.html
    In BN patients, the postprandial release of CCK is decreased, while in AN patients, both basal and food induced CCK, is normal or elevated. […] Gastric dilation typically occurs after binge-eating and becomes manifest in upper abdominal pain and sometimes in spontaneous vomiting. […] Findings of enlarged gastric capacity in normal-weight bulimics led to the proposal that repeated binge eating leads to increased stomach capacity that in turn leads to delayed gastric emptying and blunted post-meal CCK release. […] The role of CCK in the pathogenesis of BN seems to be a very important factor in the perpetuation of the disease, since it is at this stage when the patient has most problems in preventing a “normal” meal to convert into a binge because of lack of physiological satiety feedback.
  • #26 Cholecystokinin in the Pathogenesis of Bulimia Nervosa
    https://www.scirp.org/html/7568.html
    The findings of slowed gastric emptying and of impaired gastric accommodation following food ingestion indicate that stomach function in BN is characterized by a reduction in meal-related gastric muscular activity. […] This observation suggests that most of the disturbances are consequences, rather than causes, of malnutrition and altered meal patterns. […] Understanding the mechanisms by which CCK regulates orexigenic pathways in the body may lead to new strategies for controlling appetite-related disorders such as obesity and bulimia nervosa.
  • #27 Psychological Causes of Bulimia Nervosa
    https://withinhealth.com/learn/articles/psychological-causes-of-bulimia-nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a psychiatric disorder that involves recurrent episodes of binge eating and purging or other compensatory behaviors, as well as an intense preoccupation with weight and/or body shape. While the pathogenesis remains unknown, research suggests that a constellation of behavioral, interpersonal, and biological factors may be the causes of bulimia nervosa. […] Based on the current research available, yes it would appear bulimia nervosa may be tied to genetics. Researchers reviewed a large population-based sample (700,000) of full-sisters and maternal half-sisters born in Sweden between 1970-2005 that struggle with either anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa. Their results support the claim that BN does have genetic etiologies, which should encourage more genetic research.
  • #28 What Causes Bulimia Nervosa?
    https://withinhealth.com/learn/articles/what-causes-bulimia-nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a serious eating disorder that revolves around cycles of binge eating and purging, which can be dangerous to someone’s mental, physical, and emotional health. […] What causes bulimia is often not just one factor but a combination of biological, psychological, and environmental considerations. […] Eating disorders of all kinds were once considered primarily social disorders, impacted by factors like peer pressure and cultural norms around thinness. But thanks to developments in technology, doctors, scientists, and researchers are increasingly finding biological factors as potential bulimia causes. […] Many eating disorders, including bulimia nervosa, are now considered at least moderately heritable, meaning they can be passed down through families. […] One ground-breaking study on the subject found genetic similarities in 57% of the study’s participants.
  • #29 Eating Disorders
    https://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/psychiatry-psychology/eating-disorders/
    Biologic and psychosocial factors are implicated in the pathophysiology of eating disorders, but the underlying causes and mechanisms remain unknown. […] First-degree female relatives and monozygotic twin offspring of patients with anorexia nervosa have higher rates of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. […] Endogenous opioids might contribute to denial of hunger in patients with anorexia nervosa. […] Increased endorphin levels have been described in patients with bulimia nervosa after purging and may induce feelings of wellbeing. […] Anorexia risk may increase with a polymorphism of the promoter region of serotonin 2a receptor. […] In bulimia nervosa, there is excessive secretion of ghrelin. […] Perhaps some of the most fascinating new research addresses the overlap between uncontrolled compulsive eating and compulsive drug seeking in drug addiction.
  • #30 Eating Disorders
    https://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/psychiatry-psychology/eating-disorders/
    Biologic and psychosocial factors are implicated in the pathophysiology of eating disorders, but the underlying causes and mechanisms remain unknown. […] First-degree female relatives and monozygotic twin offspring of patients with anorexia nervosa have higher rates of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. […] Endogenous opioids might contribute to denial of hunger in patients with anorexia nervosa. […] Increased endorphin levels have been described in patients with bulimia nervosa after purging and may induce feelings of wellbeing. […] Anorexia risk may increase with a polymorphism of the promoter region of serotonin 2a receptor. […] In bulimia nervosa, there is excessive secretion of ghrelin. […] Perhaps some of the most fascinating new research addresses the overlap between uncontrolled compulsive eating and compulsive drug seeking in drug addiction.
  • #31 What Causes Bulimia Nervosa?
    https://withinhealth.com/learn/articles/what-causes-bulimia-nervosa
    It’s usually not the disorder, per se, that gets passed down, but rather several traits, such as how someone reacts to stress, that can make someone more susceptible to developing BN or other eating disorders. […] Research has found a link between female puberty and the development of eating disorders. […] A follow-up to this finding discovered that estrogen, called estradiol, plays a role. […] This second study concluded this excess estradiol was also switching on specific genes that could lead to the development of eating disorders in affected girls. […] Another study found the neurological pathways in the brain responsible for motivation and reinforcement as another potential cause of bulimia. […] Disruption of these pathways was found in people with bulimia. […] Brain activity was also connected to several major symptoms of bulimia, including both binging and purging behaviors.
  • #32 Bulimia Nervosa: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/286485-overview
    The pathophysiology of bulimia nervosa (BN) remains unclear. Abnormal laboratory values typically normalize with regulation of eating behaviors and cessation of binge eating and purging behaviors. […] There are no animal models for BN but more broadly for binge eating behaviors, indicating acute elevations in dopamine neurotransmission but decreases in striatal dopamine receptor distribution after prolonged binge eating and anxiety when deprived of binge eating. […] Animal models have suggested a change in the balance of dopamine D1 and D2 receptor neurotransmission with disordered eating, affecting midbrain serotonin neurotransmission and indicating state-dependent inter-relationships between neurotransmitter systems. […] Sex hormones and neuroactive peptides are also frequently altered during the ill state of eating disorders and affect brain neurotransmission, as do the fat-cell-derived hormones leptin or ghrelin from the gastric mucosa that may stimulate or dampen brain dopamine response and alter food approach in eating disorders.
  • #33 What Causes Bulimia Nervosa?
    https://withinhealth.com/learn/articles/what-causes-bulimia-nervosa
    It’s usually not the disorder, per se, that gets passed down, but rather several traits, such as how someone reacts to stress, that can make someone more susceptible to developing BN or other eating disorders. […] Research has found a link between female puberty and the development of eating disorders. […] A follow-up to this finding discovered that estrogen, called estradiol, plays a role. […] This second study concluded this excess estradiol was also switching on specific genes that could lead to the development of eating disorders in affected girls. […] Another study found the neurological pathways in the brain responsible for motivation and reinforcement as another potential cause of bulimia. […] Disruption of these pathways was found in people with bulimia. […] Brain activity was also connected to several major symptoms of bulimia, including both binging and purging behaviors.
  • #34 What Causes Bulimia Nervosa?
    https://withinhealth.com/learn/articles/what-causes-bulimia-nervosa
    It’s usually not the disorder, per se, that gets passed down, but rather several traits, such as how someone reacts to stress, that can make someone more susceptible to developing BN or other eating disorders. […] Research has found a link between female puberty and the development of eating disorders. […] A follow-up to this finding discovered that estrogen, called estradiol, plays a role. […] This second study concluded this excess estradiol was also switching on specific genes that could lead to the development of eating disorders in affected girls. […] Another study found the neurological pathways in the brain responsible for motivation and reinforcement as another potential cause of bulimia. […] Disruption of these pathways was found in people with bulimia. […] Brain activity was also connected to several major symptoms of bulimia, including both binging and purging behaviors.
  • #35 Bulimia nervosa pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Bulimia_nervosa_pathophysiology
    Bulimia is related to deep psychological issues and feelings of lack of control. […] Sufferers often use the destructive eating pattern to feel in control over their lives. […] They may feel a loss of control during a binge, and consume great quantities of food (over 20,000 calories). […] In one study, diagnosis of bulimia was correlated with high testosterone and low estrogen levels, and normalizing these levels with combined oral contraceptive pills reduced cravings for fat and sugar.
  • #36 Eating Disorders
    https://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/psychiatry-psychology/eating-disorders/
    Biologic and psychosocial factors are implicated in the pathophysiology of eating disorders, but the underlying causes and mechanisms remain unknown. […] First-degree female relatives and monozygotic twin offspring of patients with anorexia nervosa have higher rates of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. […] Endogenous opioids might contribute to denial of hunger in patients with anorexia nervosa. […] Increased endorphin levels have been described in patients with bulimia nervosa after purging and may induce feelings of wellbeing. […] Anorexia risk may increase with a polymorphism of the promoter region of serotonin 2a receptor. […] In bulimia nervosa, there is excessive secretion of ghrelin. […] Perhaps some of the most fascinating new research addresses the overlap between uncontrolled compulsive eating and compulsive drug seeking in drug addiction.
  • #37 Bulimia Nervosa: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/286485-overview
    The pathophysiology of bulimia nervosa (BN) remains unclear. Abnormal laboratory values typically normalize with regulation of eating behaviors and cessation of binge eating and purging behaviors. […] There are no animal models for BN but more broadly for binge eating behaviors, indicating acute elevations in dopamine neurotransmission but decreases in striatal dopamine receptor distribution after prolonged binge eating and anxiety when deprived of binge eating. […] Animal models have suggested a change in the balance of dopamine D1 and D2 receptor neurotransmission with disordered eating, affecting midbrain serotonin neurotransmission and indicating state-dependent inter-relationships between neurotransmitter systems. […] Sex hormones and neuroactive peptides are also frequently altered during the ill state of eating disorders and affect brain neurotransmission, as do the fat-cell-derived hormones leptin or ghrelin from the gastric mucosa that may stimulate or dampen brain dopamine response and alter food approach in eating disorders.
  • #38 The Characteristics, Risks, Effects, and Pathophysiology of Eating Disorders -A Review
    https://www.ijraset.com/research-paper/the-characteristics-risks-effects-and-pathophysiology-of-eating-disorders
    GWASs, epigenetic, gene-expression and gene–gene interaction projects, nutritional genomics suggest that genetics play a large role in the development of eating disorders. […] Research about specific gut bacteria also contributes to the information about the pathophysiology of eating disorders. Gut microbiota has been shown to demonstrate involvement in various metabolic functions such as the regulation of weight gain, harvestation of energy from the diet and the secretion of insulin. It is majorly influenced by diet and lifestyle. Gut microbiomes reportedly produce various bioactive metabolic products that enter the systemic circulation. They are capable of producing extreme effects on metabolism, immune function, gene expression, as well as the central nervous system (CNS). […] The pathophysiological model of eating disorders should be based on molecular mechanisms that explain the alterations in appetite and feeding patterns, the mechanisms underlying alterations and diagnostic crossovers between different eating disorders and the risk factors that trigger the final common molecular pathway that leads to anorexia nervosa and/or bulimia nervosa.
  • #39 The Characteristics, Risks, Effects, and Pathophysiology of Eating Disorders -A Review
    https://www.ijraset.com/research-paper/the-characteristics-risks-effects-and-pathophysiology-of-eating-disorders
    GWASs, epigenetic, gene-expression and gene–gene interaction projects, nutritional genomics suggest that genetics play a large role in the development of eating disorders. […] Research about specific gut bacteria also contributes to the information about the pathophysiology of eating disorders. Gut microbiota has been shown to demonstrate involvement in various metabolic functions such as the regulation of weight gain, harvestation of energy from the diet and the secretion of insulin. It is majorly influenced by diet and lifestyle. Gut microbiomes reportedly produce various bioactive metabolic products that enter the systemic circulation. They are capable of producing extreme effects on metabolism, immune function, gene expression, as well as the central nervous system (CNS). […] The pathophysiological model of eating disorders should be based on molecular mechanisms that explain the alterations in appetite and feeding patterns, the mechanisms underlying alterations and diagnostic crossovers between different eating disorders and the risk factors that trigger the final common molecular pathway that leads to anorexia nervosa and/or bulimia nervosa.
  • #40 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/news/20230418/Can-a-disrupted-gut-microbiota-contribute-to-anorexia-nervosa-pathogenesis.aspx
    Several bacterial organisms (including Clostridium) were altered among individuals with anorexia nervosa and were associated with mental well-being and eating behavior estimates. […] The findings indicated a probable role of the intestinal microbiome in AN-associated changes concerning satiety and the metabolism of secondary bile acids. […] Based on the study findings, gut microbial disruptions may contribute to the pathogenesis of AN.
  • #41 The Relationship Between Bulimia & Anxiety  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-mental-illness/anxiety-disorder/
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a dangerous eating disorder marked by cycles of binge eating and compensatory purging behaviors. […] Anxiety, in particular, can be complexly intertwined with BN, with either condition potentially leading to the development or maintenance of the other. Studies have shown that as many as 65% of people with eating disorders also have an anxiety disorder. […] The development of any comorbidor co-occurring mental health diagnosis represents a complex chain of causes and effects, though patterns do sometimes emerge in these cases. For example, someone can show signs of BN before developing an anxiety disorder, but more often than not, the anxiety comes first. […] One survey found that nearly 70% of respondents said their anxiety disorder was diagnosed before their eating disorder. In fact, anxiety is often thought of as a potential risk factor for developing any type of eating disorder.
  • #42 The Relationship Between Bulimia & Anxiety  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-mental-illness/anxiety-disorder/
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a dangerous eating disorder marked by cycles of binge eating and compensatory purging behaviors. […] Anxiety, in particular, can be complexly intertwined with BN, with either condition potentially leading to the development or maintenance of the other. Studies have shown that as many as 65% of people with eating disorders also have an anxiety disorder. […] The development of any comorbidor co-occurring mental health diagnosis represents a complex chain of causes and effects, though patterns do sometimes emerge in these cases. For example, someone can show signs of BN before developing an anxiety disorder, but more often than not, the anxiety comes first. […] One survey found that nearly 70% of respondents said their anxiety disorder was diagnosed before their eating disorder. In fact, anxiety is often thought of as a potential risk factor for developing any type of eating disorder.
  • #43 The Relationship Between Bulimia & Anxiety  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-mental-illness/anxiety-disorder/
    There are any number of reasons why people may experience an anxiety disorder before developing eating disorder behaviors. But one of the biggest may be the fact that, for many people, bulimia nervosa develops as a maladaptive coping mechanism. […] With bulimia nervosa, behavior like binge eating may manifest as a way to deal with stress and anxiety that are otherwise not being addressed. Purging can then develop as a way to cope with the stress or perceived guilt or shame of binge eating. Eventually, these responses develop into a vicious cycle, trapping someone in this destructive pattern. […] Bulimia nervosa can co-occur with any type of anxiety disorder. Again, the condition often develops as a maladaptive coping mechanism for the deeply unpleasant feelings involved in anxiety disorders and other mental health concerns.
  • #44 The Relationship Between Bulimia & Anxiety  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-mental-illness/anxiety-disorder/
    Overall, however, OCD is one of the most common anxiety disorders to co-occur with any type of eating disorder. This may be due to the mechanisms involved in OCD, e.g., the obsessions and compulsions that drive the disorder. […] Women who struggle with PTSD are also at a particularly high risk of developing BN. Sadly, a history of trauma is a very common experience for people with all types of eating disorders, and the comorbidity with bulimia nervosa is particularly strong. […] Typically, when someone experiences co-occurring mental health disorders, the conditions are best treated simultaneously. With how deeply interconnected most of these conditions are, not addressing both can make long-term recovery particularly difficult. […] The type of comprehensive care needed to treat bulimia and anxiety often includes courses of therapy both individual and in a group, nutritional counseling, meal support, medical treatment, and medication when needed. […] When patients are treated for bulimia nervosa along with an anxiety disorder, additional counseling or therapy around the ideas of food, nutrition, and body image may be included.
  • #45 What Causes Bulimia Nervosa?
    https://withinhealth.com/learn/articles/what-causes-bulimia-nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa has been linked to a history of stress or trauma. […] One study found up to 25% of participants with bulimia showed signs of post-traumatic stress disorder. […] While these scenarios aren’t direct causes of bulimia, they may serve as triggers that kick off unhelpful coping mechanisms like binge eating and purging. […] This idea is supported by research that shows that parental role modeling can have a significant influence on a person’s feelings about both food and body image. […] A huge number of studies have been conducted on the subject, with one overview summarizing that more than 25 different reports had successfully linked body dissatisfaction and signs of bulimia to both peer and family influence. […] Specifically, the development of BN was linked to weight-related bullying, interaction between peers, including sharing concerns over weight and body image, and „likability,” or the pressure to be well-liked, and the idea that thinness makes someone more „likable.”
  • #46
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200115020-00004
    Data in the literature suggest that levels of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) are lower in individuals with bulimia nervosa than in healthy controls. Levels of dopamine are similar to, or lower than, those in controls. After remission of the disorder, noradrenergic function returns to that seen in controls, whereas dopaminergic and serotonergic function rebound to levels higher than in controls. Among the neuropeptides, alterations in the levels of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, -endorphin, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, cholecystokinin and vasopressin have been found in the symptomatic phase of bulimia nervosa, with a return to levels seen in controls after remission. […] Pharmacological treatment of bulimia nervosa that is directed at correction of the neurochemical alterations observed is difficult because of the complexity of the impairments. However, such treatment is necessary and should be continued long after symptomatic remission to ensure reinstitution of cerebral biochemical homeostasis.
  • #47 Bulimia Nervosa – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562178/
    Bulimia nervosa is a disorder that is characterized by binge eating and inappropriate compensatory behavior to control weight with potentially dangerous sequelae. […] The precise etiology of bulimia nervosa is unclear but is likely multifactorial. The abnormalities in interoceptive function, particularly of the insula, may contribute to the binging behavior associated with this condition. A 2016 study indicated that patients with anorexia and bulimia nervosa have widespread abnormalities with diffuse alterations in white matter structural and useful connectivity, particularly within appetite-regulating and taste-reward pathways. Other studies have indicated a possible altered function of intrinsic functional brain architecture. […] The primary objective of treatment is a cessation of the binging and purging behavior. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as fluoxetine, citalopram, and sertraline have shown to reduce symptoms of bulimia nervosa. Fluoxetine is the only FDA approved medication for bulimia nervosa. It appears that a higher dose (60 mg) is significantly better than a placebo in decreasing the frequency of binge and vomiting episodes.
  • #48 How Do Antidepressants Treat Bulimia?
    https://www.eatingdisorderhope.com/information/bulimia/how-do-antidepressants-treat-bulimia
    Antidepressants address brain chemical imbalances. While experts aren’t exactly sure how they help people with bulimia, research shows that many people struggling with bingeing and purging get better when they take their prescriptions regularly. […] Researchers aren’t sure how antidepressants help people with bulimia. They suspect some people have serotonin issues driving their bulimia behaviors, and since some antidepressants work on those pathways, they can help. But they’re not 100% sure. […] The imbalance of serotonin levels in the body can increase urges to binge and purge in women and men who have bulimia. Antidepressant medications may decrease these urges by effectively balancing the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain. […] While researchers may not understand the exact mechanism of action, it’s clear that antidepressants can help people with bulimia feel better.
  • #49 How Do Antidepressants Treat Bulimia?
    https://www.eatingdisorderhope.com/information/bulimia/how-do-antidepressants-treat-bulimia
    Antidepressants address brain chemical imbalances. While experts aren’t exactly sure how they help people with bulimia, research shows that many people struggling with bingeing and purging get better when they take their prescriptions regularly. […] Researchers aren’t sure how antidepressants help people with bulimia. They suspect some people have serotonin issues driving their bulimia behaviors, and since some antidepressants work on those pathways, they can help. But they’re not 100% sure. […] The imbalance of serotonin levels in the body can increase urges to binge and purge in women and men who have bulimia. Antidepressant medications may decrease these urges by effectively balancing the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain. […] While researchers may not understand the exact mechanism of action, it’s clear that antidepressants can help people with bulimia feel better.
  • #50 How Do Antidepressants Treat Bulimia?
    https://www.eatingdisorderhope.com/information/bulimia/how-do-antidepressants-treat-bulimia
    It is important to remember that since bulimia is a complex psychiatric illness, treatment must address various concerns on multiple levels: the physical/biological, emotional, and psychological. […] Achieving total and complete healing involves work with a multidisciplinary team, which can be one of the greatest tools for treatment and recovery.
  • #51 Neurobiology of Eating Disorders: Clinical Implications
    https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/neurobiology-eating-disorders-clinical-implications
    Alterations in brain circuitry linked to reward and inhibition in particular appear to be involved in the maladaptive eating behavior characteristic of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder. […] Mounting evidence suggests that an altered balance of reward and inhibition may contribute to disordered eating. In anorexia nervosa, severely restricted food intake appears to be related to overactive inhibitory control in combination with underactive reward circuitry. In contrast, dysregulation of both inhibitory and reward drives may manifest in the alternating over- and under-consumption characteristic of bulimia nervosa. Binge eating disorder may be related to altered sensitivity of ventral reward regions. […] Neuroimaging research suggests eating disorder symptoms may result from dysfunction in circuits underlying reward and inhibition. The brain-based temperament traits of eating disorders are stable across illness and recovery. This suggests that treatments that work with these traits and target disturbances in inhibitory control, reward sensitivity, and salience may better address disease-specific mechanisms contributing to disordered eating-and may also enhance adherence and motivation, and thereby improve outcomes.
  • #52 Neurobiology of Eating Disorders: Clinical Implications
    https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/neurobiology-eating-disorders-clinical-implications
    Alterations in brain circuitry linked to reward and inhibition in particular appear to be involved in the maladaptive eating behavior characteristic of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder. […] Mounting evidence suggests that an altered balance of reward and inhibition may contribute to disordered eating. In anorexia nervosa, severely restricted food intake appears to be related to overactive inhibitory control in combination with underactive reward circuitry. In contrast, dysregulation of both inhibitory and reward drives may manifest in the alternating over- and under-consumption characteristic of bulimia nervosa. Binge eating disorder may be related to altered sensitivity of ventral reward regions. […] Neuroimaging research suggests eating disorder symptoms may result from dysfunction in circuits underlying reward and inhibition. The brain-based temperament traits of eating disorders are stable across illness and recovery. This suggests that treatments that work with these traits and target disturbances in inhibitory control, reward sensitivity, and salience may better address disease-specific mechanisms contributing to disordered eating-and may also enhance adherence and motivation, and thereby improve outcomes.
  • #53 The Characteristics, Risks, Effects, and Pathophysiology of Eating Disorders -A Review
    https://www.ijraset.com/research-paper/the-characteristics-risks-effects-and-pathophysiology-of-eating-disorders
    GWASs, epigenetic, gene-expression and gene–gene interaction projects, nutritional genomics suggest that genetics play a large role in the development of eating disorders. […] Research about specific gut bacteria also contributes to the information about the pathophysiology of eating disorders. Gut microbiota has been shown to demonstrate involvement in various metabolic functions such as the regulation of weight gain, harvestation of energy from the diet and the secretion of insulin. It is majorly influenced by diet and lifestyle. Gut microbiomes reportedly produce various bioactive metabolic products that enter the systemic circulation. They are capable of producing extreme effects on metabolism, immune function, gene expression, as well as the central nervous system (CNS). […] The pathophysiological model of eating disorders should be based on molecular mechanisms that explain the alterations in appetite and feeding patterns, the mechanisms underlying alterations and diagnostic crossovers between different eating disorders and the risk factors that trigger the final common molecular pathway that leads to anorexia nervosa and/or bulimia nervosa.