Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441838/

  The etiology of ADHD is related to a variety of factors that include both a genetic and an environmental component. It is one of the most heritable conditions in terms of psychiatric disorders. There is a much greater concordance in monozygotic twins than dizygotic. Siblings have twice the risk of having ADHD than the general population. Similarly, viral infections, smoking during pregnancy, nutritional deficiency, and alcohol exposure in the fetus have also been explored as possible causes of the disorder. There are no consistent findings on brain imaging of patients with ADHD. The number of dopaminergic receptors has also been implicated in the development of the disorder, whereby research has shown that the receptors are decreased in the frontal lobes in individuals with ADHD. There is also evidence for the role of noradrenergic receptor involvement in ADHD.

• #1 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder

  ADHD arises from maldevelopment in brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia and anterior cingulate cortex, which regulate the executive functions necessary for human self-regulation. […] The precise causes of ADHD are unknown in most individual cases. […] Meta-analyses have shown that the disorder is primarily genetic with a heritability rate of 70-80%, where risk factors are highly accumulative. […] The environmental risks are not related to social or familial factors; they exert their effects very early in life, in the prenatal or early postnatal period. […] However, in rare cases, ADHD can be caused by a single event including traumatic brain injury, exposure to biohazards during pregnancy, or a major genetic mutation. […] As it is a neurodevelopmental disorder, there is no biologically distinct adult-onset ADHD except for when ADHD occurs after traumatic brain injury.

• #1 Psychiatry.org – What is ADHD?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/adhd/what-is-adhd

  Scientists have not yet identified the specific causes of ADHD. While there is growing evidence that genetics contribute to ADHD and several genes have been linked to the disorder, no specific gene or gene combination has been identified as the cause of the disorder. However, it is important to note that relatives of individuals with ADHD are often also affected. There is evidence of anatomical differences in the brains of children with ADHD in comparison to other children without the condition. For instance, children with ADHD have reduced grey and white brain matter volume and demonstrate different brain region activation during certain tasks (Pliszka, 2007). Further studies have indicated that the frontal lobes, caudate nucleus, and cerebellar vermis of the brain are affected in ADHD (Tripp Wickens, 2009). Several non-genetic factors have also been linked to the disorder such as low birth weight, premature birth, exposure to toxins (alcohol, smoking, lead, etc.) during pregnancy, and extreme stress during pregnancy.

• #1 ADHD in Adults: Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/5197-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd-in-adults

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is a brain development condition that starts in childhood and continues after you become an adult. This condition causes trouble with maintaining attention, hyperactivity and impulse control difficulties. With treatment, people can usually live fulfilling lives with few or no effects from it. […] Experts dont fully understand why or how ADHD happens. Theres evidence that it may involve differences in your brain structure, brain chemistry or both. But experts do know it can be genetic. That means you can inherit ADHD from one or both parents. However, some people also develop it spontaneously without a family history. […] Having ADHD means youre likely to have subtle but important differences in your brain structure. A key part of how your brain works is how it forms connections between its different areas. People with ADHD seem to have fewer connections in certain areas, or those areas may be slightly smaller or less dense than they are in people without ADHD. The affected areas are key in managing executive functions. […] Research indicates ADHD might cause an imbalance or shortage of certain neurotransmitters, especially dopamine and norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline in certain parts of the world). Without the right amount or mix of neurotransmitters, your brain cant function as it should.

• #1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/289350-overview

  This concludes that dopamine dysfunction may be involved with symptoms of inattention but may also contribute to substance abuse comorbidity. […] According to a study of young children, there is evidence of early brain structural changes in pre-schoolers with ADHD. […] Results show reductions in bilateral frontal, parietal, and temporal lobe gray matter volumes in children with ADHD relative to typically developing children. […] Examination of frontal lobe sub-regions revealed that the largest between group effect sizes were evident in the left orbitofrontal cortex, left primary motor cortex, and left supplementary motor complex. […] ADHD-related reductions in specific sub-regions were significantly correlated with symptom severity, such that higher ratings of hyperactive/impulsive symptoms were associated with reduced cortical volumes.

• #1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/289350-overview

  Another study using proton magnetic spectroscopy demonstrated right prefrontal neurochemical changes in adolescents with ADHD. […] Work by Sobel et al has demonstrated deformations in the basal ganglia nuclei (caudate, putamen, globus pallidus) in children with ADHD. […] Furthermore, Sobel et al have shown that stimulants may normalize the deformations. […] In a longitudinal analysis, Shaw et al used 389 neuroanatomic MRI images to compare 193 typically developing children with varying levels of symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity with 197 children with ADHD. […] Children with higher levels of hyperactivity/impulsivity had a slower rate of cortical thinning. […] A PET scan study by Volkow et al revealed that in adults with ADHD, depressed dopamine activity in caudate and preliminary evidence in limbic regions was associated with inattention and enhanced reinforcing responses to intravenous methylphenidate.

• #1 What are the causes of ADHD? Biology vs. environment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/causes-of-adhd

  The differences in brain volume were more noticeable in children with ADHD than in adults. This supports the researchers theory that ADHD causes a delay in the development and maturation of several brain regions. […] According to a 2018 review, functional MRI (fMRI) studies indicate that people with ADHD may have impairments in several brain networks that manage attention, cognitive control, timing, and working memory. […] Brain chemistry refers to the balance of chemicals that affect a persons mood and nervous system. One such brain chemical is dopamine. […] In a 2009 study, study participants with ADHD had lower dopamine levels than participants without ADHD. […] A 2018 study with children ages 3-7 years old hospitalized overnight for TBI found that TBI correlated to an increased risk of ADHD up to 7 years after the injury.

• #1 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4784-attention-deficithyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  ADHD is genetic. This means your child is born with certain gene changes that cause differences in their brain development (neurodivergence). Often, the gene changes that cause ADHD are passed down within biological families. Kids with ADHD commonly have biological parents or siblings with the condition. […] Researchers continue to look into how ADHD affects the brain. Heres what we know so far. With ADHD, the frontal lobe of your childs brain is wired in a way that makes it harder for them to use directed attention. Directed attention is the ability to focus on something you dont find very interesting. […] Experts believe that some people have genes that predispose them to ADHD. In other words, the genes make ADHD a possibility for that person. But then, certain environmental factors tip the scales and cause ADHD to develop. […] Environmental risk factors include: Exposure to certain toxins during fetal development, including tobacco, alcohol or lead. Low birth weight (the lower the weight, the higher the risk). Preterm birth.

• #1 ADHD in children and young people

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/causes/

  The cause of ADHD is not always known. ADHD may be caused by genetic differences and often runs in families. […] There are several other things linked to ADHD, including being born premature (before 37 weeks of pregnancy), having epilepsy, a brain injury or being autistic.

• #1 Causes and Risk Factors in ADHD | Psychology Today

  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/adhd/causes-of-adhd

  The causes of ADHD are not fully understood. As with other mental health and behavioral disorders, genes likely play a role, but recent research also implicates exposure to environmental toxins such as pesticides or lead, as well as prenatal cigarette smoking or alcohol intake. […] Poor parenting is not to blame for ADHD, but parenting styles and strategies can have an effect on children’s self-regulating abilities. […] Some studies have found an association between increased amounts of screen time early in life and a heightened risk of ADHD later on. […] It is a popular belief that refined sugar causes hyperactivity or may even be to blame for ADHD itself. […] According to the DSM, which specifically requires that symptoms start before age 12, no. But many adults with ADHD report that they did not have symptoms in childhood, and some research has identified a number of clinical cases including several longitudinal studies that followed children to adulthood where ADHD symptoms did appear to first emerge in adulthood.

• #1 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: diagnostic criteria, epidemiology, risk factors and evaluation in youth – Cabral – Translational Pediatrics

  https://tp.amegroups.org/article/view/30808/28327

  Exposure to toxins such as heavy metals (i.e., lead, mercury) and chemicals (i.e., organophosphate pesticides) has been implicated as well with growing evidence of strong linkage with ADHD. […] The role of nutrition in ADHD etiology has been widely studied with increased supportive literature of low zinc levels and omega-3 fatty acid levels found in ADHD individuals. […] There is a positive association between media use and ADHD-related behaviors. […] Further research is required to determine whether the relationship between use of digital media and subsequent ADHD symptoms is causal.

• #1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/289350-overview

  Researchers in Denmark conducted a population-based cohort study to determine the association of prenatal exposure to antiepileptic drugs and risk of ADHD in offspring. […] This suggests that maternal use of valproate, but not other AEDs, during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of ADHD in the offspring. […] There has been concern about the association of maternal smoking during pregnancy and the development of ADHD in offspring. […] Results showed a dose-dependent relationship between nicotine exposure during pregnancy and offspring ADHD. […] Evidence of a neurobiologic contribution to the cause of ADHD continues to grow.

• #1 Causes of an ADHD Diagnosis in Adulthood | Psych Central

  https://psychcentral.com/adhd/causes-of-adult-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  Some causes of adult ADHD may happen later in life when you’re a teenager or adult, like: brain injury, environmental exposure to toxins, heavy alcohol use. […] Whether you have adult ADHD from childhood or late-onset ADHD, you might have other health-related conditions. […] Other health conditions, behavioral issues, and lifestyle choice, can be relative to ADHD. […] According to mental health guidelines, adults ages 18 years and over need to have a range of symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity that meet certain conditions to be diagnosed with ADHD. […] According to the National Institutes of Health, some doctors require that you must have several symptoms of ADHD that started before age 12 years to be diagnosed with ADHD as an adult. […] If you had milder ADHD symptoms during childhood and were not diagnosed, the demands and responsibilities of adult life may intensify your symptoms.

• #1 Psychopathology of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: from an inflammatory perspective | The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery | Full Text

  https://ejnpn.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41983-022-00561-y

  Just like many other psychiatric disorders, one cannot pinpoint a single, definite cause for ADHD. It has been linked to many genetic and environmental factors, and an interplay of both. […] Several studies have reported that a younger parental age is generally associated with a higher risk of having an offspring with ADHD. […] The heritability of ADHD has also been studied in family and twin studies. […] Different approaches have been used to identify the genetic markers associated with ADHD. […] Although ADHD is a highly heritable disorder, it has also been linked to a large number of environmental factors during the pre-, peri- and postnatal periods in the published literature. […] ADHD is a common neurodevelopmental disorder with an increasing prevalence and economic burden globally. Current literature cannot pinpoint the exact cause of ADHD but suggests that an interplay of genetic and environmental factors plays a role in the pathogenesis and psychopathology of ADHD. […] It is also increasingly evident that factors such as oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, autoimmune diseases, maternal immune activation, allergic diseases and other immune-mediated conditions are linked to ADHD.

• #1 Causes of Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – LifeHelper

  https://lifehelper.com/adhd/causes-of-adult-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/

  The exact causes of adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are unknown. What we do know is that are a lot of possible reasons a person develops attention deficit disorder, and the factors vary from person to person. […] Recent research evidence is growing regarding the importance of genes and heritability significantly contributing to a persons chances of an eventual diagnosis of this disorder. […] ADHD has a strong genetic basis in the majority of cases, as a person with ADHD is four times as likely to have a relative who was also diagnosed with attention deficit disorder. […] Adults with ADHD who carry a particular version of a certain gene have thinner brain tissue in the areas of the brain associated with attention. […] Some studies also suggest that a lack of omega-3 fatty acids is linked to ADHD symptoms.

• #1 Adult ADHD: Symptoms, Statistics, Causes, Types, and Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/adhd-adults

  Scientists aren’t sure exactly what causes someone to get ADHD, but research has shown that it runs in families. […] They do know that people with ADHD have differences in the way their brains are structured. It takes their brains longer to become fully mature. The nerve cells that send and receive signals in the brain work differently, too. […] Studies have found no evidence that ADHD is caused by poor parenting, sugar consumption, or too much screen time. It’s possible these things could make ADHD worse, though.

• #1 Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult_attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder

  Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (adult ADHD) refers to ADHD that persists into adulthood. It is a neurodevelopmental disorder, meaning impairing symptoms must have been present in childhood, except for when ADHD occurs after traumatic brain injury. According to the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria, multiple symptoms should have been present before the age of 12. This represents a change from the DSM-IV, which required symptom onset before the age of 7. This was implemented to add flexibility in the diagnosis of adults. ADHD was previously thought to be a childhood disorder that improved with age, but later research challenged this theory. Approximately two-thirds of children with ADHD continue to experience impairing symptoms into adulthood, with symptoms ranging from minor inconveniences to impairments in daily functioning, and up to one-third continue to meet the full diagnostic criteria.

• #1 Adult-Onset ADHD Raises Questions

  https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/adult-onset-adhd-raises-questions

  Four recent studies may have turned what we know about attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on its head. […] In 3 of the 4 papers, the adult-onset ADHD actually began in the teenage years. […] Furthermore, many of these teenaged-onset cases (29% to 75%) had symptoms of ADHD in their childhood that were either below the threshold for the full diagnosis or were classified as part of a related disorder (eg, conduct disorder or oppositional-defiant disorder). […] The fourth paper claimed to identify new-onset ADHD in middle-aged adults, and it made the biggest headlines. […] Most of the children with ADHD no longer had the full disorder as adults, and most of the adults who met criteria for ADHD in middle age did not have the full disorder in childhood. […] Two other studies that looked at purported cases of adult-onset ADHD concluded that the majority (93% to 95%) of the cases were better explained by sleep disorders, substance use disorders, or another psychiatric disorder.

• #1 Adult ADHD: 14 Signs and Symptoms

  https://www.healthline.com/health/adhd/adult-adhd

  ADHD, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, is a brain disorder that often manifests in childhood. It can cause difficulty with things like attention, organization, and mood, and can lead to hyperactivity and impulsivity. […] The National Institute of Mental Health estimates that the number of adults with ADHD may be higher than data suggests. Many children assigned female at birth also go undiagnosed until adulthood because ADHD can present differently in females. […] ADHD can lead a person to neglect their physical health. ADHD symptoms that may affect your ability to maintain your physical health include: disorganization, emotional concerns, impulsivity, lack of motivation. […] Substance misuse may not affect every adult with ADHD, but a 2021 consensus statement showed that people with the condition are more likely than others to experience substance misuse. This may involve the use of alcohol, tobacco, or other drugs. […] ADHD is a neurological condition that is often noticeable in childhood. It typically involves difficulty with focusing, planning, attention, and emotions, as well as hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

• #1 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201520

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a persistent neurodevelopmental disorder that affects 5% of children and adolescents and 2.5% of adults worldwide. […] No single risk factor is necessary or sufficient to cause ADHD. In most cases ADHD arises from several genetic and environmental risk factors that each have a small individual effect and act together to increase susceptibility. […] The multifactorial causation of ADHD is consistent with the heterogeneity of the disorder, which is shown by its extensive psychiatric co-morbidity, its multiple domains of neurocognitive impairment and the wide range of structural and functional brain anomalies associated with it. […] This meta-analysis provides a clear estimate of the persistence of ADHD from childhood to adulthood and highlights that, although the majority of ADHD cases detected in childhood do not fulfil the entire diagnostic criteria in adulthood, persistence of impairing systems is common.

• #1 Causes of an ADHD Diagnosis in Adulthood | Psych Central

  https://psychcentral.com/adhd/causes-of-adult-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  Some symptoms from childhood ADHD can also change in adults. […] If you are diagnosed with ADHD as an adult, your doctor may recommend prescription medication as part of your treatment plan. […] Common ADHD medications include stimulants called methylphenidate (Ritalin) and stimulants called amphetamine (Adderall). […] In addition to medication, psychotherapy and coaching can help you learn life skills to manage your ADHD symptoms.

• #1 Adult ADHD: Symptoms, Treatment, and Self-Help Tips

  https://www.helpguide.org/mental-health/adhd/adhd-in-adults

  While scientists aren’t sure exactly what causes ADHD, they think it’s likely caused by a combination of genes, environment, and slight differences in how the brain is hardwired. […] Many adults struggle all their lives with unrecognized ADHD symptoms. They haven’t received help because they assumed that their chronic difficulties, like depression or anxiety, were caused by other impairments that did not respond to usual treatment. […] ADHD that is undiagnosed and untreated can have wide-reaching effects and cause problems in virtually every area of your life. […] The symptoms of ADHD can contribute to a variety of health problems, including compulsive eating, substance abuse, anxiety, chronic stress and tension, and low self-esteem. […] Adults with ADHD often experience career difficulties and feel a strong sense of underachievement. […] The symptoms of ADHD can put a strain on your work, love, and family relationships. […] The difficulties you’ve experienced stem from attention deficit disorder—they are not a result of personal weakness or a character flaw.

• #1

  https://www.advocatehealth.com/health-services/behavioral-health-care/adhd

  Adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder can be diagnosed later in life, with many adults having found ways to adapt or work around their symptoms. […] The cause of ADHD is unknown, but research shows that genetics may impact the probability of developing ADHD. Premature delivery, low birth weight, brain injury and exposure to alcohol and tobacco use during pregnancy may also be possible causes. […] ADHD does not go away with treatment it’s a lifelong condition. With medication, therapy and healthy habits, once you discover a management plan that works best for you or your child, you may stick with it for years, adjusting when necessary. While some children do outgrow ADHD symptoms, many will continue treatment into adulthood.

• #1 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-024-00495-0

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; also known as hyperkinetic disorder) is a common neurodevelopmental condition that affects children and adults worldwide. ADHD has a predominantly genetic aetiology that involves common and rare genetic variants. Some environmental correlates of the disorder have been discovered but causation has been difficult to establish. […] The heterogeneity of the condition is evident in the diverse presentation of symptoms and levels of impairment, the numerous co-occurring mental and physical conditions, the various domains of neurocognitive impairment, and extensive minor structural and functional brain differences. […] Clinical and neurobiological research is ongoing and could lead to the creation of personalized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for this disorder.

• #1

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s44192-022-00030-1

  Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent psychiatric condition characterized by developmentally inappropriate symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity, which leads to impairments in the social, academic, and professional contexts. […] Despite the difficulties imposed by the high complexity of ADHD etiology, the growing body of research and technological advances provide good perspectives for understanding the neurobiology of the disorder. […] ADHD diagnosis is sometimes challenging due to the substantial heterogeneity of the disorder in terms of clinical and pathophysiological aspects, a fact that impacts research on the etiological and neurobiological specificities of ADHD. […] The high rates of psychiatric comorbidities observed in patients with ADHD and the considerable proportion of overlap in symptoms and causes with other mental disorders are key factors to be considered in this sense.

• #1 Psychopathology of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: from an inflammatory perspective | The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery | Full Text

  https://ejnpn.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41983-022-00561-y

  Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattentiveness, hyperactivity and impulsivity, which may affect ones cognitive and psychosocial functioning. […] The exact cause of ADHD remains unknown, and the aetiology of the disorder is believed to be multifactorial. Numerous genetic and environmental factors have been linked to the development of ADHD. […] Like many psychiatric disorders, ADHD has been associated with inflammation that occurs locally and peripherally. A growing body of evidence shows that maternal inflammatory status during pregnancy is associated with diagnosis of ADHD in the offspring, whereas oxidative stress, inflammatory biochemical markers and immune-mediated diseases have been observed in individuals with ADHD.

• #1

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s44192-022-00030-1

  ADHD has a multifactorial etiology, in which genetic and environmental factors are involved in its development. […] The genetic contribution to ADHD is among the highest for psychiatric disorders. […] The total heritability of ADHD has been estimated at 70-80%. […] Although additive effects are the major component of heritability, available evidence suggests that non-additive effects (genetic interactions) also contribute to a large proportion of phenotypic variance and that the effects of a shared family environment are minimal. […] The understanding of the genetic architecture of ADHD has significantly evolved with the technological advances in the molecular genetics field, especially with the availability of large-scale genome-wide association studies (GWAS). […] Genomic studies revealed an extensive genetic overlap of ADHD with a wide range of phenotypes, including psychiatric, cognitive, behavioral, and metabolic domains, suggesting that the clinically observed association of ADHD with these phenotypes can be explained, at least in part, by shared genetic factors.

• #1 Diagnosis and Management of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Adults | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2012/0501/p890.html

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in childhood can persist into adulthood in at least 30 percent of patients, with 3 to 4 percent of adults meeting the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed., diagnostic criteria. […] Current estimates indicate that approximately 3 to 4 percent of adults meet the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. (DSM-IV), diagnostic criteria for ADHD, whereas approximately 16 percent of adults meet some of these criteria, but not enough for diagnosis. […] It is now believed that ADHD can continue into adulthood in at least 30 percent of patients diagnosed with this disorder as a child. […] A number of conditions have symptoms similar to those of ADHD and should be considered in the differential diagnosis. […] Diagnosis relies on a thorough clinical history, supported by a number of rating scales that take five to 20 minutes to complete, depending on the scale.

• #1 Diagnosis and Management of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Adults | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2012/0501/p890.html

  The mainstay of ADHD treatment is pharmacotherapy. Most studies focus on medications in children, yet these medications have been shown to be safe and effective in adults as well. […] Stimulants and antidepressants (e.g., bupropion [Wellbutrin], desipramine [Norpramin]) have similar effectiveness, although no direct comparison trials have been conducted. […] Clinical guidelines recommend stimulants and atomoxetine (Strattera) as first-line treatments, followed by antidepressants. […] Small studies have found that cognitive behavior therapy is helpful as an adjunct to medication in the treatment of ADHD in adults. […] In general, depression should be treated before ADHD is treated. […] The combination of an antidepressant and stimulants has been shown to be safe and effective. […] Stimulants should be avoided in patients with bipolar disorder, and mood stabilizers or atypical antipsychotics should be used instead.

• #1 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Symptoms & Causes | NewYork-Presbyterian

  https://www.nyp.org/pediatrics/child-and-adolescent-psychiatry/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  The exact cause of ADHD is unknown. Research suggests it may be due to a combination of genetics, environment, and other factors that may have caused injury to the nervous system early on, like prematurity. […] Risk factors for ADHD include: […] Genetics – having a close relative with ADHD, including a parent or a sibling […] Gender – boys tend to be diagnosed with ADHD more often than girls […] Premature delivery […] Low birth weight […] Maternal alcohol and tobacco use during pregnancy. […] Currently, there is no known way to prevent ADHD. Pregnant persons should avoid smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol, and using drugs, which may help reduce the risk of ADHD and other issues in the child’s behavior.

• #2 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder | ADHD | ADD | MedlinePlus

  https://medlineplus.gov/attentiondeficithyperactivitydisorder.html

  ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder. It is usually first diagnosed in childhood and often lasts into adulthood. But some people don’t get diagnosed with ADHD until they are adults. […] The exact cause of ADHD is unknown. ADHD probably results from a combination of factors, such as genetics and your environment. Researchers are looking at possible environmental factors that might raise the risk of developing ADHD. These factors include brain injuries, nutrition, and social environments.

• #2 Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult_attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder

  The research on this topic continues to develop, with some of the most recent studies indicating that ADHD does not necessarily begin in childhood. […] The exact causes of ADHD are still not fully understood, but non-genetic biological risk factors (e.g., low birth weight, events during pregnancy) and environmental factors are thought to play a role in the development of ADHD. […] ADHD is a highly genetically influenced condition, meaning it commonly runs in families. Individuals with a first-degree relative with ADHD demonstrate a risk of ADHD 4-5 times higher than the general population rate and have prevalence rates of around 20%. The rate of inheriting the disorder is estimated to be about 76% among children and adolescents and between 70 and 80% among adults.

• #2 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: diagnostic criteria, epidemiology, risk factors and evaluation in youth – Cabral – Translational Pediatrics

  https://tp.amegroups.org/article/view/30808/28327

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common neurodevelopmental disorder in childhood with persistence into adulthood. It has a multifactorial etiology. […] Understanding the multifactorial risk factors associated with ADHD is necessary. […] There is known increased genetic predisposition in the affected individual as observed in multiple family and twin studies. […] Candidate gene association studies had found dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) and DRD5 variants with consistent associations with ADHD in several meta-analysis studies. […] Identifying true causality of environmental risk factors for ADHD is difficult, as associations may be observed with several affecting variables. […] One of the known risk factors is related to maternal health during pregnancy, including maternal use of substances such as cigarettes and alcohol.

• #2 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/289350-overview

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental condition of inattention and distractibility, with or without accompanying hyperactivity. […] The pathology of ADHD is not clear. Psychostimulants (which facilitate dopamine release) and noradrenergic tricyclics used to treat this condition have led to speculation that certain brain areas related to attention are deficient in neural transmission. […] The neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine have been associated with ADHD. […] The underlying brain regions predominantly thought to be involved are frontal and prefrontal; the parietal lobe and cerebellum may also be involved. […] A 2010 study again indicated the presence of frontostriatal malfunctioning in the etiology of ADHD. […] Although ADHD has been associated with structural and functional alterations in the frontostriatal circuitry, recent studies have further demonstrated changes just outside that region and more specifically in the cerebellum and the parietal lobes.

• #2 What are the causes of ADHD? Biology vs. environment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/causes-of-adhd

  Researchers do not know the exact cause of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, they believe it may develop from a combination of genetic and environmental factors. […] Many studies suggest a strong link between genetic factors and ADHD, but this is not the only thing that appears to contribute to it. […] ADHD tends to run in families. Identical twins are more likely to develop ADHD than nonidentical twins. This suggests a genetic component to the condition, as identical twins have the same genes while nonidentical twins do not. […] Genes may account for 74% of the cause of ADHD. […] ADHD also appears to cause or originate from changes in the brain. […] A 2017 imaging study found that overall brain volume and specific brain regions were slightly smaller in participants with ADHD than in those without ADHD.

• #2 What Is the Cause of ADHD? | Psychiatrists San Diego

  https://www.sandiegopsychiatristsnps.com/blog/what-is-the-cause-of-adhd/

  Being diagnosed with ADHD can be frustrating. While the exact cause of ADHD is still unknown, several different factors can contribute to its development. […] Research shows that ADHD brain function and structure in adults differ from those without the disorder. The prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia, which are responsible for decision-making, working memory, and goal-directed behavior, are often smaller in individuals with ADHD. […] Additionally, the posterior inferior vermis of the cerebellum, which is involved in motor control and cognitive functions, is often decreased in volume. These brain differences can lead to difficulties in executive functioning, including organization, planning, and self-regulation. […] As we mentioned earlier, the primary cause is low levels of dopamine and norepinephrine a neurotransmitter in the brain.

• #2 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – Pediatrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/learning-and-developmental-disorders/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has no known single, specific cause. Potential causes of ADHD include genetic, biochemical, sensorimotor, physiologic, and behavioral factors. Some risk factors include birth weight 1500 g, head trauma, iron deficiency, obstructive sleep apnea, and lead exposure, as well as prenatal exposure to alcohol, tobacco, and possibly cocaine. […] ADHD also is associated with adverse childhood experiences. […] Evidence implicates differences in dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems with decreased activity or stimulation in upper brain stem and frontal-midbrain tracts.

• #2 Articles

  https://samgoldstein.com/resources/articles/general/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-in-adults.aspx

  Problems characterized as disorders of attention and hyperactivity in children have long constituted the most chronic behavior disorder and the largest single source of referrals to child mental health centers. ADHD reflects a biopsychosocial etiology with heredity shaping temperament and interacting with life experience to determine whether a child ultimately receives the diagnosis. […] It is increasingly recognized that ADHD in fact does not represent a problem with faulty attention but rather represents a problem of faulty modulation and self-regulation. […] Just as it took many years to recognize that depression can extend downward from adulthood into childhood, it has taken an equal amount of time to recognize that Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder can extend upwards from childhood into adulthood.

• #2 ADHD in Adults: Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/5197-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd-in-adults

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is a brain development condition that starts in childhood and continues after you become an adult. This condition causes trouble with maintaining attention, hyperactivity and impulse control difficulties. With treatment, people can usually live fulfilling lives with few or no effects from it. […] Experts dont fully understand why or how ADHD happens. Theres evidence that it may involve differences in your brain structure, brain chemistry or both. But experts do know it can be genetic. That means you can inherit ADHD from one or both parents. However, some people also develop it spontaneously without a family history. […] Having ADHD means youre likely to have subtle but important differences in your brain structure. A key part of how your brain works is how it forms connections between its different areas. People with ADHD seem to have fewer connections in certain areas, or those areas may be slightly smaller or less dense than they are in people without ADHD. The affected areas are key in managing executive functions. […] Research indicates ADHD might cause an imbalance or shortage of certain neurotransmitters, especially dopamine and norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline in certain parts of the world). Without the right amount or mix of neurotransmitters, your brain cant function as it should.

• #2 What are the causes of ADHD? Biology vs. environment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/causes-of-adhd

  The differences in brain volume were more noticeable in children with ADHD than in adults. This supports the researchers theory that ADHD causes a delay in the development and maturation of several brain regions. […] According to a 2018 review, functional MRI (fMRI) studies indicate that people with ADHD may have impairments in several brain networks that manage attention, cognitive control, timing, and working memory. […] Brain chemistry refers to the balance of chemicals that affect a persons mood and nervous system. One such brain chemical is dopamine. […] In a 2009 study, study participants with ADHD had lower dopamine levels than participants without ADHD. […] A 2018 study with children ages 3-7 years old hospitalized overnight for TBI found that TBI correlated to an increased risk of ADHD up to 7 years after the injury.

• #2 Adult ADHD Symptoms, Medications, Treatment & Tests

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/adhd_in_adults/article_em.htm

  Biologically, ADHD is a neurochemical and neuroanatomical disorder, meaning that specific brain chemicals and brain regions are affected. […] People with ADHD are thought to have several chemicals (still to be determined) in the brain that are not present in the right quantities in the right places at the right times. […] Both dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE; noradrenaline) are brain chemicals involved in regulating both attention and reward pathways in the brain and are thought to be affected by ADHD. […] Neuroimaging research has shown both that children with ADHD show differences in how their brains develop, as well as identifying areas in the adult brain that seem to function differently. […] Risk factors for childhood ADHD are thought to include male gender, but some of that is known to be the result of the symptoms of ADHD potentially seeming less apparent in girls.

• #2 ADHD: Why Diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is Rising  | Brown University Health

  https://www.brownhealth.org/be-well/adhd-why-diagnosis-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-rising

  ADHD, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, is a common condition that has steadily been on the increase in both children and adults. […] While the causes of ADHD remain unknown, researchers believe genetics plays a key role. In addition, other potential causes and risk factors may include brain injury, environmental risks such as lead exposure, alcohol and tobacco use during pregnancy, premature birth, and low birth weight.

• #2 What Is ADHD? Symptoms, Treatment, and More

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/adhd/guide/

  The specific genes associated with ADHD have not yet been identified. Scientists believe multiple genes may be involved because of the complexity of the condition, say experts at the National Human Genome Research Institute. […] Exposure to substances, especially lead, may be a contributing factor. Studies have indicated a relationship between ADHD and levels of lead in the bloodstream. […] Using tobacco during pregnancy has been associated with ADHD symptoms in children in a number of studies. […] TBI in early childhood has been linked to the development of psychiatric disorders. Among those disorders, ADHD is the most common, with a prevalence of about 20 percent, notes a study published in the May 2018 issue of JAMA Pediatrics. […] Some research has suggested that the lower a baby’s birth weight or the earlier their birth is, the greater the risk they have of developing ADHD. […] While these factors may affect or exacerbate symptoms, research doesn’t support claims that they cause ADHD.

• #2 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/mental-health/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/

  ADHD can also cause problems like difficulties with relationships and social interaction. […] The exact cause of ADHD isn’t fully understood. […] A combination of the following factors might be responsible: Genetics […] ADHD tends to run in families. The genes you inherit from your parents are a factor in developing the condition. The way ADHD is inherited is complex and isn’t thought to be related to a single gene. […] Brain function and structure […] Research has identified some possible differences in the brains of people with ADHD. […] Some studies involving brain scans have suggested that certain areas of the brain may be a different size in people with ADHD. […] Other studies have suggested that people with ADHD may have a chemical imbalance in the brain. Or that some chemicals may not work properly. […] Certain people are also believed to be more at risk of ADHD, including people: […] who were born prematurely (before the 37th week of pregnancy) or with a low birthweight […] with epilepsy […] with brain damage which happened either in the womb or after a severe head injury later in life.

• #2 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | NAMI

  https://www.nami.org/about-mental-illness/mental-health-conditions/adhd/

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a condition characterized by inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity. ADHD is most commonly diagnosed in young people. An estimated 8.8% of children aged 4-17 have ADHD. While ADHD is usually diagnosed in childhood, it does not only affect children. An estimated 4.4% of adults aged 18-44 have ADHD. […] There are several factors believed to contribute to ADHD: Genetics. Research shows that genes may be a large contributor to ADHD. ADHD often runs in families and some trends in specific brain areas that contribute to attention. Environmental factors. Studies show a link between cigarette smoking and alcohol use during pregnancy and children who have ADHD. Exposure to lead as a child has also been shown to increase the likelihood of ADHD in children.

• #2 What Are the Causes of ADHD?

  https://www.verywellmind.com/what-causes-adhd-20465

  ADHD is primarily a hereditary disorder. It is estimated that the percentage of genetic contribution to ADHD is an estimated 74%. […] Despite this strong genetic link, having ADHD doesn’t automatically mean you’ll pass it on to your child. This is because it is a combination of genes and environmental factors that determine whether a child develops ADHD. […] A small percentage of people experience ADHD symptoms as a result of brain damage, such as an early brain injury, trauma, or another impediment to normal brain development. […] Being exposed to certain environmental toxins during childhood can increase the risk that a child will develop ADHD. […] A gestational parent’s health and habits during pregnancy can also play a role in the development of ADHD. Poor nutrition and infections during pregnancy can increase the risk of ADHD, for example.

• #2 What causes ADHD? And whether or not it can be prevented.

  https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/health-wellness/2024/02/09/what-causes-adhd/72426941007/

  ADHD is not a condition that is usually thought to be preventable. „As a neurodevelopmental syndrome, ADHD is not something that you 'catch’ or 'get,'” says Ramsay. […] One caveat is pregnancy and the avoidance of any substances that could cause or contribute to the fetus’s development of the condition. „There is a well-documented association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring (with ADHD),” notes one study. […] What’s more, if any of the aforementioned known environmental risk factors turn out to be causal instead of correlational, „then those factors could also be targets for ADHD prevention,” says Tseng.

• #2 ADHD in adults

  https://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/mental-health/mental-illnesses-and-mental-health-problems/adhd-in-adults

  For most people with ADHD, the condition is caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. […] The genetic factors that lead to someone developing ADHD are generally made up of lots of small genetic differences rather one single gene. […] Environmental factors can include things like difficulties when you were in the womb, birth complications, exposure to toxins, nutritional deficiencies, brain injury. […] Studies have shown that the genetic and environmental factors leading to ADHD are also found in other common mental and physical health conditions.

• #2 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/ADHD-Causes-and-Risk-factors.aspx

  Exposure to toxins Toddlers and preschoolers who are exposed to environmental poisons and toxins are also at higher risk of behavioural problems. […] Traumatic brain injury Brain injury has also been linked to ADHD in some studies. […] Additives Some food additives such as preservatives and artificial colouring have been linked to aggravation and increased risk of ADHD. […] Food intolerance Certain food intolerance like that to milk, wheat and nuts has also been linked to raised risk of ADHD. […] Exposure to television There have been concerns that excessive exposure to television at a young age may lead to an increased risk of ADHD. […] Other risk factors These include being born prematurely before 37 weeks of gestation and being born with a low birth weight.

• #2 What Causes ADHD? — Talkspace

  https://www.talkspace.com/mental-health/conditions/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/causes/

  One thing weve understood for quite a while is that ADHD impacts brain function, but newer research has given us a better look at exactly how. Evidence suggests that people with ADHD may have structural differences in their brains. […] Approximately 44% of children with childhood ADHD have parents who also exhibit symptoms of the condition. […] Research shows us that children who are exposed to nicotine in the womb are more likely to develop ADHD. […] Serious head injuries have been linked to many mental health conditions, including ADHD. […] Babies who are born prematurely are more likely to develop ADHD, according to some studies. […] Exposure to chemicals and other environmental toxins can interfere with brain development.

• #2 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: diagnostic criteria, epidemiology, risk factors and evaluation in youth – Cabral – Translational Pediatrics

  https://tp.amegroups.org/article/view/30808/28327

  Exposure to toxins such as heavy metals (i.e., lead, mercury) and chemicals (i.e., organophosphate pesticides) has been implicated as well with growing evidence of strong linkage with ADHD. […] The role of nutrition in ADHD etiology has been widely studied with increased supportive literature of low zinc levels and omega-3 fatty acid levels found in ADHD individuals. […] There is a positive association between media use and ADHD-related behaviors. […] Further research is required to determine whether the relationship between use of digital media and subsequent ADHD symptoms is causal.

• #2 What Is ADHD? Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms, Causes, TreatmentsFooterLogo

  https://www.additudemag.com/what-is-adhd-symptoms-causes-treatments/?srsltid=AfmBOoruXgM0U-Z6VjHUiA7q-I1jWT0Q9pl3UflREnJzmwXksRkQxXyj

  ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) is a complex brain disorder that impacts approximately 11% of children and almost 5% of adults in the U.S. ADHD is a developmental impairment of the brain’s executive functions. People with ADHD have trouble with impulse-control, focusing, and organization. […] The causes of ADHD remain somewhat unclear. Research suggests that genetics and heredity play a large part in determining who gets ADHD. However, scientists are still investigating whether certain genes, especially ones linked to the neurotransmitter dopamine, play a defined role in developing ADHD. […] ADHD is not caused by bad parenting, too much sugar, or too many video games. ADHD is a brain-based, biological disorder. Brain imaging studies and other research show many physiological differences in the brains of individuals with ADHD.

• #2 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Adult | Psychology Today

  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/conditions/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adult

  Per the DSM-5 definition of ADHD, no symptoms must be present from age 12 or earlier in order for someone to qualify for a diagnosis. […] The researchers concluded that ADHD may not always have a childhood onset. […] However, some follow-up studies argued that what was classified as adult-onset ADHD may have actually been something else, such as side effects from substance use or a related condition such as bipolar disorder. […] Further research is needed to definitively answer the question of adult-onset ADHD.

• #2 What Can Trigger ADHD in Adults? 6 Factors to Look Out For

  https://www.psy-ed.com/wpblog/what-can-trigger-adhd-in-adults/

  ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects multiple executive functions, including planning, organization, impulse control, the ability to pay attention, and emotional regulation. Current estimates suggest that ADHD affects just under 10% of children and approximately 4.4% percent of adults in North America. […] Contrary to popular belief, ADHD doesn’t resolve on its own during adulthood. Once a person has ADHD, it will always be present in some capacity, even if the individual learns to cope with the condition very effectively. […] Experts aren’t sure if ADHD can arise spontaneously during adulthood. Though some research suggests that adult-onset ADHD may be a distinct syndrome that differs from childhood ADHD in its severity and characteristics, current diagnostic guidelines require symptoms to be present before age 12.

• #2 About Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/about/index.html

  ADHD is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood. […] The causes of ADHD are unknown, but scientists have identified some possible risk factors. […] Genetics. […] Exposure to environmental risks (for example, lead) during pregnancy or at a young age. […] Alcohol and tobacco use during pregnancy and other pregnancy-related factors. […] Child health conditions, including head injuries. […] Parental mental health and family environment. […] Diagnosing ADHD usually includes a checklist for rating ADHD symptoms and taking a history of the child from parents, teachers, and sometimes, the child. […] ADHD can last into adulthood. […] Some adults have ADHD but have never been diagnosed. […] Symptoms can become more severe when the demands of adulthood increase.

• #2 Causes and Risk Factors in ADHD | Psychology Today

  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/adhd/causes-of-adhd

  ADHD has long been perceived as a childhood disorder, and it’s true that some children with ADHD report no longer struggling with symptoms as adults. But in the majority of cases as many as 60 percent, according to some estimates, symptoms will persist into adulthood. […] Boys are certainly more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than girls; the CDC reports that 12.9 percent of American boys between 2 and 17 have been diagnosed with ADHD, compared to 5.6 percent of girls. […] While some children do appear to grow out of their ADHD symptoms in that they seem to struggle significantly less with symptoms as they age, there is no evidence that the disorder can be cured.

• #2 Adult ADHD: Symptoms, Test, Diagnosis, and Medication

  https://www.medicinenet.com/adult_adhd/article.htm

  Males and having a family history of this disorder increase the chances that a person will be diagnosed with ADHD. […] Low family income and low educational achievement for a person’s father are social risk factors for developing ADHD. […] The prognosis for ADHD adults seems to be influenced by the severity of symptoms, scores on intelligence tests, whether the person with the condition has other mental health problems, as well as if there are family issues, such as parental mental health problems, family problems, socioeconomic challenges, and if the individual with ADHD receives treatment. […] Studies show that stimulant treatment of this condition often improves the prognosis for adults, decreasing the risk for developing other psychiatric problems, failing in school and in the world of work.

• #2 Psychopathology of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: from an inflammatory perspective | The Egyptian Journal of Neurology, Psychiatry and Neurosurgery | Full Text

  https://ejnpn.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41983-022-00561-y

  Just like many other psychiatric disorders, one cannot pinpoint a single, definite cause for ADHD. It has been linked to many genetic and environmental factors, and an interplay of both. […] Several studies have reported that a younger parental age is generally associated with a higher risk of having an offspring with ADHD. […] The heritability of ADHD has also been studied in family and twin studies. […] Different approaches have been used to identify the genetic markers associated with ADHD. […] Although ADHD is a highly heritable disorder, it has also been linked to a large number of environmental factors during the pre-, peri- and postnatal periods in the published literature. […] ADHD is a common neurodevelopmental disorder with an increasing prevalence and economic burden globally. Current literature cannot pinpoint the exact cause of ADHD but suggests that an interplay of genetic and environmental factors plays a role in the pathogenesis and psychopathology of ADHD. […] It is also increasingly evident that factors such as oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, autoimmune diseases, maternal immune activation, allergic diseases and other immune-mediated conditions are linked to ADHD.

• #2 What causes ADHD? And whether or not it can be prevented.

  https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/health-wellness/2024/02/09/what-causes-adhd/72426941007/

  The most studied causes of ADHD is related to genetics, early child development, and risk factors associated with pregnancy. „Some risk factors for development of ADHD include premature birth, fetal exposure to substances like alcohol or tobacco, or low birth weight,” says Emma Hepburn, PhD, a clinical psychologist and author of „A Toolkit For Your Emotions.” […] While these things explain the existence of ADHD in some people, various external factors can still contribute to or exacerbate symptoms. „ADHD is a complex genetic trait,” says Ramsay. „Its genetic expression can be influenced by interaction with environmental factors and stressors.” […] Some of these external factors could include the overuse of technology, exposure to environmental toxicants such as lead, and early life adversity. „It is important to note that many of these risk factors came from studies that are correlational in nature,” says Wan-Ling Tseng, PhD, an assistant professor at Yale School of Medicine. Because of this, she says more research is still needed to determine the degree to which these factors contribute to or affect the disorder.

• #2 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-024-00495-0

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; also known as hyperkinetic disorder) is a common neurodevelopmental condition that affects children and adults worldwide. ADHD has a predominantly genetic aetiology that involves common and rare genetic variants. Some environmental correlates of the disorder have been discovered but causation has been difficult to establish. […] The heterogeneity of the condition is evident in the diverse presentation of symptoms and levels of impairment, the numerous co-occurring mental and physical conditions, the various domains of neurocognitive impairment, and extensive minor structural and functional brain differences. […] Clinical and neurobiological research is ongoing and could lead to the creation of personalized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for this disorder.

• #2

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s44192-022-00030-1

  Despite the great advances in understanding the biological aspects related to ADHD, as summarized above, the causal effects underlying the reported associations are still largely unknown. […] ADHD is substantially influenced by genetics with a polygenic architecture, there is extensive biological and phenotypic overlap between ADHD and other psychiatric traits, and the correlations observed in clinical and epidemiological studies have been confirmed by studies of genetic correlations.

• #2 Adult ADHD Symptoms, Medications, Treatment & Tests

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/adhd_in_adults/article_em.htm

  Many of these negative outcomes are linked to continued, severe, and persistent ADHD symptoms. […] Studies are demonstrating that adults with ADHD report similar symptoms as described in children with ADHD, but the daily impact of these symptoms is clearly different. […] Emerging evidence suggests that the combination of medication, cognitive therapy, and life coaching appears to significantly improve the prognosis of adults with ADHD.

• #2 Causes of an ADHD Diagnosis in Adulthood | Psych Central

  https://psychcentral.com/adhd/causes-of-adult-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  Some symptoms from childhood ADHD can also change in adults. […] If you are diagnosed with ADHD as an adult, your doctor may recommend prescription medication as part of your treatment plan. […] Common ADHD medications include stimulants called methylphenidate (Ritalin) and stimulants called amphetamine (Adderall). […] In addition to medication, psychotherapy and coaching can help you learn life skills to manage your ADHD symptoms.

• #2 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201520

  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a persistent neurodevelopmental disorder that affects 5% of children and adolescents and 2.5% of adults worldwide. […] No single risk factor is necessary or sufficient to cause ADHD. In most cases ADHD arises from several genetic and environmental risk factors that each have a small individual effect and act together to increase susceptibility. […] The multifactorial causation of ADHD is consistent with the heterogeneity of the disorder, which is shown by its extensive psychiatric co-morbidity, its multiple domains of neurocognitive impairment and the wide range of structural and functional brain anomalies associated with it. […] This meta-analysis provides a clear estimate of the persistence of ADHD from childhood to adulthood and highlights that, although the majority of ADHD cases detected in childhood do not fulfil the entire diagnostic criteria in adulthood, persistence of impairing systems is common.

• #3 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – ADHD symptoms, causes and diagnosis | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/attention-deficit-disorder-add-or-adhd

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder that begins in early childhood. […] The exact causes of ADHD aren’t known. Genetic studies show that ADHD is an inherited disorder. […] Research has shown that ADHD symptoms are related to the biology of your brain. […] The following environmental factors may contribute towards the development of ADHD: maternal smoking during pregnancy, maternal drinking during pregnancy, premature birth, low birth weight. […] Other environmental factors that can cause changes in your brain’s development and function include toxins, home environment, and early childhood trauma.

• #3

  https://myhealth.alberta.ca/Health/pages/conditions.aspx?hwid=hw166083

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common condition. […] The exact cause of ADHD is not clear. It tends to run in families, so genetics may be involved. Scientists are studying other possible causes, such as things in the environment and things that happen before or after birth. […] Treatment for ADHD will depend on the age of the person. It may include behaviour therapy and medicines. The first step is an accurate diagnosis of ADHD and an understanding of the person’s strengths and weaknesses. There is no cure for ADHD. But treatment may help control the symptoms. […] Medicines are used to help control the symptoms of ADHD. […] Most often, stimulants are used to treat ADHD. These work well for people of all ages. In general, stimulants improve symptoms quickly. […] If stimulants don’t work or have side effects that cause problems, your child’s doctor might recommend a non-stimulant. These medicines may be used alone or along with stimulant medicines.

• #3

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s44192-022-00030-1

  ADHD has a multifactorial etiology, in which genetic and environmental factors are involved in its development. […] The genetic contribution to ADHD is among the highest for psychiatric disorders. […] The total heritability of ADHD has been estimated at 70-80%. […] Although additive effects are the major component of heritability, available evidence suggests that non-additive effects (genetic interactions) also contribute to a large proportion of phenotypic variance and that the effects of a shared family environment are minimal. […] The understanding of the genetic architecture of ADHD has significantly evolved with the technological advances in the molecular genetics field, especially with the availability of large-scale genome-wide association studies (GWAS). […] Genomic studies revealed an extensive genetic overlap of ADHD with a wide range of phenotypes, including psychiatric, cognitive, behavioral, and metabolic domains, suggesting that the clinically observed association of ADHD with these phenotypes can be explained, at least in part, by shared genetic factors.

• #3 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Adults | Understanding ADHD In Adults

  https://sunshinebehavioralhealth.com/resources/hyperactivity-disorder-in-adults/

  ADHD is not just those observable symptoms or behaviors. It is at least partially physical or biological. […] The brains of people with ADHD have observable physical differences. Their overall brain volumes and the size of five regions of their brains tend to be smaller, which can cause delayed development. Their brain structures are also different enough that researchers have concluded that ADHD is a brain disorder. […] A genetic predisposition seems among the most likely factors that contribute to ADHD. Studies have found that the condition runs in families. In 2019, an international research team identified areas on 11 human chromosomes that were risk factors for ADHD. […] Another possible cause is environmental factors, a broad category that includes: Prenatal factors. If the mother smoked or drank during pregnancy, those could be a factor. […] Whether these are bona fide causes or just risk factors that may increase the likelihood of developing ADHD are disputed.

• #3 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/289350-overview

  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental condition of inattention and distractibility, with or without accompanying hyperactivity. […] The pathology of ADHD is not clear. Psychostimulants (which facilitate dopamine release) and noradrenergic tricyclics used to treat this condition have led to speculation that certain brain areas related to attention are deficient in neural transmission. […] The neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine have been associated with ADHD. […] The underlying brain regions predominantly thought to be involved are frontal and prefrontal; the parietal lobe and cerebellum may also be involved. […] A 2010 study again indicated the presence of frontostriatal malfunctioning in the etiology of ADHD. […] Although ADHD has been associated with structural and functional alterations in the frontostriatal circuitry, recent studies have further demonstrated changes just outside that region and more specifically in the cerebellum and the parietal lobes.

• #3 Causes of an ADHD Diagnosis in Adulthood | Psych Central

  https://psychcentral.com/adhd/causes-of-adult-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd

  Some causes of adult ADHD may happen later in life when you’re a teenager or adult, like: brain injury, environmental exposure to toxins, heavy alcohol use. […] Whether you have adult ADHD from childhood or late-onset ADHD, you might have other health-related conditions. […] Other health conditions, behavioral issues, and lifestyle choice, can be relative to ADHD. […] According to mental health guidelines, adults ages 18 years and over need to have a range of symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity that meet certain conditions to be diagnosed with ADHD. […] According to the National Institutes of Health, some doctors require that you must have several symptoms of ADHD that started before age 12 years to be diagnosed with ADHD as an adult. […] If you had milder ADHD symptoms during childhood and were not diagnosed, the demands and responsibilities of adult life may intensify your symptoms.

• #3 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – HealthyWomen

  https://www.healthywomen.org/condition/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder

  ADHD is not caused by many environmental triggers commonly believed to be associated with the disorder, such as too much TV, food allergies, eating too much sugar, problematic home life, poor teaching or schools or permissive parenting. Still, it is essential to realize that the home environment and the school setting are extremely important in managing ADHD and that ineffective parenting and educational settings can exacerbate the symptoms and lead to additional impairments.

• #3 Articles

  https://samgoldstein.com/resources/articles/general/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-in-adults.aspx

  Estimates suggest that among the severely affected ADHD adult population there is a high co-occurring rate of borderline and impulse personality problems, substance abuse and in recent studies a significant risk for depression and anxiety disorders. […] It is important for developmental consultants to recognize that between 30 to 70% of children diagnosed with ADHD will continue to experience at least some, if not the full syndrome, of symptoms into adulthood.

• #3 Adult ADHD Symptoms, Medications, Treatment & Tests

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/adhd_in_adults/article_em.htm

  Many of these negative outcomes are linked to continued, severe, and persistent ADHD symptoms. […] Studies are demonstrating that adults with ADHD report similar symptoms as described in children with ADHD, but the daily impact of these symptoms is clearly different. […] Emerging evidence suggests that the combination of medication, cognitive therapy, and life coaching appears to significantly improve the prognosis of adults with ADHD.

• #3 What causes ADHD? And whether or not it can be prevented.

  https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/health-wellness/2024/02/09/what-causes-adhd/72426941007/

  The most studied causes of ADHD is related to genetics, early child development, and risk factors associated with pregnancy. „Some risk factors for development of ADHD include premature birth, fetal exposure to substances like alcohol or tobacco, or low birth weight,” says Emma Hepburn, PhD, a clinical psychologist and author of „A Toolkit For Your Emotions.” […] While these things explain the existence of ADHD in some people, various external factors can still contribute to or exacerbate symptoms. „ADHD is a complex genetic trait,” says Ramsay. „Its genetic expression can be influenced by interaction with environmental factors and stressors.” […] Some of these external factors could include the overuse of technology, exposure to environmental toxicants such as lead, and early life adversity. „It is important to note that many of these risk factors came from studies that are correlational in nature,” says Wan-Ling Tseng, PhD, an assistant professor at Yale School of Medicine. Because of this, she says more research is still needed to determine the degree to which these factors contribute to or affect the disorder.

• #4 ADHD in Kids & Teens (for Parents) | Nemours KidsHealth

  https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/adhd.html

  ADHD is not caused by too much screen time, poor parenting, or eating too much sugar. […] It’s not clear what causes the brain differences of ADHD. There’s strong evidence that ADHD is mostly inherited. Many kids and teens who have ADHD have a parent or relative with it. Kids also can be more at risk for it if they were born early, are exposed to environmental toxins, or their mothers used drugs during pregnancy.

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