Schistosomatoza (bilharcjoza)
Etiologia i przyczyny

Schistosomiaza, wywoływana przez przywry krwi z rodzaju Schistosoma, jest jedną z najważniejszych chorób pasożytniczych na świecie, dotykającą ponad 240 milionów osób, głównie w krajach rozwijających się. Główne gatunki odpowiedzialne za zakażenia u ludzi to S. haematobium (schistosomiaza układu moczowo-płciowego), S. mansoni oraz S. japonicum (schistosomiaza jelitowa). Cykl życiowy pasożyta obejmuje ślimaki słodkowodne jako żywicieli pośrednich oraz człowieka jako żywiciela ostatecznego. Patogeneza choroby wynika głównie z reakcji immunologicznej na jaja pasożyta, które powodują tworzenie ziarniniaków, przewlekłe zapalenie i włóknienie tkanek, prowadząc do uszkodzeń narządów takich jak pęcherz moczowy, jelita, wątroba czy płuca. Schistosomiaza układu moczowo-płciowego zwiększa ryzyko raka pęcherza moczowego, a schistosomiaza jelitowa może prowadzić do nadciśnienia wrotnego i powikłań wątroby. Około 90% przypadków wymaga leczenia w Afryce Subsaharyjskiej, a śmiertelność szacowana jest na około 200 000 osób rocznie.

  1. Etiologia schistosomiazy (bilharziozy)
    1. Gatunki Schistosoma odpowiedzialne za schistosomiazę
    2. Cykl życiowy pasożyta
    3. Patofizjologia schistosomiazy
    4. Czynniki ryzyka i drogi transmisji
    5. Czynniki środowiskowe wpływające na transmisję
    6. Historyczne i geograficzne rozprzestrzenienie
  2. Patogeneza schistosomiazy
    1. Mechanizm uszkodzenia tkanek
    2. Odpowiedź immunologiczna w schistosomiazie
    3. Schistosomiaza układu moczowo-płciowego
    4. Schistosomiaza jelitowa i wątrobowo-śledzionowa
    5. Powikłania pozajelitowe i pozamoczowe
    6. Interakcje z innymi chorobami
  3. Czynniki zwiększające ryzyko schistosomiazy
    1. Czynniki geograficzne
    2. Czynniki społeczno-ekonomiczne
    3. Zachowania wysokiego ryzyka
    4. Grupy szczególnego ryzyka
    5. Czynniki środowiskowe i antropogeniczne
  4. Specyfika gatunkowa schistosomiazy
    1. Schistosoma haematobium
    2. Schistosoma mansoni
    3. Schistosoma japonicum
    4. Rzadsze gatunki Schistosoma
    5. Hybrydyzacja i formy mieszane
  5. Implikacje epidemiologiczne schistosomiazy
    1. Rozpowszechnienie globalne
    2. Epidemiologia regionalna
    3. Trendy epidemiologiczne
    4. Charakterystyka epidemiologiczna
    5. Wpływ społeczno-ekonomiczny
    6. Strategie kontroli i eliminacji
  6. Rozpoznanie różnicowe schistosomiazy
    1. Rozpoznanie różnicowe ostrej schistosomiazy
    2. Rozpoznanie różnicowe schistosomiazy układu moczowo-płciowego
    3. Rozpoznanie różnicowe schistosomiazy jelitowej
    4. Rozpoznanie różnicowe pozajelitowych manifestacji
    5. Wyzwania diagnostyczne
    6. Kolejne rozdziały

Etiologia schistosomiazy (bilharziozy)

Schistosomiaza (bilharzioza), zwana również gorączką ślimaczą lub gorączką Katayama, jest chorobą pasożytniczą wywołaną przez przywry krwi z rodzaju Schistosoma. Nazwa „bilharzioza” pochodzi od nazwiska niemieckiego chirurga Theodora Bilharza, który w 1851 roku po raz pierwszy zidentyfikował czynnik etiologiczny Schistosoma haematobium podczas badań w Kairze12. Jest to jedna z najważniejszych chorób pasożytniczych na świecie, dotykająca ponad 240 milionów ludzi, głównie w krajach rozwijających się, a ponad 700 milionów ludzi mieszka na terenach endemicznych34.

Gatunki Schistosoma odpowiedzialne za schistosomiazę

Za większość przypadków schistosomiazy u ludzi odpowiedzialne są trzy główne gatunki przywry Schistosoma56:

  • Schistosoma haematobium – występujący w Afryce i na Bliskim Wschodzie, powoduje schistosomiazę układu moczowo-płciowego
  • Schistosoma mansoni – występujący w Afryce, Ameryce Południowej, na Karaibach i Bliskim Wschodzie, powoduje schistosomiazę jelitową
  • Schistosoma japonicum – występujący w Azji Wschodniej (Chiny, Filipiny, Indonezja), powoduje schistosomiazę jelitową

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Rzadziej występujące gatunki, które również mogą wywoływać chorobę u ludzi, to910:

  • Schistosoma mekongi – występujący w dorzeczu Mekongu w Azji Południowo-Wschodniej (Laos, Kambodża)
  • Schistosoma intercalatum – występujący w Afryce Zachodniej i Środkowej
  • Schistosoma guineensis – występujący w Afryce Zachodniej

Ponadto odnotowano kilka przypadków zakażeń hybrydowymi schistosomami pochodzenia bydlęcego (S. haematobium x S. bovis, x S. curassoni, x S. mattheei) infekującymi ludzi11.

Cykl życiowy pasożyta

Schistosomiaza ma złożony cykl życiowy, który obejmuje żywiciela pośredniego (ślimaki słodkowodne) oraz żywiciela ostatecznego (człowieka)12. Cykl życiowy przebiega w następujących etapach1314:

  1. Jaja Schistosoma trafiają do słodkiej wody wraz z moczem lub kałem osób zarażonych
  2. Jaja wylęgają się w wodzie, uwalniając miracydia (larwy), które infekują określony gatunek ślimaka słodkowodnego
  3. W ślimaku pasożyt rozwija się i namnaża, po czym uwalnia do wody tysiące cerkarii (larw zakaźnych), które mogą przeżyć w wodzie około 48 godzin
  4. Podczas kontaktu człowieka z zakażoną wodą (np. podczas kąpieli, pływania, prania ubrań) cerkarie przenikają przez nieuszkodzoną skórę za pomocą swojej rozwidlonej głowy
  5. Po przedostaniu się do organizmu, cerkarie przekształcają się w schistosomule, które migrują przez krwiobieg do płuc, a następnie do wątroby, gdzie dojrzewają do postaci dorosłych
  6. Dorosłe przywry przemieszczają się do żył krezkowych (w przypadku S. mansoni i S. japonicum) lub żył pęcherza moczowego (w przypadku S. haematobium), gdzie osiągają dojrzałość płciową, łączą się w pary i rozpoczynają składanie jaj
  7. Samica składa jaja, które przenikają przez ścianę pęcherza moczowego lub jelita i są wydalane z moczem lub kałem, co zamyka cykl życiowy pasożyta

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W przeciwieństwie do innych przywr, które są obojnacze, Schistosoma są rozdzielnopłciowe (występują osobniki odrębnych płci)17. Samce i samice żyją w parach, gdzie samiec obejmuje samicę w swojej bruździe gynaekoforycznej18.

Patofizjologia schistosomiazy

Patogeneza schistosomiazy jest związana głównie z odpowiedzią immunologiczną organizmu na jaja pasożyta, a nie na samego dorosłego pasożyta19. Główne mechanizmy patofizjologiczne obejmują20:

  • Składanie jaj przez dorosłe przywry w naczyniach żylnych narządów docelowych
  • Próby migracji jaj przez ścianę jelita lub pęcherza moczowego w celu wydalenia
  • Silną reakcję immunologiczną organizmu na jaja, które nie zostały wydalone i pozostały w tkankach
  • Tworzenie się ziarniniaków wokół uwięzionych jaj, co prowadzi do przewlekłego stanu zapalnego i włóknienia
  • Postępujące uszkodzenie narządów dotknietych procesem zapalnym i włóknieniem

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W przypadku S. haematobium jaja osadzają się głównie w tkankach pęcherza moczowego i dróg moczowych, powodując stan zapalny, owrzodzenia i krwawienie23. Z czasem może dojść do zwłóknienia pęcherza i powstania zwapnień, co zwiększa ryzyko rozwoju raka pęcherza moczowego2425.

W przypadku S. mansoni i S. japonicum jaja osadzają się głównie w ścianie jelita i wątrobie, prowadząc do przewlekłego zapalenia jelita, biegunki i krwawienia. Długotrwałe zakażenie może prowadzić do włóknienia okołowrotnego w wątrobie, nadciśnienia wrotnego, powiększenia śledziony, wodobrzusza i żylaków przełyku26.

Jaja, które nie zostały wydalone, mogą także migrować do innych narządów, w tym płuc, rdzenia kręgowego i mózgu, powodując pozajelitowe i pozamoczowe manifestacje choroby27.

Czynniki ryzyka i drogi transmisji

Główne czynniki ryzyka zakażenia schistosomiazą obejmują2829:

  • Kontakt z zakażoną słodką wodą (jeziora, stawy, rzeki, zbiorniki, kanały)
  • Mieszkanie na obszarach endemicznych bez dostępu do czystej wody i odpowiednich warunków sanitarnych
  • Wykonywanie czynności związanych z wodą, takich jak kąpiel, pływanie, pranie ubrań, rybołówstwo, rolnictwo
  • Wiek – dzieci i młodzież są bardziej narażone na zakażenie ze względu na częstsze kontakty z wodą i słabszą odporność

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Schistosomiaza nie przenosi się bezpośrednio z człowieka na człowieka – do transmisji wymagana jest obecność ślimaka jako żywiciela pośredniego oraz kontakt z zakażoną wodą3233.

W przypadku S. japonicum cykl życiowy może obejmować również zwierzęta udomowione (np. bydło) i dzikie (w tym gryzonie), które mogą służyć jako rezerwuar pasożyta, co komplikuje kontrolę tej formy schistosomiazy3435.

Czynniki środowiskowe wpływające na transmisję

Rozprzestrzenianie się schistosomiazy jest silnie związane z czynnikami środowiskowymi36. Do głównych czynników wpływających na dystrybucję i częstość występowania choroby należą3738:

  • Dostępność i trwałość wód powierzchniowych – kluczowa dla rozwoju dużych populacji ślimaków
  • Temperatura wody – wpływająca na cykl życiowy zarówno pasożyta, jak i ślimaka
  • Projekty związane z gospodarką wodną (zapory, systemy nawadniające) – mogące zwiększać liczbę siedlisk dla ślimaków będących wektorami
  • Wzorce kontaktu ludzi z wodą – determinujące ryzyko zakażenia
  • Ubóstwo i brak odpowiedniej infrastruktury sanitarnej – sprzyjające kontaminacji źródeł wody

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Zmiany klimatyczne, w tym globalne ocieplenie, mogą również wpływać na geograficzne rozprzestrzenianie się schistosomiazy poprzez zmianę zasięgu występowania ślimaków będących żywicielami pośrednimi41.

Historyczne i geograficzne rozprzestrzenienie

Schistosomiaza jest chorobą o długiej historii – dowody na jej występowanie sięgają nawet 2000 lat p.n.e. Jaja schistosom znaleziono w mumiach z XX dynastii w starożytnym Egipcie42.

Obecnie schistosomiaza występuje endemicznie w około 70 krajach rozwijających się, głównie w Afryce, Ameryce Południowej, na Karaibach, Bliskim Wschodzie i Azji Południowo-Wschodniej43. Szacuje się, że około 90% osób wymagających leczenia z powodu schistosomiazy mieszka w Afryce44.

Rozprzestrzenianie choroby często wiąże się z projektami rozwoju zasobów wodnych, takimi jak zapory (np. Zapora Asuańska w Egipcie) i systemy nawadniające, które tworzą nowe siedliska dla ślimaków będących wektorami choroby4546.

Patogeneza schistosomiazy

Patogeneza schistosomiazy jest złożonym procesem, który zależy od interakcji między pasożytem a odpowiedzią immunologiczną gospodarza. Zrozumienie mechanizmów patogenezy jest kluczowe dla właściwego diagnozowania i leczenia tej choroby47.

Mechanizm uszkodzenia tkanek

Głównym czynnikiem odpowiedzialnym za uszkodzenie tkanek w schistosomiazie nie są dorosłe robaki, lecz jaja składane przez samice48. Mechanizm patogenezy obejmuje49:

  • Składanie jaj w naczyniach żylnych narządów docelowych (jelito, pęcherz moczowy)
  • Uwalnianie przez jaja enzymów proteolitycznych, które ułatwiają ich migrację przez ściany naczyń i tkanek
  • Uwięzienie części jaj w tkankach, gdy nie są w stanie ukończyć migracji
  • Silną odpowiedź immunologiczną przeciwko antygenom jaj, prowadzącą do tworzenia ziarniniaków
  • Rozwój przewlekłego stanu zapalnego i postępującego włóknienia tkanek

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Liczba jaj uwięzionych w tkankach stale rośnie, jeśli schistosomy nie zostaną wyeliminowane, co prowadzi do kumulacyjnego uszkodzenia tkanek52. Przewlekłe zapalenie i włóknienie są odpowiedzialne za większość objawów klinicznych schistosomiazy53.

Odpowiedź immunologiczna w schistosomiazie

Odpowiedź immunologiczna w schistosomiazie jest złożona i obejmuje zarówno mechanizmy wrodzonej, jak i nabytej odporności54. Kluczowe elementy tej odpowiedzi to55:

  • Początkowa reakcja na penetrację cerkarii przez skórę – lokalny stan zapalny
  • Odpowiedź na migrujące schistosomule – częściowo modulowana przez mechanizmy unikania odpowiedzi immunologicznej przez pasożyta
  • Reakcja na dorosłe robaki – względnie ograniczona ze względu na zdolność pasożytów do maskowania swoich antygenów
  • Główna odpowiedź immunologiczna skierowana przeciwko jajom – intensywna reakcja typu Th2, prowadząca do tworzenia ziarniniaków

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Reakcja ziarniniakowa wokół jaj jest próbą organizmu mającą na celu izolację i neutralizację silnie antygenowych składników jaj. Jednak ta sama reakcja jest odpowiedzialna za większość patologii związanej z chorobą57.

Dorośli mieszkańcy obszarów endemicznych wykazują większą odporność na ponowne zakażenia niż dzieci, co sugeruje możliwość nabywania częściowej odporności58.

Schistosomiaza układu moczowo-płciowego

Schistosomiaza układu moczowo-płciowego, wywoływana przez S. haematobium, charakteryzuje się specyficznymi mechanizmami patogenetycznymi59:

  • Dorosłe robaki osiedlają się w splocie żylnym pęcherza moczowego i innych narządów moczowo-płciowych
  • Jaja są składane w ścianie pęcherza moczowego, moczowodach, narządach płciowych
  • Prowadzi to do owrzodzeń, krwawienia i późniejszego włóknienia
  • Chroniczne zmiany mogą obejmować zwapnienia ściany pęcherza („pęcherz porcelanowy”)
  • Przewlekłe zapalenie zwiększa ryzyko rozwoju raka płaskonabłonkowego pęcherza moczowego

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W przypadku kobiet, jaja mogą również osadzać się w narządach płciowych (schistosomiaza narządów płciowych żeńskich – FGS), powodując stany zapalne pochwy i szyjki macicy, co może prowadzić do powikłań takich jak niepłodność, poronienia i ciąże pozamaciczne6263.

Według WHO około 56 milionów kobiet cierpi na schistosomiazę narządów płciowych żeńskich. Badania wykazały również, że kobiety z FGS są około 3 razy bardziej narażone na zakażenie HIV niż kobiety bez tej choroby64.

Schistosomiaza jelitowa i wątrobowo-śledzionowa

Schistosomiaza jelitowa, wywoływana przez S. mansoni, S. japonicum i inne gatunki, charakteryzuje się odmienną patogenezą65:

  • Dorosłe robaki osiedlają się w żyłach krezkowych jelit
  • Jaja są składane w ścianie jelita, głównie okrężnicy i odbytnicy
  • Prowadzi to do stanu zapalnego, owrzodzeń, krwawienia i biegunki
  • Część jaj jest przenoszona z prądem krwi do wątroby
  • W wątrobie dochodzi do tworzenia ziarniniaków okołowrotnych i włóknienia
  • Z czasem rozwija się nadciśnienie wrotne, powiększenie śledziony i wątroby, wodobrzusze i żylaki przełyku

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Schistosomiaza wywołana przez S. japonicum często prowadzi do bardziej nasilonych zmian w wątrobie ze względu na większą liczbę jaj produkowanych przez samice tego gatunku68.

Powikłania pozajelitowe i pozamoczowe

Jaja pasożytów mogą również migrować i osadzać się w innych narządach, powodując pozajelitowe i pozamoczowe manifestacje choroby, takie jak6970:

  • Neuroschistosomiaza – zajęcie układu nerwowego, prowadzące do zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych, mielopatii poprzecznej, padaczki
  • Schistosomiaza płucna – prowadząca do nadciśnienia płucnego
  • Schistosomiaza układu sercowo-naczyniowego – zajęcie mięśnia sercowego
  • Zajęcie narządu wzroku – prowadzące do schistosomiazy ocznej

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Neuroschistosomiaza, choć relatywnie rzadka, jest jednym z najpoważniejszych powikłań. Szacuje się, że około 1-4% zmian rdzenia kręgowego w Afryce Subsaharyjskiej jest spowodowanych zakażeniami schistosomami73.

Schistosomiaza płucna może prowadzić do rozwoju nadciśnienia płucnego poprzez mechanizm zapalny wywołany przez jaja migrujące do płuc. Według szacunków z 2009 roku, częstość występowania tego powikłania na świecie przekraczała 270 000 osób7475.

Interakcje z innymi chorobami

Schistosomiaza może wchodzić w interakcje z innymi chorobami, wpływając na ich przebieg i ciężkość7677:

  • Zwiększone ryzyko zakażenia HIV u osób z schistosomiazą narządów płciowych
  • Potencjalne interakcje z cukrzycą typu 1 i 2, wpływające na odpowiedź immunologiczną
  • Złożone zależności z zakażeniami wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B (HBV), mogące zwiększać ryzyko raka wątroby
  • Interakcje z otyłością, wpływające na metabolizm lipidów i glukozy

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Badania wykazały, że schistosomiaza może wpływać na profil lipidowy i poziom glukozy we krwi u osób z cukrzycą i otyłością, co sugeruje złożone zależności metaboliczne79.

Czynniki zwiększające ryzyko schistosomiazy

Ryzyko zakażenia schistosomiazą jest determinowane przez wiele czynników związanych zarówno ze środowiskiem, jak i zachowaniami ludzi. Zrozumienie tych czynników jest kluczowe dla opracowania skutecznych strategii zapobiegania i kontroli choroby8081.

Czynniki geograficzne

Występowanie schistosomiazy jest ściśle związane z określonymi warunkami geograficznymi i środowiskowymi82:

  • Obecność odpowiednich gatunków ślimaków słodkowodnych będących żywicielami pośrednimi (np. ślimaki z rodzaju Bulinus dla S. haematobium)
  • Dostęp do zbiorników słodkowodnych (jeziora, stawy, rzeki, zbiorniki, kanały)
  • Klimat tropikalny i subtropikalny – sprzyjający rozwojowi pasożyta i ślimaków
  • Sezonowe zmiany poziomu wody – wpływające na liczebność populacji ślimaków

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Dystrybucja schistosomiazy jest definiowana przez zasięg występowania specyficznych gatunków ślimaków będących żywicielami pośrednimi84.

Czynniki społeczno-ekonomiczne

Schistosomiaza jest często określana jako „choroba ubóstwa”, ponieważ jej występowanie jest silnie związane z niskim statusem społeczno-ekonomicznym8586:

  • Brak dostępu do czystej wody pitnej
  • Nieodpowiednie warunki sanitarne – prowadzące do zanieczyszczenia wód odchodami zawierającymi jaja pasożyta
  • Ograniczony dostęp do opieki zdrowotnej i leków
  • Niski poziom edukacji zdrowotnej – brak świadomości na temat dróg zakażenia i metod profilaktyki
  • Uzależnienie gospodarcze od aktywności związanych z wodą (rolnictwo, rybołówstwo)

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Ubóstwo jest zarówno przyczyną, jak i konsekwencją złego stanu zdrowia spowodowanego schistosomiazą, tworząc błędne koło trudne do przerwania8990.

Zachowania wysokiego ryzyka

Ryzyko zakażenia schistosomiazą jest bezpośrednio związane z kontaktem z zakażoną wodą. Następujące zachowania zwiększają to ryzyko9192:

  • Pływanie, kąpanie się lub brodzenie w zakażonych zbiornikach wodnych
  • Pranie ubrań i naczyń w zakażonej wodzie
  • Praca w rolnictwie (np. w uprawie ryżu) wymagająca kontaktu z wodą
  • Rybołówstwo w zakażonych zbiornikach
  • Używanie wody bezpośrednio z zakażonych źródeł do celów domowych

9394

Kontakt z wodą jest najbardziej krytyczną zmienną w transmisji schistosomiazy95.

Grupy szczególnego ryzyka

Niektóre grupy populacji są szczególnie narażone na zakażenie schistosomiazą9697:

  • Dzieci i młodzież – ze względu na częstsze kontakty z wodą podczas zabawy i kąpieli oraz słabszą odporność
  • Rolnicy – pracujący w nawadnianych uprawach
  • Rybacy – mający regularny kontakt z wodą
  • Kobiety – wykonujące prace domowe związane z wodą (pranie, mycie naczyń)
  • Migranci i uchodźcy – przybywający z obszarów endemicznych
  • Turyści – odwiedzający obszary endemiczne bez zachowania odpowiednich środków ostrożności

98

Intensywność i częstość występowania zakażeń rosną z wiekiem i osiągają szczyt między 15 a 20 rokiem życia99.

Czynniki środowiskowe i antropogeniczne

Działalność człowieka może znacząco wpływać na rozprzestrzenianie się schistosomiazy100101:

  • Budowa zapór i zbiorników wodnych – tworzących idealne siedliska dla ślimaków (np. zapora Diama na rzece Senegal)
  • Projekty irygacyjne – zwiększające obszary potencjalnego rozmnażania się ślimaków
  • Szybka urbanizacja – często bez odpowiedniej infrastruktury sanitarnej
  • Wylesianie – wpływające na ekosystemy wodne
  • Zmiany klimatyczne – potencjalnie rozszerzające obszary występowania wektorów

102103

Jednym z najbardziej znanych przykładów wpływu rozwoju zasobów wodnych na rozprzestrzenianie się schistosomiazy jest Wysoka Tama Asuańska w Egipcie, która doprowadziła do znacznego zwiększenia częstości występowania choroby na terenach przyległych104.

Podobnie, zapora Diama na rzece Senegal, zapobiegając napływowi słonej wody, stworzyła duże zbiorniki słodkowodnej wody, które okazały się głównymi miejscami rozmnażania ślimaków przenoszących pasożyty Schistosoma. Po wybudowaniu zapory odnotowano znaczny wzrost liczby przypadków schistosomiazy105.

Specyfika gatunkowa schistosomiazy

Różne gatunki Schistosoma wykazują specyficzne preferencje dotyczące ostatecznej lokalizacji w organizmie człowieka, co determinuje różne formy kliniczne choroby106. Zrozumienie tych różnic jest kluczowe dla właściwej diagnostyki i leczenia107.

Schistosoma haematobium

Schistosoma haematobium jest odpowiedzialna za schistosomiazę układu moczowo-płciowego i charakteryzuje się następującymi cechami108109:

  • Występuje głównie w Afryce i na Bliskim Wschodzie, a niedawno również na Korsyce (Francja)
  • Żywicielem pośrednim są ślimaki z rodzaju Bulinus
  • Dorosłe robaki osiedlają się w splocie żylnym pęcherza moczowego i innych narządów moczowo-płciowych
  • Jaja mają charakterystyczny kształt podłużny z kolcem na jednym końcu
  • Jest jedyną przywrą krwi, która infekuje układ moczowy
  • Jest główną przyczyną raka pęcherza moczowego w obszarach endemicznych (zaraz po paleniu tytoniu)

110111

W 2009 roku Międzynarodowa Agencja Badań nad Rakiem (IARC) przy WHO uznała S. haematobium za karcynogen grupy 1112.

Schistosoma mansoni

Schistosoma mansoni jest odpowiedzialna za jelitową formę schistosomiazy i charakteryzuje się następującymi cechami113:

  • Występuje głównie w Afryce, Ameryce Południowej i na Karaibach
  • Żywicielem pośrednim są ślimaki z rodzaju Biomphalaria
  • Dorosłe robaki osiedlają się w żyłach krezkowych jelita grubego
  • Jaja mają charakterystyczny kształt podłużny z kolcem umieszczonym bocznie
  • Powoduje głównie zmiany w jelicie grubym, wątrobie i śledzionie
  • Rozwój choroby jest zwykle wolniejszy niż w przypadku S. haematobium

114115

Przewlekłe zakażenie S. mansoni może prowadzić do włóknienia okołowrotnego, nadciśnienia wrotnego i powikłań takich jak żylaki przełyku116.

Schistosoma japonicum

Schistosoma japonicum również powoduje jelitową formę schistosomiazy, ale z pewnymi odrębnościami117:

  • Występuje w Azji Wschodniej (Chiny, Filipiny, Indonezja)
  • Żywicielem pośrednim są ślimaki z rodzaju Oncomelania
  • Dorosłe robaki osiedlają się w żyłach krezkowych jelita cienkiego i grubego
  • Jaja mają kształt okrągły, bez wyraźnego kolca
  • Samice produkują znacznie więcej jaj niż inne gatunki, co może prowadzić do poważniejszych uszkodzeń narządów
  • W przeciwieństwie do innych gatunków, może infekować również zwierzęta domowe i dzikie, co komplikuje kontrolę choroby

118119

Przewlekłe zakażenie S. japonicum wiąże się z wyższym ryzykiem powikłań, w tym raka wątroby, okrężnicy i odbytnicy120.

Rzadsze gatunki Schistosoma

Oprócz trzech głównych gatunków, istnieją również rzadsze gatunki Schistosoma powodujące chorobę u ludzi121:

  • Schistosoma mekongi – występująca w dorzeczu Mekongu (Laos, Kambodża), powodująca schistosomiazę jelitową, często z ciężkimi powikłaniami wątrobowymi
  • Schistosoma intercalatum – występująca w Afryce Zachodniej i Środkowej, powodująca łagodniejszą formę schistosomiazy jelitowej
  • Schistosoma guineensis – występująca w Afryce Zachodniej, podobna do S. intercalatum

122123

Łącznie istnieje ponad 20 gatunków schistosom, z czego sześć zakaża ludzi, a wiele innych zakaża zwierzęta domowe124.

Hybrydyzacja i formy mieszane

W obszarach, gdzie różne gatunki schistosom i ich żywiciele pośredni współistnieją, może dochodzić do hybrydyzacji i wprowadzania genów między filogenetycznie spokrewnionymi gatunkami125.

Udokumentowano przypadki hybrydowych schistosom pochodzenia bydlęcego (S. haematobium x S. bovis, x S. curassoni, x S. mattheei) infekujących ludzi, co może komplikować diagnostykę i leczenie126.

Hybrydyzacja może potencjalnie prowadzić do zmian w patogenności, spektrum żywicieli i oporności na leki, co stanowi wyzwanie dla programów kontroli i eliminacji schistosomiazy127.

Implikacje epidemiologiczne schistosomiazy

Schistosomiaza stanowi istotne wyzwanie dla zdrowia publicznego na skalę globalną, z szerokimi implikacjami epidemiologicznymi, społecznymi i ekonomicznymi128.

Rozpowszechnienie globalne

Schistosomiaza jest jedną z najbardziej rozpowszechnionych chorób pasożytniczych na świecie129130:

  • Dotyka ponad 240 milionów ludzi na całym świecie
  • Ponad 700 milionów ludzi mieszka na obszarach endemicznych
  • Choroba jest endemiczna w 74 krajach rozwijających się
  • Około 90% osób wymagających leczenia mieszka w Afryce Subsaharyjskiej
  • Śmiertelność z powodu schistosomiazy szacuje się na około 200 000 osób rocznie

131132

Schistosomiaza jest klasyfikowana przez WHO jako jedna z 20 zaniedbanych chorób tropikalnych (NTDs), które wymagają szczególnej uwagi133.

Epidemiologia regionalna

Dystrybucja różnych gatunków Schistosoma i form choroby różni się w zależności od regionu134:

  • Afryka – dominują S. haematobium i S. mansoni, obserwuje się największe obciążenie chorobą
  • Ameryka Południowa i Karaiby – głównie S. mansoni, z Brazylią jako krajem o największej liczbie przypadków
  • Bliski Wschód – występują S. haematobium i S. mansoni
  • Azja Wschodnia – dominuje S. japonicum, z Chinami jako głównym ogniskiem choroby
  • Azja Południowo-Wschodnia – S. mekongi w dorzeczu Mekongu

135

W Japonii, która kiedyś była obszarem endemicznym, schistosomiaza została wyeliminowana dzięki rozwojowi, poprawie zaopatrzenia w wodę i ogólnej poprawie jakości życia136.

Trendy epidemiologiczne

Obserwuje się kilka istotnych trendów w epidemiologii schistosomiazy137138:

  • Pomimo globalnych wysiłków, liczba zakażonych osób może rosnąć w niektórych regionach
  • Zmiany klimatyczne mogą prowadzić do rozszerzania się obszarów endemicznych
  • Budowa zapór i systemów irygacyjnych często powoduje wzrost częstości występowania choroby na danym obszarze
  • Migracje ludności i zwiększona mobilność mogą prowadzić do wprowadzania choroby na nowe obszary
  • Nowe, bardziej czułe metody diagnostyczne ujawniają, że choroba może być bardziej rozpowszechniona niż wcześniej sądzono

139140

Schistosomiaza rozprzestrzenia się na nowe obszary, gdy ślimaki są przenoszone z zakażonych miejsc na nowe tereny w ramach projektów związanych z wodą lub gdy odpowiednie ślimaki na wcześniej niezakażonych obszarach zostają skażone jajami wydalanymi do wody przez zakażone osoby141.

Charakterystyka epidemiologiczna

Schistosomiaza charakteryzuje się specyficznymi cechami epidemiologicznymi142:

  • Ogniskowa epidemiologia – występowanie choroby jest często skoncentrowane wokół określonych zbiorników wodnych
  • Nierównomierna dystrybucja w populacji – większe wskaźniki zakażeń u dzieci
  • Sezonowość – związana z cyklami rozwojowymi ślimaków i wzorcami kontaktu ludzi z wodą
  • Przewlekły charakter – choroba może utrzymywać się przez lata bez leczenia
  • Możliwość wielokrotnych reinfekcji – zwłaszcza u osób mieszkających na obszarach endemicznych

143

Intensywność i prewalencja zakażeń rosną z wiekiem i osiągają szczyt między 15 a 20 rokiem życia, następnie spadają u dorosłych, co może wskazywać na rozwój częściowej odporności144.

Wpływ społeczno-ekonomiczny

Schistosomiaza ma istotny wpływ społeczno-ekonomiczny na dotknięte społeczności145:

  • Obniżona wydajność pracy i utrata dochodów z powodu choroby
  • Opóźnienia we wzroście i rozwoju poznawczym dzieci
  • Zwiększone wydatki na opiekę zdrowotną
  • Obciążenie systemów opieki zdrowotnej
  • Hamowanie rozwoju gospodarczego obszarów endemicznych

146147

Skutki ekonomiczne i zdrowotne schistosomiazy są znaczne, a choroba bardziej osłabia niż zabija148.

Strategie kontroli i eliminacji

Strategia WHO dotycząca kontroli i eliminacji schistosomiazy opiera się na podejściu wielopłaszczyznowym149150:

  • Masowe leczenie – regularne podawanie prazykwantelu grupom wysokiego ryzyka
  • Kontrola ślimaków – zmniejszanie populacji żywicieli pośrednich
  • Poprawa dostępu do czystej wody i warunków sanitarnych
  • Edukacja zdrowotna – zmiana zachowań związanych z kontaktem z wodą
  • Nadzór i monitoring – dla oceny skuteczności interwencji

151

Eliminacja schistosomiazy będzie wymagać skoordynowanego podejścia integrującego różne strategie dostosowane do lokalnych warunków społeczno-ekologicznych152.

Istniejącym lekiem z wyboru w leczeniu schistosomiazy jest prazykwantel, jednak prowadzone są intensywne badania nad rozwojem szczepionek, których żadna nie została jeszcze zaakceptowana do użytku publicznego153154.

Rozpoznanie różnicowe schistosomiazy

Rozpoznanie różnicowe schistosomiazy zależy od formy choroby, objawów klinicznych i stadium zakażenia. Ze względu na różnorodność manifestacji klinicznych, schistosomiaza może naśladować wiele innych chorób155.

Rozpoznanie różnicowe ostrej schistosomiazy

Ostra schistosomiaza (zespół Katayama) wymaga różnicowania z156:

  • Innymi przyczynami gorączki u podróżujących (malaria, denga, dur brzuszny)
  • Ostrymi wirusowymi zakażeniami (np. mononukleoza zakaźna)
  • Innymi chorobami pasożytniczymi przebiegającymi z eozynofilią
  • Reakcjami alergicznymi
  • Zapaleniem płuc o różnej etiologii

Eozynofilia różnicuje schistosomiazę od innych przyczyn gorączki u osób powracających z podróży157.

Rozpoznanie różnicowe schistosomiazy układu moczowo-płciowego

Schistosomiaza układu moczowo-płciowego wymaga różnicowania z158159:

  • Zakażeniami układu moczowego (bakteryjnymi, grzybiczymi)
  • Kamicą układu moczowego
  • Gruźlicą układu moczowo-płciowego
  • Nowotworami układu moczowego (zwłaszcza rakiem pęcherza moczowego)
  • Chorobami przenoszonymi drogą płciową (w przypadku schistosomiazy narządów płciowych)

Patologia genitalnej schistosomiazy naśladuje wiele chorób przenoszonych drogą płciową, co może prowadzić do błędnej diagnozy160.

Rozpoznanie różnicowe schistosomiazy jelitowej

Schistosomiaza jelitowa wymaga różnicowania z161:

W przypadku zaawansowanej choroby wątroby i nadciśnienia wrotnego, schistosomiaza może być mylona z innymi przyczynami marskości wątroby, takimi jak wirusowe zapalenie wątroby, alkoholowa choroba wątroby czy autoimmunologiczne choroby wątroby162.

Rozpoznanie różnicowe pozajelitowych manifestacji

Neuroschistosomiaza wymaga różnicowania z163164:

  • Zapaleniem opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych o innej etiologii
  • Guzami rdzenia kręgowego
  • Poprzecznym zapaleniem rdzenia kręgowego o innej etiologii
  • Innymi zakażeniami pasożytniczymi ośrodkowego układu nerwowego
  • Chorobami demielinizacyjnymi (np. stwardnienie rozsiane)

Nadciśnienie płucne związane z schistosomiazą może być mylone z innymi formami nadciśnienia płucnego, co wymaga dokładnej diagnostyki różnicowej165.

Wyzwania diagnostyczne

Diagnostyka schistosomiazy napotyka na szereg wyzwań166167:

  • Jaja Schistosoma nie pojawiają się w moczu aż do co najmniej 2 miesięcy po początkowym zakażeniu
  • Jaja są wydalane z kałem lub moczem w różnym czasie, w zależności od gatunku
  • Niska intensywność zakażenia może prowadzić do fałszywie ujemnych wyników badań
  • Przewlekła schistosomiaza może rozwijać się przez długi czas, prowadząc do opóźnienia diagnozy
  • Manifestacje kliniczne schistosomiazy są często niespecyficzne

168

Dorosłe schistosomy żyją średnio 3-10 lat, ale czasem dłużej, co oznacza, że schistosomiaza może być diagnozowana u pacjentów wiele lat po opuszczeniu obszarów endemicznych169170.

W przypadku podejrzenia schistosomiazy, szczególnie u osób z historią podróży do obszarów endemicznych, kluczowe jest uwzględnienie tej choroby w diagnostyce różnicowej, nawet jeśli objawy pojawiły się wiele lat po potencjalnej ekspozycji171.

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  1. 10.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/228392-overview
    Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by flukes (trematodes) of the genus Schistosoma. […] Sometimes referred to as bilharzias, bilharziasis, or snail fever, schistosomiasis was discovered by Theodore Bilharz, a German surgeon working in Cairo, who first identified the etiological agent Schistosoma hematobium in 1851. […] Most human schistosomiasis is caused by S haematobium, S mansoni, and S japonicum. Less prevalent species, such as S mekongi and S intercalatum, may also cause systemic human disease. […] Human beings become infected with schistosomiasis when larval forms of the parasite, released by freshwater snails, penetrate their skin during contact with infested water. […] Two major forms of schistosomiasis exist: intestinal and urogenital. These are caused by 5 main species.
  • #2 Schistosomiasis | Types, Causes, Transmission, Symptoms, & Treatment | Britannica
    https://www.britannica.com/science/schistosomiasis
    schistosomiasis, group of chronic disorders caused by small parasitic flatworms (family Schistosomatidae) commonly called blood flukes. […] The parasites were first identified as a cause of the disease in the 1850s by Theodor Bilharz, a German pathologist working in Egypt. […] There are three main types of schistosomiasis, caused by closely related organisms: (1) Japonica, or Eastern, schistosomiasis is caused by Schistosoma japonicum, found in Japan, southern China, the Philippines, Thailand, and Indonesia. (2) Mansons, or intestinal, schistosomiasis is caused by S. mansoni, found in Africa, the Middle East, the Caribbean, and northern South America. (3) Vesical, or urinary, schistosomiasis is caused by S. haematobium, found throughout Africa and the Middle East. […] Diagnosis is established by a history of residence in or travel to areas where schistosomiasis is endemic, by the presence of blood in the stool or urine, and by the presence of the fluke in a blood smear.
  • #3
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is an acute and chronic disease caused by parasitic worms. […] People become infected when larval forms of the parasite released by freshwater snails penetrate the skin during contact with infested water. […] Schistosomiasis is prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas, especially in poor communities without access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation. […] There are 2 major forms of schistosomiasis intestinal and urogenital caused by 5 main species of blood fluke. […] The economic and health effects of schistosomiasis are considerable and the disease disables more than it kills. […] Praziquantel is the recommended treatment against all forms of schistosomiasis.
  • #4 Schistosomiasis | InfoNTD
    https://www.infontd.org/ntds/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis affects almost 240 million people worldwide, and more than 700 million people live in endemic areas. […] It is estimated that at least 90% of those requiring treatment for schistosomiasis live in Africa. […] Urogenital schistosomiasis is caused by Schistosoma haematobium and intestinal schistosomiasis by any of the organisms S. guineensis, S. intercalatum, S. mansoni, S. japonicum, and S. mekongi.
  • #5 Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/228392-overview
    Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by flukes (trematodes) of the genus Schistosoma. […] Sometimes referred to as bilharzias, bilharziasis, or snail fever, schistosomiasis was discovered by Theodore Bilharz, a German surgeon working in Cairo, who first identified the etiological agent Schistosoma hematobium in 1851. […] Most human schistosomiasis is caused by S haematobium, S mansoni, and S japonicum. Less prevalent species, such as S mekongi and S intercalatum, may also cause systemic human disease. […] Human beings become infected with schistosomiasis when larval forms of the parasite, released by freshwater snails, penetrate their skin during contact with infested water. […] Two major forms of schistosomiasis exist: intestinal and urogenital. These are caused by 5 main species.
  • #6 Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) | NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
    https://www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/schistosomiasis-bilharzia
    Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia or snail fever, is an acute and chronic disease caused by parasitic flatworms called schistosomes or blood flukes. Most human infections are caused by Schistosoma mansoni, S. haematobium, or S. japonicum. […] The infectious, larval form emerges from the snail and contaminates water. People who contact contaminated water during recreational, agricultural, or domestic activities become infected when the fork-shaped larval worms penetrate their skin, travel to blood vessels, and develop into adults. […] The release of eggs from female worms triggers symptoms in infected people, which can include abdominal pain, diarrhea, and blood in the urine. […] Chronic infections frequently result in serious damage to the liver, intestines, and bladder.
  • #7
    https://www.who.int/health-topics/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is a disease of poverty that leads to chronic ill-health. Infection is acquired when people come into contact with fresh water infested with the larval forms (cercariae) of parasitic blood flukes, known as schistosomes. […] Urogenital schistosomiasis is caused by Schistosoma haematobium and intestinal schistosomiasis by any of the organisms S. guineensis, S. intercalatum, S. mansoni, S. japonicum, and S. mekongi. […] Human infection with schistosomes and soil-transmitted helminths is the cause of clinical morbidity in many areas of the world. Human schistosomiasis…
  • #8 About Schistosomiasis | Schistosomiasis | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/schistosomiasis/about/index.html
    Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is a disease caused by parasitic worms. […] The parasites that cause schistosomiasis live in certain types of freshwater snails. […] Schistosomiasis spreads when you come into contact with unsafe water that contains these snails. […] The infectious form of the parasite, called cercariae, comes out of the snail into the water. […] You can become infected if your skin comes in contact with unsafe freshwater. […] Most human infections are caused by these species: Schistosoma mansoni, S. haematobium, S. japonicum. […] Less common infections are caused by these species: S. mekongi, S. intercalatum. […] Schistosomiasis spreads in six steps: Schistosoma eggs enter freshwater when people with schistosomiasis urinate (pee) or defecate (poop) in the water.
  • #9 About Schistosomiasis | Schistosomiasis | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/schistosomiasis/about/index.html
    Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is a disease caused by parasitic worms. […] The parasites that cause schistosomiasis live in certain types of freshwater snails. […] Schistosomiasis spreads when you come into contact with unsafe water that contains these snails. […] The infectious form of the parasite, called cercariae, comes out of the snail into the water. […] You can become infected if your skin comes in contact with unsafe freshwater. […] Most human infections are caused by these species: Schistosoma mansoni, S. haematobium, S. japonicum. […] Less common infections are caused by these species: S. mekongi, S. intercalatum. […] Schistosomiasis spreads in six steps: Schistosoma eggs enter freshwater when people with schistosomiasis urinate (pee) or defecate (poop) in the water.
  • #10
    https://www.who.int/health-topics/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is a disease of poverty that leads to chronic ill-health. Infection is acquired when people come into contact with fresh water infested with the larval forms (cercariae) of parasitic blood flukes, known as schistosomes. […] Urogenital schistosomiasis is caused by Schistosoma haematobium and intestinal schistosomiasis by any of the organisms S. guineensis, S. intercalatum, S. mansoni, S. japonicum, and S. mekongi. […] Human infection with schistosomes and soil-transmitted helminths is the cause of clinical morbidity in many areas of the world. Human schistosomiasis…
  • #11 CDC – DPDx – Schistosomiasis Infection
    https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/schistosomiasis/index.html
    Schistosomiasis (Bilharziasis) is caused by some species of blood trematodes (flukes) in the genus Schistosoma. The three main species infecting humans are Schistosoma haematobium, S. japonicum, and S. mansoni. […] There have also been a few reports of hybrid schistosomes of cattle origin (S. haematobium, x S. bovis, x S. curassoni, x S. mattheei) infecting humans. […] Unlike other trematodes, which are hermaphroditic, Schistosoma spp. are dioecous (individuals of separate sexes).
  • #12 Schistosomiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554434/
    Schistosomiasis (Schistosoma haematobium), more specifically known as urogenital schistosomiasis, is an endemic disease to many countries in Africa and the Middle East that affects millions of individuals. […] Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease historically known as bilharzia caused by the trematode of the genus Schistosoma. […] Schistosoma haematobium is a trematode of the genus Schistosoma. It belongs to the trematode orderDiplostomida in the subclass Digenea. […] It is a parasitic flatworm (commonly known as a blood fluke) that parasitizes the venous plexus of the bladder and other urogenital organs. […] The lifecycle is complex and involves an intermediate host, primarily freshwater snails belonging to the genus Bulinus, and primary host, typically a human.
  • #13 About Schistosomiasis | Schistosomiasis | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/schistosomiasis/about/index.html
    Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is a disease caused by parasitic worms. […] The parasites that cause schistosomiasis live in certain types of freshwater snails. […] Schistosomiasis spreads when you come into contact with unsafe water that contains these snails. […] The infectious form of the parasite, called cercariae, comes out of the snail into the water. […] You can become infected if your skin comes in contact with unsafe freshwater. […] Most human infections are caused by these species: Schistosoma mansoni, S. haematobium, S. japonicum. […] Less common infections are caused by these species: S. mekongi, S. intercalatum. […] Schistosomiasis spreads in six steps: Schistosoma eggs enter freshwater when people with schistosomiasis urinate (pee) or defecate (poop) in the water.
  • #14 About Schistosomiasis | Schistosomiasis | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/schistosomiasis/about/index.html
    The eggs hatch, infect a specific type of freshwater snail, develop, and multiply inside the snails. […] The Schistosoma parasite leaves the snail and enters the water, where it can live for about 48 hours. […] The parasite enters the skin of people who are in contact with unsafe water. […] Within weeks, the parasites turn into adult worms in the blood vessels of the body. […] The female worms produce eggs that travel to the bladder or intestine and come out in urine or stool (poop). […] Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is a disease caused by parasitic worms found in contaminated fresh water.
  • #15 Schistosomiasis – Knowledge @ AMBOSS
    https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/schistosomiasis/
    Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by schistosomes, a type of trematode. […] Pathogen: schistosomes (parasitic trematodes of the genus Schistosoma) […] Infected humans (definitive host) excrete schistosome eggs in urine or feces. […] Eggs hatch in water and release miracidia. […] When humans come in contact with contaminated water (e.g., while swimming), cercaria can penetrate the skin and enter the circulation. […] Maturation into adult schistosomes and migration to the veins of the target organs. […] Females lay eggs, leading to capillary closure and chronic inflammation in the affected organs. […] Penetration of eggs in lumen of the intestine or bladder (depending on the species).
  • #16 Schistosomiasis: Symptoms, Treatment and Spread
    https://patient.info/infections/schistosomiasis-leaflet
    Schistosomiasis is a tropical disease caused by an infection with parasitic worms. […] Schistosomiasis is a tropical disease caused by a parasitic infection with worms from the Schistosomatidae family. […] There are three main worm species that cause schistosomiasis in humans: Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma mansoni, and Schistosoma japonicum. […] Eggs from the mature worms are passed out of the body (excreted) in the poo (faeces) or urine of an infected person. […] The mature larvae are then released from the snails into the water. The larvae can swim around and can enter the skin of someone who bathes, wades or swims in the water. […] The worms settle in the blood vessels around the intestine or the bladder (depending on the species). Here, the male and female worms mate and eggs are produced. […] The life cycle of the worm is then able to start again. […] Not all eggs are excreted. Some stay in the body and are involved in the development of symptoms.
  • #17 CDC – DPDx – Schistosomiasis Infection
    https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/schistosomiasis/index.html
    Schistosomiasis (Bilharziasis) is caused by some species of blood trematodes (flukes) in the genus Schistosoma. The three main species infecting humans are Schistosoma haematobium, S. japonicum, and S. mansoni. […] There have also been a few reports of hybrid schistosomes of cattle origin (S. haematobium, x S. bovis, x S. curassoni, x S. mattheei) infecting humans. […] Unlike other trematodes, which are hermaphroditic, Schistosoma spp. are dioecous (individuals of separate sexes).
  • #18 Schistosomiasis – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis, also known as snail fever, bilharzia, and Katayama fever is a disease caused by parasitic flatworms called schistosomes. […] Schistosomiasis is spread by contact with fresh water contaminated with parasites. […] These parasites are released from infected freshwater snails. […] The disease is especially common among children in underdeveloped and developing countries because they are more likely to play in contaminated water. […] Schistosomiasis belongs to the group of helminth infections. […] Diagnosis is made by finding the parasites eggs in a person’s urine or stool. […] The clinical manifestations of chronic infection are mainly caused by immune reaction to the eggs’ entrapment within tissues resulting in granuloma formation and chronic inflammation. […] Adult worms live together in pairs (one male and female), sexually reproduce, and lay eggs in the veins around the intestines and bladder depending on the species, and these eggs can rupture the wall of the veins to escape to the surrounding tissues.
  • #19 Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) Transmission, Diagnosis & Prevention
    https://www.emedicinehealth.com/schistosomiasis_bilharzia/article_em.htm
    Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is a disease caused by parasitic worms. Infection with Schistosoma mansoni, S. haematobium, and S. japonicum causes illness in humans; less commonly, S. mekongi and S. intercalatum can cause disease. […] Infection occurs when your skin comes in contact with contaminated freshwater in which certain types of snails that carry schistosomes are living. Freshwater becomes contaminated by Schistosoma eggs when infected people urinate or defecate in the water. […] Symptoms of schistosomiasis are caused by the body’s reaction to the eggs produced by worms, not by the worms themselves.
  • #20 Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/228392-overview
    The geographic distribution and etiology of schistosomiasis reflect the unique life cycle of Schistosoma species. […] The eggs, which are highly antigenic and can induce an intense granulomatous response, migrate through the bowel or bladder wall to be shed via feces or urine. […] Eggs that are not shed successfully may remain in the tissues or be swept back to the portal circulation (from the mesenteric vessels) or to the pulmonary circulation (from the vesicular vessels via the inferior vena cava). […] In the case of S japonicum, which may be the species with the highest risk for complications, the life cycle may include domesticated animals (eg, cattle) and wild animals (including rodents).
  • #21 Schistosomiasis – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis, also known as snail fever, bilharzia, and Katayama fever is a disease caused by parasitic flatworms called schistosomes. […] Schistosomiasis is spread by contact with fresh water contaminated with parasites. […] These parasites are released from infected freshwater snails. […] The disease is especially common among children in underdeveloped and developing countries because they are more likely to play in contaminated water. […] Schistosomiasis belongs to the group of helminth infections. […] Diagnosis is made by finding the parasites eggs in a person’s urine or stool. […] The clinical manifestations of chronic infection are mainly caused by immune reaction to the eggs’ entrapment within tissues resulting in granuloma formation and chronic inflammation. […] Adult worms live together in pairs (one male and female), sexually reproduce, and lay eggs in the veins around the intestines and bladder depending on the species, and these eggs can rupture the wall of the veins to escape to the surrounding tissues.
  • #22 Schistosomiasis – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosomiasis
    The eggs make their way through the tissues to the intestinal or bladder lumen with proteolytic enzymes, however, a large number of eggs are unable to finish their journey and remained stuck within the tissues where they can elicit an immune response. […] The number of eggs entrapped in the tissues will continue to increase if the Schistosoma are not eliminated.
  • #23 Schistosomiasis – Infections – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/parasitic-infections-trematodes-flukes/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is infection caused by certain flatworms (flukes), called schistosomes. […] People acquire schistosomiasis by swimming or bathing in fresh water that is contaminated with the flukes. […] Schistosomiasis is acquired by swimming, wading, or bathing in fresh water that is contaminated with the free-swimming stage of the parasite. […] An infected person passes schistosome eggs in stool or urine. […] The eggs cause local tissue damage and inflammation, which may result in ulcers, bleeding, and scar tissue formation. […] Five Schistosoma species develop into adult flukes in people and account for most of the cases of schistosomiasis: Schistosoma hematobium infects the urinary tract (including the bladder). […] Schistosoma mansoni, Schistosoma japonicum, Schistosoma mekongi, and Schistosoma intercalatum infect the intestine and liver.
  • #24 Schistosomiasis: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22631-schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is caused by a parasitic flatworm that enters your skin from infected bodies of water. […] Schistosomiasis is an infection caused by trematodes (flukes). These schistosomes (also called blood flukes) are parasitic flatworms that belong to the genus Schistosoma. […] In the case of schistosomiasis, the flukes are found in snails and then are shed into the water. If your skin comes in contact with contaminated water, the parasites can move into you and live there for years. […] The three main types of schistosomes are responsible for the two main forms of the condition: urogenital schistosomiasis and intestinal schistosomiasis. […] Schistosomiasis is caused by a parasite that resides in certain snails in freshwater locations. The form of the parasite that leaves the snail penetrates human skin with its forked head. […] Infected people release urine and feces that are infected with eggs into water where the snails are. […] Chronic (long-lasting) schistosomiasis may make it more likely that you’ll develop scars on your liver or bladder cancer. […] The condition is also linked to bladder cancer.
  • #25 Schistosoma haematobium – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosoma_haematobium
    Schistosoma haematobium is a species of digenetic trematode, belonging to a group (genus) of blood flukes (Schistosoma). It is found in Africa and the Middle East. It is the major agent of schistosomiasis, the most prevalent parasitic infection in humans. […] It is the only blood fluke that infects the urinary tract, causing urinary schistosomiasis, and is a leading cause of bladder cancer (only next to tobacco smoking). […] The diseases are caused by the eggs. […] The infectious nature was discovered by British physician Robert Thomson Leiper in 1915. […] Its role in cancer was first noted by a British Surgeon Reginald Harrison, at the Liverpool Royal Infirmary, in 1889. […] By 1905, he was convinced that carcinoma of bladder was due to bilharzia. […] After decades of assessing the medical reports, it was finally declared by the WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans in 2009 that S. haematobium is Group 1 carcinogen.
  • #26 Schistosomiasis
    https://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/meded/mech/cases/case14/schistos.htm
    The incubation period is variable but is approximately 8 weeks for S haematobium and 4 weeks for S mansoni and S japonicum. […] Chronic schistosomiasis – retained eggs induce the formation of eosinophilic granulomas, fibrosis and scarring, probably mediated by cytokines and involves T helper lymphocytes. […] The severity of symptoms associated with chronic disease is related to the worm burden. […] S. hematobium produces bladder lesions with hemorrhage and obstruction. […] The bladder becomes inflamed and fibrotic. […] S. mansoni and japonicum produce congestion and ulceration of the bowel wall. […] Long-term involvement of the colon produces abdominal pain and bloody diarrhea. […] Eggs deposited in the intestinal veins are carried by portal blood flow to the liver inflammatory reaction results in periportal fibrosis and hepatic enlargement.
  • #27 Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/228392-overview
    The geographic distribution and etiology of schistosomiasis reflect the unique life cycle of Schistosoma species. […] The eggs, which are highly antigenic and can induce an intense granulomatous response, migrate through the bowel or bladder wall to be shed via feces or urine. […] Eggs that are not shed successfully may remain in the tissues or be swept back to the portal circulation (from the mesenteric vessels) or to the pulmonary circulation (from the vesicular vessels via the inferior vena cava). […] In the case of S japonicum, which may be the species with the highest risk for complications, the life cycle may include domesticated animals (eg, cattle) and wild animals (including rodents).
  • #28
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is an acute and chronic disease caused by parasitic worms. […] People become infected when larval forms of the parasite released by freshwater snails penetrate the skin during contact with infested water. […] Schistosomiasis is prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas, especially in poor communities without access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation. […] There are 2 major forms of schistosomiasis intestinal and urogenital caused by 5 main species of blood fluke. […] The economic and health effects of schistosomiasis are considerable and the disease disables more than it kills. […] Praziquantel is the recommended treatment against all forms of schistosomiasis.
  • #29 Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) Symptoms & Treatment | Unlimit Health
    https://unlimithealth.org/ntds/schistosomiasis/
    Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia or snail fever, is a disease caused by parasites (worms called schistosomes) that are carried by freshwater snails. […] Infection occurs when the parasites larvae penetrate a persons skin during contact with infested water, often through fishing, swimming, bathing and washing clothes. […] Without treatment, schistosomiasis can cause permanent organ damage, shutdown, and even death. […] Schistosomiasis mainly occurs in marginalised communities that do not have access to clean drinking water or adequate sanitation. […] Poverty is both a cause and consequence of the poor health caused by schistosomiasis.
  • #30 Potential associations between Schistosoma mansoni infection and physico-chemical characteristics and water-related human activities in Côte d’Ivoire: a cross-sectional study | Parasites & Vectors | Full Text
    https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13071-024-06466-4
    Schistosomiasis is a chronic water-based disease caused by parasitic trematode worms of the genus Schistosoma. Six species are responsible for schistosomiasis in humans, and the three most important are Schistosoma haematobium, S. japonicum and S. mansoni. Schistosoma haematobium causes urogenital schistosomiasis, while S. japonicum and S. mansoni are responsible for intestinal schistosomiasis. The most common symptoms are diarrhoea, abdominal pain, bloody stools or haematuria, which in the long term might lead to bladder cancer and infertility. It is estimated that more than 250 million people are infected worldwide, including 192 million in sub-Saharan Africa. In Cte dIvoire, a Bayesian modelling study estimated that 8.9% of school-aged children are affected by schistosomiasis. […] Human water-related activities such as washing clothes and playing in the water are risk factors for S. mansoni transmission. Hence, preventive chemotherapy should be combined with information, education and communication to avoid or reduce the frequency of water exposure in children as part of a comprehensive package of interventions towards elimination of schistosomiasis as a public health problem.
  • #31 Potential associations between Schistosoma mansoni infection and physico-chemical characteristics and water-related human activities in Côte d’Ivoire: a cross-sectional study | Parasites & Vectors | Full Text
    https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13071-024-06466-4
    The life cycle of schistosomes requires the presence of freshwater for the parasite eggs to hatch. Furthermore, the reproductive phase of the miracidium into cercariae requires the presence of specific intermediate host snails, whose survival depends on environmental conditions. Infection occurs when people come into contact with contaminated water because cercariae can penetrate the intact human skin. Hence, schistosomiasis is closely linked to behavioural habits such as laundry and dishwashing, swimming and fishing. […] Our results revealed that S. mansoni remains endemic in the western part of Cte dIvoire with only a slight decrease in the prevalence of infection among school-aged children compared to previous studies. Among the 65 villages enrolled, 14 were highly endemic for schistosomiasis (prevalence50%) and hence deserve special attention. In addition, several individuals had heavy-intensity infections (400 EPG). Although multiple treatment rounds were administered to control schistosomiasis in this area, the prevalence remains high with an overall prevalence estimated at 27.4%. In other words, according to our findings, one out of four children suffer from intestinal schistosomiasis. This is partly because the study area is characterised by numerous rivers discharging from the mountains to the plains. These water bodies are frequently used for domestic activities such as washing clothes and dishes and for recreational activities by children.
  • #32 Schistosomiasis | InfoNTD
    https://www.infontd.org/ntds/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia or snail fever, is an acute and chronic disease caused by parasitic worms. […] Schistosomiasis is a disease caused by small, blood-dwelling parasitic worms, also known as blood fluke. […] There are 23 species of schistosome parasitic worms: six infect people, others infect domestic animals. Urogenital schistosomiasis is caused by Schistosoma haematobium and intestinal schistosomiasis by any of the organisms S. guineensis, S. intercalatum, S. mansoni, S. japonicum, and S. mekongi. […] The schistosome parasite enters the persons blood where it lives and reproduces. […] Schistosomiasis transmission cannot occur from person to person without the freshwater snail as host and without water contact. […] The risk of schistosomiasis can also be reduced by controlling the number and spread of freshwater snails in areas where people have contact with water, either through snail control technologies or environmental management.
  • #33 Bilharzia (schistosomiasis): Transmission, symptoms, and treatment
    https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/173081
    Bilharzia, or snail fever, is a disease caused by a parasitic worm. […] The World Health Organization (WHO) describe bilharzia now mostly known as schistosomiasis as both an acute and chronic disease. […] The infection starts when a person comes into direct contact with fresh water where certain types of water snail carry the worm. […] The infective form of the fluke is known as cercariae. […] The infection cycle of the parasite begins when the worms eggs enter fresh water through the feces and urine of humans who already have the infection. […] A person with schistosomiasis cannot pass it on to another person. Humans only become infected through contaminated water where the snails are living. […] Bilharzia can affect people of any age in an affected area, but those who are most at risk include children and people who swim, work, or have other contacts with freshwater rivers, canals, lakes, and streams. […] Bilharzia, also known as schistosomiasis, is an infection that happens when a person has contact with a specific type of fluke from the Schistosoma family.
  • #34 Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/228392-overview
    The geographic distribution and etiology of schistosomiasis reflect the unique life cycle of Schistosoma species. […] The eggs, which are highly antigenic and can induce an intense granulomatous response, migrate through the bowel or bladder wall to be shed via feces or urine. […] Eggs that are not shed successfully may remain in the tissues or be swept back to the portal circulation (from the mesenteric vessels) or to the pulmonary circulation (from the vesicular vessels via the inferior vena cava). […] In the case of S japonicum, which may be the species with the highest risk for complications, the life cycle may include domesticated animals (eg, cattle) and wild animals (including rodents).
  • #35 Schistosomiasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/trematodes-flukes/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is by far the most important trematode infection. Schistosoma is the only trematode that invades through the skin; all other trematodes infect only via ingestion. Over 200 million people are infected worldwide (see CDC: About Schistosomiasis). […] Five species of schistosomes infect humans; all have similar life cycles involving freshwater snails. S. haematobium causes urinary tract disease; the other Schistosoma species cause intestinal disease. […] Humans are the main reservoir of infection. Dogs, cats, rodents, pigs, horses, and goats are reservoirs for S. japonicum, and dogs are reservoirs for S. mekongi. […] Schistosomiasis is diagnosed and parasite burden is estimated by microscopic examination of stool or urine (S. haematobium) for eggs. […] Schistosomiasis is not transmitted by swallowing contaminated water; however, mouth and lip contact with contaminated water could lead to infection. […] Adult residents of endemic areas are more resistant to reinfection than children, suggesting the possibility of acquired immunity. […] Schistosoma is the only trematode that invades through the skin; over 230 million people are infected worldwide.
  • #36 Schistosomiasis: Still a Cause of Significant Morbidity and Mortality | RRTM
    https://www.dovepress.com/schistosomiasis-still-a-cause-of-significant-morbidity-and-mortality-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-RRTM
    Factors responsible for continued infection included global warming, proximity to water, irrigation and dam construction as well as socio-economic factors. […] The disease may be more prevalent than thought after newer tests have shown increased sensitivity to pathological antigens. […] Schistosomiasis infections during pregnancy can cause debility with severe anemia. […] Long after the initial infection, a parasitic infection may cause renal failure from obstructive uropathy, pyelonephritis, or bladder carcinoma. […] Hepatic disease is more prevalent with heavy infestations, promoting collateral veins, and enabling eggs to reach the pulmonary circulation. […] The prevalence of the diseases pulmonary artery complication worldwide was estimated to exceed 270,000 individuals in 2009.
  • #37 Three overviews on Environment and Aquaculture in the Tropics and Sub-tropics
    https://www.fao.org/4/ad002e/ad002e03.htm
    Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) is caused by trematode flatworms of the genus Schistosoma. […] The estimated mortality is approximately 200 000 people every year (Anon., 1990B). […] The number of infected people in the world is probably expanding. […] One of the best-known examples of the effects of water development on the spread of schistosomiasis is the Aswan High Dam in Egypt. […] Aquaculture and small-scale fisheries are important components of national and international programs concerned with the development of animal protein resources in developing countries. However, these activities are also perceived as increasing the spread of breeding sites for vector snails in countries where schistosomiasis is endemic. […] The severity of the disease is related to inflammatory and fibrotic response in the host to the eggs in the liver, lungs, intestine and urinary bladder.
  • #38 Three overviews on Environment and Aquaculture in the Tropics and Sub-tropics
    https://www.fao.org/4/ad002e/ad002e03.htm
    In urinary schistosomiasis (due to S. haematobium), damage to the urinary tract is revealed by blood in the urine. […] Intestinal schistosomiasis (due to S. mansoni) is slower to develop. […] Schistosomiasis is increasing in distribution as snails are carried from infected loci into new areas with water-related projects or as appropriate snails in previously uninfected areas become contaminated from eggs discharged into the water by infected individuals (Beaver et al, 1984). […] Major factors affecting the distribution and prevalence of schistosomiasis are: Surface water availability and permanence – important for the development of large snail populations. […] Water contact is the most critical variable in the transmission of schistosomiasis. […] The actual number of snails infected in nature is surprisingly low.
  • #39 Potential associations between Schistosoma mansoni infection and physico-chemical characteristics and water-related human activities in Côte d’Ivoire: a cross-sectional study | Parasites & Vectors | Full Text
    https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13071-024-06466-4
    Schistosomiasis is a chronic water-based disease caused by parasitic trematode worms of the genus Schistosoma. Six species are responsible for schistosomiasis in humans, and the three most important are Schistosoma haematobium, S. japonicum and S. mansoni. Schistosoma haematobium causes urogenital schistosomiasis, while S. japonicum and S. mansoni are responsible for intestinal schistosomiasis. The most common symptoms are diarrhoea, abdominal pain, bloody stools or haematuria, which in the long term might lead to bladder cancer and infertility. It is estimated that more than 250 million people are infected worldwide, including 192 million in sub-Saharan Africa. In Cte dIvoire, a Bayesian modelling study estimated that 8.9% of school-aged children are affected by schistosomiasis. […] Human water-related activities such as washing clothes and playing in the water are risk factors for S. mansoni transmission. Hence, preventive chemotherapy should be combined with information, education and communication to avoid or reduce the frequency of water exposure in children as part of a comprehensive package of interventions towards elimination of schistosomiasis as a public health problem.
  • #40 Potential associations between Schistosoma mansoni infection and physico-chemical characteristics and water-related human activities in Côte d’Ivoire: a cross-sectional study | Parasites & Vectors | Full Text
    https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13071-024-06466-4
    Our study revealed that intestinal schistosomiasis is still endemic in the western part of Cte dIvoire, with a moderate level. Certain human behaviours like washing clothes and dishes and playing in water bodies seem to be linked to S. mansoni transmission, though no significant association was found. The same is true for water parameters, temperature, TDS and pH. A malacological survey might provide a complementary understanding of these factors in the transmission of S. mansoni. For an effective control of schistosomiasis, drug administration should go hand in hand with information, education and communication of the affected communities to induce a change in behaviour and improve access to clean water.
  • #41 Schistosomiasis: Still a Cause of Significant Morbidity and Mortality | RRTM
    https://www.dovepress.com/schistosomiasis-still-a-cause-of-significant-morbidity-and-mortality-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-RRTM
    Factors responsible for continued infection included global warming, proximity to water, irrigation and dam construction as well as socio-economic factors. […] The disease may be more prevalent than thought after newer tests have shown increased sensitivity to pathological antigens. […] Schistosomiasis infections during pregnancy can cause debility with severe anemia. […] Long after the initial infection, a parasitic infection may cause renal failure from obstructive uropathy, pyelonephritis, or bladder carcinoma. […] Hepatic disease is more prevalent with heavy infestations, promoting collateral veins, and enabling eggs to reach the pulmonary circulation. […] The prevalence of the diseases pulmonary artery complication worldwide was estimated to exceed 270,000 individuals in 2009.
  • #42 Schistosomiasis | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/10.1007%2F978-3-642-02202-9_103
    Schistosomiasis is a chronic disease caused by parasites of the genus Schistosoma. More than 207 million individuals are infected with it worldwide, while 700 million are at risk of infection due to exposure from agricultural, domestic, and recreational activities. […] There is historical evidence of schistosomiasis occurrence as early as 2000 BCE. In fact, schistosoma eggs have been found in mummies from the 20th dynasty in ancient Egypt and ancient…
  • #43
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is an acute and chronic disease caused by parasitic worms. […] People become infected when larval forms of the parasite released by freshwater snails penetrate the skin during contact with infested water. […] Schistosomiasis is prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas, especially in poor communities without access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation. […] There are 2 major forms of schistosomiasis intestinal and urogenital caused by 5 main species of blood fluke. […] The economic and health effects of schistosomiasis are considerable and the disease disables more than it kills. […] Praziquantel is the recommended treatment against all forms of schistosomiasis.
  • #44 Schistosomiasis | InfoNTD
    https://www.infontd.org/ntds/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis affects almost 240 million people worldwide, and more than 700 million people live in endemic areas. […] It is estimated that at least 90% of those requiring treatment for schistosomiasis live in Africa. […] Urogenital schistosomiasis is caused by Schistosoma haematobium and intestinal schistosomiasis by any of the organisms S. guineensis, S. intercalatum, S. mansoni, S. japonicum, and S. mekongi.
  • #45 Three overviews on Environment and Aquaculture in the Tropics and Sub-tropics
    https://www.fao.org/4/ad002e/ad002e03.htm
    Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) is caused by trematode flatworms of the genus Schistosoma. […] The estimated mortality is approximately 200 000 people every year (Anon., 1990B). […] The number of infected people in the world is probably expanding. […] One of the best-known examples of the effects of water development on the spread of schistosomiasis is the Aswan High Dam in Egypt. […] Aquaculture and small-scale fisheries are important components of national and international programs concerned with the development of animal protein resources in developing countries. However, these activities are also perceived as increasing the spread of breeding sites for vector snails in countries where schistosomiasis is endemic. […] The severity of the disease is related to inflammatory and fibrotic response in the host to the eggs in the liver, lungs, intestine and urinary bladder.
  • #46 Three overviews on Environment and Aquaculture in the Tropics and Sub-tropics
    https://www.fao.org/4/ad002e/ad002e03.htm
    Schistosomiasis can be found in all the SADC countries. […] In recent years there has been a number of notable cases of detrimental changes in patterns of water-borne diseases resulting from development of water-related projects, mainly irrigation. […] Attempts to control schistosomiasis aim at breaking the transmission cycle at one of the four points: by preventing infective cercariae from reaching people; eliminating the parasites in the human host; stopping eggs from reaching the water; and controlling vector snails (Woolhouse, 1987). […] It may not be possible to eradicate schistosomiasis completely, but the number of people infected with symptoms of the disease can be significantly reduced. […] ALCOM’s main contribution to the mitigation of schistosomiasis is consequently to disseminate information about pond management with respect to the snail’s intermediate host.
  • #47 Schistosomiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554434/
    Distribution of schistosomiasis is defined by the specific host snail species habitat range. […] Schistosoma haematobium is the species responsible for urogenital schistosomiasis. […] The etiology is multifactorial and includes chronic irritation and inflammation, restorative hyperplasia, and subsequent DNA and tissue damage.
  • #48 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/news/20170704/Schistosomiasis-the-biggest-killer-youve-never-heard-of.aspx
    Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease, sometimes called bilharzia or snail fever. The disease impacts a huge number of people around the world, over 230 million people are infected with one of the schistosome species, the parasitic worms that causes the disease. […] Most of those cases, over 90%, are found in Africa, particularly in rural areas of Africa where people don’t have access to good sanitation or a clean water supply. […] The worms themselves don’t cause much damage, but the eggs that they produce do. The parasites living within the body continue their life cycle and produces eggs, which pass through the bladder or gut wall and into the urine or feces. […] The eggs that dont escape cause the symptoms of schistosomiasis, this is body reacting to the eggs, because many of the eggs will get trapped in other nearby tissues, particularly the liver and the bladder wall.
  • #49 Schistosomiasis – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis, also known as snail fever, bilharzia, and Katayama fever is a disease caused by parasitic flatworms called schistosomes. […] Schistosomiasis is spread by contact with fresh water contaminated with parasites. […] These parasites are released from infected freshwater snails. […] The disease is especially common among children in underdeveloped and developing countries because they are more likely to play in contaminated water. […] Schistosomiasis belongs to the group of helminth infections. […] Diagnosis is made by finding the parasites eggs in a person’s urine or stool. […] The clinical manifestations of chronic infection are mainly caused by immune reaction to the eggs’ entrapment within tissues resulting in granuloma formation and chronic inflammation. […] Adult worms live together in pairs (one male and female), sexually reproduce, and lay eggs in the veins around the intestines and bladder depending on the species, and these eggs can rupture the wall of the veins to escape to the surrounding tissues.
  • #50 Schistosomiasis – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosomiasis
    The eggs make their way through the tissues to the intestinal or bladder lumen with proteolytic enzymes, however, a large number of eggs are unable to finish their journey and remained stuck within the tissues where they can elicit an immune response. […] The number of eggs entrapped in the tissues will continue to increase if the Schistosoma are not eliminated.
  • #51 Schistosomiasis Bilharziasis Causes, Symptoms and Treatment
    https://medbox.org/document/schistosomiasis-bilharziasis-causes-symptoms-and-treatment
    Schistosomiasis is caused by parasitic blood flukes from the genus schistosoma. […] Schistosoma cercariae penetrate human skin and enter the bloodstream of the infected individual, where the parasites enter the portal vein. […] Schistosoma parasites also enter the mesenteric and bladder circulations, where they release eggs. […] Symptoms of schistosomiasis are related to the location of the parasites, the parasite burden and the amount of eggs produced. […] Systems affected in schistosomiasis include the hepatic, splenic, genitourinary, pulmonary, and nervous systems.
  • #52 Schistosomiasis – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosomiasis
    The eggs make their way through the tissues to the intestinal or bladder lumen with proteolytic enzymes, however, a large number of eggs are unable to finish their journey and remained stuck within the tissues where they can elicit an immune response. […] The number of eggs entrapped in the tissues will continue to increase if the Schistosoma are not eliminated.
  • #53 Schistosomiasis | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-018-0013-8
    Schistosomiasis (bilharzia) is a neglected tropical disease caused by parasitic flatworms (blood flukes) of the genus Schistosoma, with considerable morbidity in parts of the Middle East, South America, Southeast Asia and, particularly, in sub-Saharan Africa. […] Infective larvae grow in an intermediate host (fresh-water snails) before penetrating the skin of the definitive human host. […] Mature adult worms reside in the mesenteric (Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum) or pelvic (Schistosoma haematobium) veins, where female worms lay eggs, which are secreted in stool or urine. […] Eggs trapped in the surrounding tissues and organs, such as the liver and bladder, cause inflammatory immune responses (including granulomas) that result in intestinal, hepato-splenic or urogenital disease. […] Schistosomiasis elimination will require a multifaceted approach, including: treatment; snail control; information, education and communication; improved water, sanitation and hygiene; accurate diagnostics; and surveillance-response systems that are readily tailored to social-ecological settings.
  • #54 Schistosomiasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/trematodes-flukes/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is by far the most important trematode infection. Schistosoma is the only trematode that invades through the skin; all other trematodes infect only via ingestion. Over 200 million people are infected worldwide (see CDC: About Schistosomiasis). […] Five species of schistosomes infect humans; all have similar life cycles involving freshwater snails. S. haematobium causes urinary tract disease; the other Schistosoma species cause intestinal disease. […] Humans are the main reservoir of infection. Dogs, cats, rodents, pigs, horses, and goats are reservoirs for S. japonicum, and dogs are reservoirs for S. mekongi. […] Schistosomiasis is diagnosed and parasite burden is estimated by microscopic examination of stool or urine (S. haematobium) for eggs. […] Schistosomiasis is not transmitted by swallowing contaminated water; however, mouth and lip contact with contaminated water could lead to infection. […] Adult residents of endemic areas are more resistant to reinfection than children, suggesting the possibility of acquired immunity. […] Schistosoma is the only trematode that invades through the skin; over 230 million people are infected worldwide.
  • #55
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00281-020-00789-x
    Schistosomiasis (bilharzia) is a neglected tropical disease caused by trematode worms of the genus Schistosoma. […] The main disease-causing species are S. haematobium, S. mansoni and S. japonicum. […] Schistosomiasis is characterised by focal epidemiology and an over-dispersed population distribution, with higher infection rates in children. […] Chronic schistosomiasis affects mainly individuals with long-standing infections residing in poor rural areas. […] Immunopathological reactions against schistosome eggs trapped in host tissues lead to inflammatory and obstructive disease in the urinary system (S. haematobium) or intestinal disease, hepatosplenic inflammation and liver fibrosis (S. mansoni and S. japonicum). […] An effective drug praziquantel is available for treatment but, despite intensive efforts, no schistosomiasis vaccines have yet been accepted for public use.
  • #56 The interaction of Schistosoma mansoni infection with diabetes mellitus and obesity in mice | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-36112-5
    Human schistosomiasis is one of the most prevalent parasitic diseases worldwide. […] Schistosoma mansoni (S. mansoni) represents one of the major aetiological causes of schistosomiasis in Africa and South America. […] Adult schistosomes express insulin receptors (IRs) at the tegument basal membrane and in muscles. These receptors are involved in many biological processes including glucose uptake, parasite growth, and metabolism. […] Researchers have reported that T1DM in mice with schistosomiasis may affect the cell-mediated immune response to parasite eggs. […] As T1DM is a Th1-mediated autoimmune disease, any skewing or correction of the immune response towards Th2, would result in diabetes prevention. […] Obesity is considered a high-risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).
  • #57 Schistosomiasis (Snail Fever) Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, Diagnosis, Prevention
    https://www.medicinenet.com/schistosomiasis/article.htm
    Schistosomiasis is a disease that is caused by parasites (genus Schistosoma) that enter humans by attaching to the skin, penetrating it, and then migrating through the venous system to the portal veins where the parasites produce eggs and eventually, the symptoms of acute or chronic disease (for example, fever, abdominal discomfort, blood in stools). […] Parasites of the genus Schistosoma (S. mansoni, S. mekongi, S. intercalatum, S. haematobium, and S. japonicum) cause the disease. […] The acute and chronic symptoms of schistosomiasis are thought to be mainly due to the egg migration through tissue and the human immune response to the eggs. Chronic symptoms are mainly due to eggs that are not shed from the body. […] Complications (for example, hepatomegaly or enlarged liver and bladder cancer) related to the disease are thought to occur due to long-term exposure to the highly antigenic eggs.
  • #58 Schistosomiasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/trematodes-flukes/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is by far the most important trematode infection. Schistosoma is the only trematode that invades through the skin; all other trematodes infect only via ingestion. Over 200 million people are infected worldwide (see CDC: About Schistosomiasis). […] Five species of schistosomes infect humans; all have similar life cycles involving freshwater snails. S. haematobium causes urinary tract disease; the other Schistosoma species cause intestinal disease. […] Humans are the main reservoir of infection. Dogs, cats, rodents, pigs, horses, and goats are reservoirs for S. japonicum, and dogs are reservoirs for S. mekongi. […] Schistosomiasis is diagnosed and parasite burden is estimated by microscopic examination of stool or urine (S. haematobium) for eggs. […] Schistosomiasis is not transmitted by swallowing contaminated water; however, mouth and lip contact with contaminated water could lead to infection. […] Adult residents of endemic areas are more resistant to reinfection than children, suggesting the possibility of acquired immunity. […] Schistosoma is the only trematode that invades through the skin; over 230 million people are infected worldwide.
  • #59 Schistosomiasis (urinary tract manifestations) | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
    https://radiopaedia.org/articles/schistosomiasis-urinary-tract-manifestations?lang=us
    Bladder schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia of the bladder, is an infection by the Schistosoma flukeworm and is a major health problem in developing parts of the world predisposing individuals to bladder squamous cell carcinoma. […] Schistosomiasis is very common, affecting over 200 million people, with the vast majority (85%) in Africa. It is prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas, especially in rural regions. […] There are five species of the blood fluke (trematode worm) Schistosoma species that cause disease in humans: Schistosoma haematobium, S. mansoni, S. japononicum, S. intercalatum, and S. mekongi. […] Larvae are released from snails (intermediate host) into water and penetrate human skin (definitive host) exposed to the infected water. These larvae travel to the lungs and liver of the human host, where they reside until they mature.
  • #60 Schistosoma haematobium – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosoma_haematobium
    Schistosoma haematobium is a species of digenetic trematode, belonging to a group (genus) of blood flukes (Schistosoma). It is found in Africa and the Middle East. It is the major agent of schistosomiasis, the most prevalent parasitic infection in humans. […] It is the only blood fluke that infects the urinary tract, causing urinary schistosomiasis, and is a leading cause of bladder cancer (only next to tobacco smoking). […] The diseases are caused by the eggs. […] The infectious nature was discovered by British physician Robert Thomson Leiper in 1915. […] Its role in cancer was first noted by a British Surgeon Reginald Harrison, at the Liverpool Royal Infirmary, in 1889. […] By 1905, he was convinced that carcinoma of bladder was due to bilharzia. […] After decades of assessing the medical reports, it was finally declared by the WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans in 2009 that S. haematobium is Group 1 carcinogen.
  • #61 Schistosomiasis (urinary tract manifestations) | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
    https://radiopaedia.org/articles/schistosomiasis-urinary-tract-manifestations?lang=us
    After maturation, the adult worm pairs travel to the pelvic veins. Eggs are deposited in the bladder wall vessels and incite a granulomatous response that results in polypoid lesions. The eggs may go on to incite a chronic inflammatory response and fibrosis, which is an important predisposing factor for squamous cell carcinoma (SCC).
  • #62 Diagnosis of urinary Schistosomiasis
    https://www.xpedite-dx.com/applications/schistosomiasis/
    Schistosomiasis belongs to the group of Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs). It is also called Bilharzia or Snail fever. The disease is caused by infection with Schistosoma trematodes (also called blood flukes or flat worms). […] The genus Schistosoma comprises of more than 20 species. Most relevant to causing Schistosomiasis in humans are S. mansoni, S. haematobium, S. japonicum, whose genomes have been sequenced a while ago. […] Schistosomiasis is endemic in 70 mostly poor countries in Africa, Asia and South America, where it affects more than 200 million people. In fact, with about 200,000 annual deaths, it is the most deadly among all NTDs. […] The type that will develop is species-dependent. S. mansoni and S. japonicum cause intestinal schistosomiasis where the large bowel and the rectum are enlarged by immune reactions against Schistosoma eggs, which can cause colon obstruction, blood loss and diarrhea. In contrast, S. haematobium causes urogenital schistosomiasis with symptoms such as heavy pain at urination and blood in urine, but also urinary tract infections. Female patients often also suffer from inflammation of the vagina and cervix, which can even lead to infertility.
  • #63 Schistosomiasis and the impact on sexual and reproductive health | GSA
    https://www.eliminateschisto.org/blog/schistosomiasis-and-the-impact-on-sexual-and-reproductive-health
    Schistosomes are tiny worms that live in the blood system of mammals, they produce hundred to thousands of eggs per day that break through the barrier between the blood system and the urinary or intestinal tract (depending on the schistosome species) to exit the body when the host urinates or defecates. […] The damage caused by these parasites is severe but the chronic nature, spectrum of disease manifestations and complex disease settings presents challenges to its diagnoses, control and elimination in resource-poor settings where it is prevalent. […] A species of schistosome worms called S. haematobium infects people and the eggs often end up in the urinary and reproductive organs causing inflammation and lesions, hence the name Urogenital schistosomiasis. […] When the eggs lodge in the genital tract they cause a form of the disease referred to as genital schistosomiasis.
  • #64 Schistosomiasis and the impact on sexual and reproductive health | GSA
    https://www.eliminateschisto.org/blog/schistosomiasis-and-the-impact-on-sexual-and-reproductive-health
    The World Health Organization (WHO) estimate that approximately 56 million women suffer from FGS. […] Potential complications from female genital schistosomiasis include miscarriages, ectopic pregnancy and infertility. […] Explanations for this phenomenon are usually tied to infections such as TB and STIs however the overlap with S. haematobium infections is now being researched and there is a growing body of evidence linking early year infections with S. haematobium to sub/infertility later on in life. […] The lesions and tissue damage caused by FGS can provide an easy route for STI infections, and one STI in particular seems to be strongly associated with FGS: Worryingly women with FGS are around 3 times more likely to have HIV than those without. […] The link between genital schistosomiasis and HIV is being researched in more detail but the evidence is getting stronger and stronger that FGS and schistosome infections increase the risk of acquiring HIV.
  • #65 Schistosomiasis. Bilharzia
    https://dermnetnz.org/topics/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia) is a disease caused by infection with parasitic worms called schistosomes. […] Humans are the primary hosts of 3 major species of schistosomes: S. mansoni and S. japonicum cause bowel and liver complications. […] S. haematobium mainly causes kidney and bladder complications, occasionally causes liver disease, and rarely causes skin disease. […] Schistosomiasis is passed on by infected people urinating or defaecating into freshwater. […] Schistosoma eggs hatch in the water and develop inside particular snail species. […] These snails release thousands of larvae back into the water. […] Larvae can penetrate unbroken human skin when humans enter the water to bathe or swim. […] Chronic features are due to an intense immune response against the schistosomal eggs, with granuloma (ball-like collection of immune cells) formation and scarring. […] Eggs can also be deposited and produce complications in almost any organ, such as lungs, brain, spinal cord, muscles, genitals, and eyes.
  • #66 Intestinal Schistosomiasis Caused by Schistosoma japonicum: A Literature Review
    https://www.infectiologyjournal.com/articles/intestinal-schistosomiasis-caused-by-emschistosoma-japonicumem-a-literature-review.html
    Schistosomiasis is a NTD caused by infection with parasitic blood flukes. […] The WHO reported that 258 million people worldwide were infected with trematodes of the genus schistosoma, and required treatment and preventive regime. […] There are five schistosome species that can cause infection in humans, but the ones that affect the intestinal tract are: S. mansoni found in Africa and South America, S. japonicum in East Asia, S. mekongi in Laos, Cambodia; and S. intercalatum in the West and Central Africa. […] The schistosoma japonicums life cycle starts when the eggs are eliminated with feces, hatch in the water and release the larvae (miracidia) that are viable for up to seven days until they penetrate the snail oncomelania. […] The physiopathology of chronic schistosomiasis results from the eggs lodging, inducing immune response, granuloma formation, fibrotic changes, damaging the organs and tissues of the human host.
  • #67 Intestinal Schistosomiasis Caused by Schistosoma japonicum: A Literature Review
    https://www.infectiologyjournal.com/articles/intestinal-schistosomiasis-caused-by-emschistosoma-japonicumem-a-literature-review.html
    Schistosoma japonicum causes intestinal manifestations with fatigue, abdominal pain, cramping, anorexia, diarrhea, and dysentery. […] If S. japonicum remains untreated, periportal fibrosis could lead to portal hypertension and gastrointestinal bleeding. […] The treatment for schistosomiasis has important objectives such as reversing acute or early chronic disease and preventing complications. […] Praziquantel is the drug of choice for the treatment of all schistosoma species, it acts against adult schistosoma worms with the purpose to reduce egg production but has poor activity against immature schistosoma larvae. […] Schistosoma candidate vaccines are being identified through bioinformatics, OMICs approaches. […] Strategies to control schistosomiasis in endemic areas include water sanitation, minimizing contact with fresh water, community health-education, eradication of snail species, domestic animals care and treatment, proper work equipment to people at risk of exposition. […] Schistosomiasis is one of the neglected tropical diseases currently affecting mostly the poor population and causing thousands of deaths annually worldwide.
  • #68 Exploring the link: a comprehensive literature review of Schistosoma japonicum infection and its oncogenic potential – Israel – Journal of Public Health and Emergency
    https://jphe.amegroups.org/article/view/10010/html
    Schistosomiasis, a neglected tropical disease caused by various Schistosoma species, notably Schistosoma japonicum, poses significant public health challenges. […] Chronic Schistosoma japonicum infection can cause numerous complications, including the development of cancer of the liver, colon and rectum. […] The parasites eggs in the hosts organs, especially the liver, induce tissue damage and chronic inflammation, which is the reason for the connection between schistosomiasis and cancer. […] The correlation between Schistosoma japonicum and cancer highlights the intricate relationship between oncogenesis and infectious diseases, emphasizing the need to treat the parasitic infection as well as any long-term effects it may have on impacted populations. […] In conclusion, the literature strongly supports a link between Schistosoma japonicum infection and various malignancies, including liver, colon, rectum, and rare locations.
  • #69 Schistosomiasis. Bilharzia
    https://dermnetnz.org/topics/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia) is a disease caused by infection with parasitic worms called schistosomes. […] Humans are the primary hosts of 3 major species of schistosomes: S. mansoni and S. japonicum cause bowel and liver complications. […] S. haematobium mainly causes kidney and bladder complications, occasionally causes liver disease, and rarely causes skin disease. […] Schistosomiasis is passed on by infected people urinating or defaecating into freshwater. […] Schistosoma eggs hatch in the water and develop inside particular snail species. […] These snails release thousands of larvae back into the water. […] Larvae can penetrate unbroken human skin when humans enter the water to bathe or swim. […] Chronic features are due to an intense immune response against the schistosomal eggs, with granuloma (ball-like collection of immune cells) formation and scarring. […] Eggs can also be deposited and produce complications in almost any organ, such as lungs, brain, spinal cord, muscles, genitals, and eyes.
  • #70 Schistosomiasis (Snail Fever) Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, Diagnosis, Prevention
    https://www.medicinenet.com/schistosomiasis/article.htm
    The complications that may develop with schistosomiasis usually occur in individuals harboring many parasites and eggs, especially when the eggs and parasites have migrated to other organs. In general, complications usually involve the cardiopulmonary, gastrointestinal, and central nervous systems (CNS), the liver and spleen, and urinary tracts along with the liver and spleen. Some of the major complications are high blood pressure (hypertension), seizures, bacterial infections, urinary obstruction, organ damage or destruction, and death.
  • #71 Neuroschistosomiasis
    https://practicalneurology.com/articles/2020-may/neuroschistosomiasis
    Neuroschistosomiasis is an underrecognized complication of the second most common parasitic infection in the world. […] Schistosoma infection is acquired when a person comes into contact with infected fresh water and the parasite penetrates the skin. Freshwater snails serve as the intermediate host for the parasite and release thousands of infective schistosomal larvae into freshwater. […] Schistosoma mansoni is 1 of 5 major schistosomal species and is found throughout Africa within the freshwater of the great lakes, rivers, and smaller bodies of water. […] Approximately 1% to 4% of spinal cord lesions in sub-Saharan Africa are thought to be caused by schistosomal infections. […] Diagnosis of neuroschistosomiasis requires clinical signs of CNS involvement (eg, altered mental status, seizures, or myeloradiculopathy), typical imaging findings (eg, obstructive hydrocephalus, transverse myelitis, or vasculitis), demonstration of schistosomal infection, and exclusion of other causes.
  • #72 Schistosomiasis – Pulmonary Hypertension Association
    https://phassociation.org/patients/aboutph/diseases-and-conditions-associated-with-ph/schistosomiasis/
    Schistosomiasis is caused by infection with the parasite schistosoma, which is a flatworm or fluke. Schistosomiasis is the third most common parasitic disease in the world after malaria and amoebiasis. It is endemic in more than 70 countries, affecting about 200 million people worldwide, of whom 80 percent are in sub-Saharan Africa. […] After infection, the schistosoma worm usually resides in humans and animals in targeted organs: the liver and the gastrointestinal tract for schistosoma mansoni or schistosoma japonicum, and the urinary tract for schistosoma haematobium. The worms may reside there for 30 years or more, and both male and female worms excrete eggs. The adult worms do not cause disease, but the eggs they release are highly antigenic (toxic) and the cause of disease. The eggs will produce pathological changes, mainly complex inflammatory lesions called granuloma which lead to scarring.
  • #73 Neuroschistosomiasis
    https://practicalneurology.com/articles/2020-may/neuroschistosomiasis
    Neuroschistosomiasis is an underrecognized complication of the second most common parasitic infection in the world. […] Schistosoma infection is acquired when a person comes into contact with infected fresh water and the parasite penetrates the skin. Freshwater snails serve as the intermediate host for the parasite and release thousands of infective schistosomal larvae into freshwater. […] Schistosoma mansoni is 1 of 5 major schistosomal species and is found throughout Africa within the freshwater of the great lakes, rivers, and smaller bodies of water. […] Approximately 1% to 4% of spinal cord lesions in sub-Saharan Africa are thought to be caused by schistosomal infections. […] Diagnosis of neuroschistosomiasis requires clinical signs of CNS involvement (eg, altered mental status, seizures, or myeloradiculopathy), typical imaging findings (eg, obstructive hydrocephalus, transverse myelitis, or vasculitis), demonstration of schistosomal infection, and exclusion of other causes.
  • #74 Schistosomiasis: Still a Cause of Significant Morbidity and Mortality | RRTM
    https://www.dovepress.com/schistosomiasis-still-a-cause-of-significant-morbidity-and-mortality-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-RRTM
    Factors responsible for continued infection included global warming, proximity to water, irrigation and dam construction as well as socio-economic factors. […] The disease may be more prevalent than thought after newer tests have shown increased sensitivity to pathological antigens. […] Schistosomiasis infections during pregnancy can cause debility with severe anemia. […] Long after the initial infection, a parasitic infection may cause renal failure from obstructive uropathy, pyelonephritis, or bladder carcinoma. […] Hepatic disease is more prevalent with heavy infestations, promoting collateral veins, and enabling eggs to reach the pulmonary circulation. […] The prevalence of the diseases pulmonary artery complication worldwide was estimated to exceed 270,000 individuals in 2009.
  • #75 Schistosomiasis – Pulmonary Hypertension Association
    https://phassociation.org/patients/aboutph/diseases-and-conditions-associated-with-ph/schistosomiasis/
    Some of the eggs may escape from where the adult worms are and migrate to other tissues, particularly to the lung. The inflammation caused by the eggs causes changes in the blood vessels that leads to pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). […] The diagnosis of schistosomiasis-associated PAH is similar to other types of PAH. Studies are done to rule out other causes of the disease, and for persons from areas where infection is common, specific tests for schistosomiasis are needed. […] It is important to treat active schistosomiasis infection if present. This may help to decrease the inflammation and possibly prevent further worsening of the PH. For schistosomiasis-associated PAH, treatment is similar to other forms of PAH. However, there are no clinical trials to confirm the effectiveness of treatment in these patients. […] The prognosis of schistosomiasis-associated PAH is not well understood and is likely very similar to that of idiopathic PAH.
  • #76 The interaction of Schistosoma mansoni infection with diabetes mellitus and obesity in mice | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-36112-5
    Human schistosomiasis is one of the most prevalent parasitic diseases worldwide. […] Schistosoma mansoni (S. mansoni) represents one of the major aetiological causes of schistosomiasis in Africa and South America. […] Adult schistosomes express insulin receptors (IRs) at the tegument basal membrane and in muscles. These receptors are involved in many biological processes including glucose uptake, parasite growth, and metabolism. […] Researchers have reported that T1DM in mice with schistosomiasis may affect the cell-mediated immune response to parasite eggs. […] As T1DM is a Th1-mediated autoimmune disease, any skewing or correction of the immune response towards Th2, would result in diabetes prevention. […] Obesity is considered a high-risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).
  • #77 The interaction of Schistosoma mansoni infection with diabetes mellitus and obesity in mice | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-36112-5
    Adult schistosomes are fully dependent on host fatty acids as they do not have the capacity for de novo synthesis during their intra-mammalian life cycle stages. […] The pathophysiology of T2DM remains unclear and contentious. […] The aim of the present work was to study the interaction between S. mansoni infection and T1DM, T2DM, and obesity. […] The present study revealed a significant increase in the adult worm count and tissue egg output in the obesity group compared to the infected control group. […] Infected T1DM, T2DM and obesity groups showed higher blood glucose and lipid profile in comparison to the infected control group. […] Induction of T2DM and obesity increased tissue egg counts, mature egg percentage, and fibrosis density, while schistosome infection induced changes in the lipid profile and blood glucose levels in infected diabetic and obese groups and impacted favorably insulin levels in obese mice.
  • #78 Exploring the link: a comprehensive literature review of Schistosoma japonicum infection and its oncogenic potential – Israel – Journal of Public Health and Emergency
    https://jphe.amegroups.org/article/view/10010/html
    The findings reveal Schistosoma japonicum infection induces dynamic changes in the expression levels of genes involved in catabolism and suppressing anabolism in the liver, which could occur via macrophages metabolic states. […] The studies show that HBsAg and schistosomiasis are both important risk factors for liver cancer, and schistosomiasis may be far more important in the area than hepatitis B virus. […] The link between chronic schistosomiasis and the development of certain types of cancer, such as colorectal and liver cancer in the case of Schistosoma japonicum infection, emphasizes the importance of incorporating cancer prevention and control measures into schistosomiasis elimination programs, especially in endemic areas.
  • #79 The interaction of Schistosoma mansoni infection with diabetes mellitus and obesity in mice | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-36112-5
    Adult schistosomes are fully dependent on host fatty acids as they do not have the capacity for de novo synthesis during their intra-mammalian life cycle stages. […] The pathophysiology of T2DM remains unclear and contentious. […] The aim of the present work was to study the interaction between S. mansoni infection and T1DM, T2DM, and obesity. […] The present study revealed a significant increase in the adult worm count and tissue egg output in the obesity group compared to the infected control group. […] Infected T1DM, T2DM and obesity groups showed higher blood glucose and lipid profile in comparison to the infected control group. […] Induction of T2DM and obesity increased tissue egg counts, mature egg percentage, and fibrosis density, while schistosome infection induced changes in the lipid profile and blood glucose levels in infected diabetic and obese groups and impacted favorably insulin levels in obese mice.
  • #80 Potential associations between Schistosoma mansoni infection and physico-chemical characteristics and water-related human activities in Côte d’Ivoire: a cross-sectional study | Parasites & Vectors | Full Text
    https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13071-024-06466-4
    Schistosomiasis is a chronic water-based disease caused by parasitic trematode worms of the genus Schistosoma. Six species are responsible for schistosomiasis in humans, and the three most important are Schistosoma haematobium, S. japonicum and S. mansoni. Schistosoma haematobium causes urogenital schistosomiasis, while S. japonicum and S. mansoni are responsible for intestinal schistosomiasis. The most common symptoms are diarrhoea, abdominal pain, bloody stools or haematuria, which in the long term might lead to bladder cancer and infertility. It is estimated that more than 250 million people are infected worldwide, including 192 million in sub-Saharan Africa. In Cte dIvoire, a Bayesian modelling study estimated that 8.9% of school-aged children are affected by schistosomiasis. […] Human water-related activities such as washing clothes and playing in the water are risk factors for S. mansoni transmission. Hence, preventive chemotherapy should be combined with information, education and communication to avoid or reduce the frequency of water exposure in children as part of a comprehensive package of interventions towards elimination of schistosomiasis as a public health problem.
  • #81 Potential associations between Schistosoma mansoni infection and physico-chemical characteristics and water-related human activities in Côte d’Ivoire: a cross-sectional study | Parasites & Vectors | Full Text
    https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13071-024-06466-4
    The life cycle of schistosomes requires the presence of freshwater for the parasite eggs to hatch. Furthermore, the reproductive phase of the miracidium into cercariae requires the presence of specific intermediate host snails, whose survival depends on environmental conditions. Infection occurs when people come into contact with contaminated water because cercariae can penetrate the intact human skin. Hence, schistosomiasis is closely linked to behavioural habits such as laundry and dishwashing, swimming and fishing. […] Our results revealed that S. mansoni remains endemic in the western part of Cte dIvoire with only a slight decrease in the prevalence of infection among school-aged children compared to previous studies. Among the 65 villages enrolled, 14 were highly endemic for schistosomiasis (prevalence50%) and hence deserve special attention. In addition, several individuals had heavy-intensity infections (400 EPG). Although multiple treatment rounds were administered to control schistosomiasis in this area, the prevalence remains high with an overall prevalence estimated at 27.4%. In other words, according to our findings, one out of four children suffer from intestinal schistosomiasis. This is partly because the study area is characterised by numerous rivers discharging from the mountains to the plains. These water bodies are frequently used for domestic activities such as washing clothes and dishes and for recreational activities by children.
  • #82 Schistosomiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554434/
    Distribution of schistosomiasis is defined by the specific host snail species habitat range. […] Schistosoma haematobium is the species responsible for urogenital schistosomiasis. […] The etiology is multifactorial and includes chronic irritation and inflammation, restorative hyperplasia, and subsequent DNA and tissue damage.
  • #83 Three overviews on Environment and Aquaculture in the Tropics and Sub-tropics
    https://www.fao.org/4/ad002e/ad002e03.htm
    In urinary schistosomiasis (due to S. haematobium), damage to the urinary tract is revealed by blood in the urine. […] Intestinal schistosomiasis (due to S. mansoni) is slower to develop. […] Schistosomiasis is increasing in distribution as snails are carried from infected loci into new areas with water-related projects or as appropriate snails in previously uninfected areas become contaminated from eggs discharged into the water by infected individuals (Beaver et al, 1984). […] Major factors affecting the distribution and prevalence of schistosomiasis are: Surface water availability and permanence – important for the development of large snail populations. […] Water contact is the most critical variable in the transmission of schistosomiasis. […] The actual number of snails infected in nature is surprisingly low.
  • #84 Schistosomiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554434/
    Distribution of schistosomiasis is defined by the specific host snail species habitat range. […] Schistosoma haematobium is the species responsible for urogenital schistosomiasis. […] The etiology is multifactorial and includes chronic irritation and inflammation, restorative hyperplasia, and subsequent DNA and tissue damage.
  • #85
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is an acute and chronic disease caused by parasitic worms. […] People become infected when larval forms of the parasite released by freshwater snails penetrate the skin during contact with infested water. […] Schistosomiasis is prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas, especially in poor communities without access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation. […] There are 2 major forms of schistosomiasis intestinal and urogenital caused by 5 main species of blood fluke. […] The economic and health effects of schistosomiasis are considerable and the disease disables more than it kills. […] Praziquantel is the recommended treatment against all forms of schistosomiasis.
  • #86 Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) Symptoms & Treatment | Unlimit Health
    https://unlimithealth.org/ntds/schistosomiasis/
    Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia or snail fever, is a disease caused by parasites (worms called schistosomes) that are carried by freshwater snails. […] Infection occurs when the parasites larvae penetrate a persons skin during contact with infested water, often through fishing, swimming, bathing and washing clothes. […] Without treatment, schistosomiasis can cause permanent organ damage, shutdown, and even death. […] Schistosomiasis mainly occurs in marginalised communities that do not have access to clean drinking water or adequate sanitation. […] Poverty is both a cause and consequence of the poor health caused by schistosomiasis.
  • #87
    https://www.sightsaversusa.org/diseases/schistosomiasis/
    Schistosomiasis, known as bilharzia or snail fever, is a neglected tropical disease caused by parasites released by freshwater snails. […] Schistosomiasis infection occurs when snail larvae penetrate a persons skin during contact with infested water, often through fishing, swimming, bathing and washing clothes. […] Once inside the human body, the larvae develop into adult worms and the eggs they lay can become trapped in the bodys tissues. […] Schistosomiasis is particularly common in sub-Saharan Africa, and mainly occurs in poorer communities that dont have access to clean drinking water or adequate sanitation. […] Unfortunately, poverty is both a cause and consequence of the poor health caused by schistosomiasis. […] Schistosomiasis is often treated alongside other neglected tropical diseases such as intestinal worms and river blindness.
  • #88
    https://www.mediclinic.co.za/en/infohub-corporate/conditions/bilharzia.html
    Bilharzia is a parasitic disease caused by worms. […] Five species of the flatworm or blood flukes, also known as schistosomes, cause the main forms of human bilharzia or schistosomiasis. […] About 600 million people are at risk of becoming infected with this parasitic disease, the underlying causes of which include the following: Extreme poverty, Unawareness of risks, Inadequacy or lack of public health facilities, Unsanitary living conditions, Migratory people and refugees from countries where the disease is endemic, Rapid urbanisation, Increase in tourism to places that are off the beaten track. […] It is the eggs and not the worm that cause the damage to the bladder, intestines and other vital organs, such as the liver. […] The body’s reaction to the eggs in the liver can cause fibrosis in the liver, which in turn causes enlargement of the spleen, and dilation of some of the blood vessels, especially in the base of the oesophagus.
  • #89 Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) Symptoms & Treatment | Unlimit Health
    https://unlimithealth.org/ntds/schistosomiasis/
    Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia or snail fever, is a disease caused by parasites (worms called schistosomes) that are carried by freshwater snails. […] Infection occurs when the parasites larvae penetrate a persons skin during contact with infested water, often through fishing, swimming, bathing and washing clothes. […] Without treatment, schistosomiasis can cause permanent organ damage, shutdown, and even death. […] Schistosomiasis mainly occurs in marginalised communities that do not have access to clean drinking water or adequate sanitation. […] Poverty is both a cause and consequence of the poor health caused by schistosomiasis.
  • #90
    https://www.sightsaversusa.org/diseases/schistosomiasis/
    Schistosomiasis, known as bilharzia or snail fever, is a neglected tropical disease caused by parasites released by freshwater snails. […] Schistosomiasis infection occurs when snail larvae penetrate a persons skin during contact with infested water, often through fishing, swimming, bathing and washing clothes. […] Once inside the human body, the larvae develop into adult worms and the eggs they lay can become trapped in the bodys tissues. […] Schistosomiasis is particularly common in sub-Saharan Africa, and mainly occurs in poorer communities that dont have access to clean drinking water or adequate sanitation. […] Unfortunately, poverty is both a cause and consequence of the poor health caused by schistosomiasis. […] Schistosomiasis is often treated alongside other neglected tropical diseases such as intestinal worms and river blindness.
  • #91 Potential associations between Schistosoma mansoni infection and physico-chemical characteristics and water-related human activities in Côte d’Ivoire: a cross-sectional study | Parasites & Vectors | Full Text
    https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13071-024-06466-4
    Schistosomiasis is a chronic water-based disease caused by parasitic trematode worms of the genus Schistosoma. Six species are responsible for schistosomiasis in humans, and the three most important are Schistosoma haematobium, S. japonicum and S. mansoni. Schistosoma haematobium causes urogenital schistosomiasis, while S. japonicum and S. mansoni are responsible for intestinal schistosomiasis. The most common symptoms are diarrhoea, abdominal pain, bloody stools or haematuria, which in the long term might lead to bladder cancer and infertility. It is estimated that more than 250 million people are infected worldwide, including 192 million in sub-Saharan Africa. In Cte dIvoire, a Bayesian modelling study estimated that 8.9% of school-aged children are affected by schistosomiasis. […] Human water-related activities such as washing clothes and playing in the water are risk factors for S. mansoni transmission. Hence, preventive chemotherapy should be combined with information, education and communication to avoid or reduce the frequency of water exposure in children as part of a comprehensive package of interventions towards elimination of schistosomiasis as a public health problem.
  • #92 Potential associations between Schistosoma mansoni infection and physico-chemical characteristics and water-related human activities in Côte d’Ivoire: a cross-sectional study | Parasites & Vectors | Full Text
    https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13071-024-06466-4
    The life cycle of schistosomes requires the presence of freshwater for the parasite eggs to hatch. Furthermore, the reproductive phase of the miracidium into cercariae requires the presence of specific intermediate host snails, whose survival depends on environmental conditions. Infection occurs when people come into contact with contaminated water because cercariae can penetrate the intact human skin. Hence, schistosomiasis is closely linked to behavioural habits such as laundry and dishwashing, swimming and fishing. […] Our results revealed that S. mansoni remains endemic in the western part of Cte dIvoire with only a slight decrease in the prevalence of infection among school-aged children compared to previous studies. Among the 65 villages enrolled, 14 were highly endemic for schistosomiasis (prevalence50%) and hence deserve special attention. In addition, several individuals had heavy-intensity infections (400 EPG). Although multiple treatment rounds were administered to control schistosomiasis in this area, the prevalence remains high with an overall prevalence estimated at 27.4%. In other words, according to our findings, one out of four children suffer from intestinal schistosomiasis. This is partly because the study area is characterised by numerous rivers discharging from the mountains to the plains. These water bodies are frequently used for domestic activities such as washing clothes and dishes and for recreational activities by children.
  • #93 Schistosomiasis | GSA
    https://www.eliminateschisto.org/working-together/schistosomiasis
    Of the six species that infect people, three are responsible for the majority of human infections globally: […] The risk of infection is linked to how often people come into contact with infested freshwater. […] Families and communities that rely on fishing in freshwater bodies and on agricultural activities such as rice production are often burdened by schistosomiasis.
  • #94 Schistosomiasis: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment | Netmeds
    https://www.netmeds.com/health-library/post/schistosomiasis-causes-symptoms-and-treatment?srsltid=AfmBOoqZefdulvkoy-3JhaZewdySPKNVy_qvz3J27CoM9M2Q_3XdrBIi
    These eggs travel through body fluids and enter the intestines and bladder and are excreted through faeces or urine within the water bodies, thus completing the life cycle of the parasite. […] Eggs unable to pass through the body wastes, often get attached to body tissues leading on to a variety of immunomodulatory reactions which cause the disease. […] People who are in the profession of farming, fishing or using unclean water for their daily work activities or children playing in the unhygienic water or women doing their domestic chores in the contaminated water are more at risk of getting infected through the parasite. […] In certain cases, the infection if not treated on time can also lead to chronic conditions like katayama fever, neural disease, genitourinary disease, high blood pressure, seizure, paralysis, organ damage and even death.
  • #95 Three overviews on Environment and Aquaculture in the Tropics and Sub-tropics
    https://www.fao.org/4/ad002e/ad002e03.htm
    In urinary schistosomiasis (due to S. haematobium), damage to the urinary tract is revealed by blood in the urine. […] Intestinal schistosomiasis (due to S. mansoni) is slower to develop. […] Schistosomiasis is increasing in distribution as snails are carried from infected loci into new areas with water-related projects or as appropriate snails in previously uninfected areas become contaminated from eggs discharged into the water by infected individuals (Beaver et al, 1984). […] Major factors affecting the distribution and prevalence of schistosomiasis are: Surface water availability and permanence – important for the development of large snail populations. […] Water contact is the most critical variable in the transmission of schistosomiasis. […] The actual number of snails infected in nature is surprisingly low.
  • #96 Bilharzia (schistosomiasis): Transmission, symptoms, and treatment
    https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/173081
    Bilharzia, or snail fever, is a disease caused by a parasitic worm. […] The World Health Organization (WHO) describe bilharzia now mostly known as schistosomiasis as both an acute and chronic disease. […] The infection starts when a person comes into direct contact with fresh water where certain types of water snail carry the worm. […] The infective form of the fluke is known as cercariae. […] The infection cycle of the parasite begins when the worms eggs enter fresh water through the feces and urine of humans who already have the infection. […] A person with schistosomiasis cannot pass it on to another person. Humans only become infected through contaminated water where the snails are living. […] Bilharzia can affect people of any age in an affected area, but those who are most at risk include children and people who swim, work, or have other contacts with freshwater rivers, canals, lakes, and streams. […] Bilharzia, also known as schistosomiasis, is an infection that happens when a person has contact with a specific type of fluke from the Schistosoma family.
  • #97 Schistosomiasis: Still a Cause of Significant Morbidity and Mortality | RRTM
    https://www.dovepress.com/schistosomiasis-still-a-cause-of-significant-morbidity-and-mortality-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-RRTM
    Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, primarily a parasitic tropical disease, is as significant for morbidity and mortality as ever in developing countries. […] A leading authority in the study of Schistosomiasis conservatively estimated at least 230 million people worldwide were infected with Schistosoma species in 2014. […] A WHO estimate cites over 700 million people as being at risk of infection, and approximately 200,000 annual deaths from Schistosomiasis alone. […] Schistosomiasis is endemic in seventy-four developing countries, 80% of those infected living in sub-Saharan Africa with humans acting as the parasites reservoir. […] Most human Schistosomiasis commonly arises from three species, Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma japonicum, and Schistosoma mansoni. […] The intensity and prevalence of infection rise with age and peaks between 15 to 20 years of age.
  • #98
    https://www.mediclinic.co.za/en/infohub-corporate/conditions/bilharzia.html
    Bilharzia is a parasitic disease caused by worms. […] Five species of the flatworm or blood flukes, also known as schistosomes, cause the main forms of human bilharzia or schistosomiasis. […] About 600 million people are at risk of becoming infected with this parasitic disease, the underlying causes of which include the following: Extreme poverty, Unawareness of risks, Inadequacy or lack of public health facilities, Unsanitary living conditions, Migratory people and refugees from countries where the disease is endemic, Rapid urbanisation, Increase in tourism to places that are off the beaten track. […] It is the eggs and not the worm that cause the damage to the bladder, intestines and other vital organs, such as the liver. […] The body’s reaction to the eggs in the liver can cause fibrosis in the liver, which in turn causes enlargement of the spleen, and dilation of some of the blood vessels, especially in the base of the oesophagus.
  • #99 Schistosomiasis: Still a Cause of Significant Morbidity and Mortality | RRTM
    https://www.dovepress.com/schistosomiasis-still-a-cause-of-significant-morbidity-and-mortality-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-RRTM
    Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, primarily a parasitic tropical disease, is as significant for morbidity and mortality as ever in developing countries. […] A leading authority in the study of Schistosomiasis conservatively estimated at least 230 million people worldwide were infected with Schistosoma species in 2014. […] A WHO estimate cites over 700 million people as being at risk of infection, and approximately 200,000 annual deaths from Schistosomiasis alone. […] Schistosomiasis is endemic in seventy-four developing countries, 80% of those infected living in sub-Saharan Africa with humans acting as the parasites reservoir. […] Most human Schistosomiasis commonly arises from three species, Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma japonicum, and Schistosoma mansoni. […] The intensity and prevalence of infection rise with age and peaks between 15 to 20 years of age.
  • #100 Three overviews on Environment and Aquaculture in the Tropics and Sub-tropics
    https://www.fao.org/4/ad002e/ad002e03.htm
    Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) is caused by trematode flatworms of the genus Schistosoma. […] The estimated mortality is approximately 200 000 people every year (Anon., 1990B). […] The number of infected people in the world is probably expanding. […] One of the best-known examples of the effects of water development on the spread of schistosomiasis is the Aswan High Dam in Egypt. […] Aquaculture and small-scale fisheries are important components of national and international programs concerned with the development of animal protein resources in developing countries. However, these activities are also perceived as increasing the spread of breeding sites for vector snails in countries where schistosomiasis is endemic. […] The severity of the disease is related to inflammatory and fibrotic response in the host to the eggs in the liver, lungs, intestine and urinary bladder.
  • #101 Three overviews on Environment and Aquaculture in the Tropics and Sub-tropics
    https://www.fao.org/4/ad002e/ad002e03.htm
    Schistosomiasis can be found in all the SADC countries. […] In recent years there has been a number of notable cases of detrimental changes in patterns of water-borne diseases resulting from development of water-related projects, mainly irrigation. […] Attempts to control schistosomiasis aim at breaking the transmission cycle at one of the four points: by preventing infective cercariae from reaching people; eliminating the parasites in the human host; stopping eggs from reaching the water; and controlling vector snails (Woolhouse, 1987). […] It may not be possible to eradicate schistosomiasis completely, but the number of people infected with symptoms of the disease can be significantly reduced. […] ALCOM’s main contribution to the mitigation of schistosomiasis is consequently to disseminate information about pond management with respect to the snail’s intermediate host.
  • #102 Overview & resources: Schistosomiasis, Senegal, the Senegal River, & the Diama Dam – Global Health Case Competition 2023: Schistosomiasis in the Diama Dam area of the Senegal River – LibGuides at Health Sciences Library System
    https://hsls.libguides.com/global-health-case-competition-2023/overview
    Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) is considered a Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) by the World Health Organization (WHO). […] Schistosomiasis is a type of a parasitic infection; 5 species in the family of Trematode and genus schistosome affect humans. Schistosomes are the parasitic blood flukes that live in the body; the larva (cercariae) infest fresh water. There are 2 species that cause infections in Senegal: SCHISTOSOMA HAEMATOBIUM and SCHISTOSOMA MANSONI. […] According to the World Health Organization (WHO), over 700 million people live in areas in which schistosomes are endemic and almost 240 people are infected. […] Major factors affecting the distribution and prevalence of schistosomiasis are: Surface water availability and permanence – important for the development of large snail populations. Human water contact behaviour related to the amount of contamination and the incidence of infection. Environmental and climatic factors including temperature and rainfall, which vary according to local geography and may produce conditions which adversely affect snail populations and the amount of human contact with water.
  • #103 Overview & resources: Schistosomiasis, Senegal, the Senegal River, & the Diama Dam – Global Health Case Competition 2023: Schistosomiasis in the Diama Dam area of the Senegal River – LibGuides at Health Sciences Library System
    https://hsls.libguides.com/global-health-case-competition-2023/overview
    While the Diama Dam prevent the influx of saltwater, it also created large pools of freshwater. […] Except, these pools of freshwater proved to be major breeding grounds for the snails that are the vector (i.e. carrier) of the Schistosoma parasites. There was a significant uptick in Schistosomiasis cases after the Diama Dam was built, especially as precautions were not put in place for proper sanitation or to ensure good drainage.
  • #104 Three overviews on Environment and Aquaculture in the Tropics and Sub-tropics
    https://www.fao.org/4/ad002e/ad002e03.htm
    Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) is caused by trematode flatworms of the genus Schistosoma. […] The estimated mortality is approximately 200 000 people every year (Anon., 1990B). […] The number of infected people in the world is probably expanding. […] One of the best-known examples of the effects of water development on the spread of schistosomiasis is the Aswan High Dam in Egypt. […] Aquaculture and small-scale fisheries are important components of national and international programs concerned with the development of animal protein resources in developing countries. However, these activities are also perceived as increasing the spread of breeding sites for vector snails in countries where schistosomiasis is endemic. […] The severity of the disease is related to inflammatory and fibrotic response in the host to the eggs in the liver, lungs, intestine and urinary bladder.
  • #105 Overview & resources: Schistosomiasis, Senegal, the Senegal River, & the Diama Dam – Global Health Case Competition 2023: Schistosomiasis in the Diama Dam area of the Senegal River – LibGuides at Health Sciences Library System
    https://hsls.libguides.com/global-health-case-competition-2023/overview
    While the Diama Dam prevent the influx of saltwater, it also created large pools of freshwater. […] Except, these pools of freshwater proved to be major breeding grounds for the snails that are the vector (i.e. carrier) of the Schistosoma parasites. There was a significant uptick in Schistosomiasis cases after the Diama Dam was built, especially as precautions were not put in place for proper sanitation or to ensure good drainage.
  • #106
    https://www.who.int/health-topics/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is a disease of poverty that leads to chronic ill-health. Infection is acquired when people come into contact with fresh water infested with the larval forms (cercariae) of parasitic blood flukes, known as schistosomes. […] Urogenital schistosomiasis is caused by Schistosoma haematobium and intestinal schistosomiasis by any of the organisms S. guineensis, S. intercalatum, S. mansoni, S. japonicum, and S. mekongi. […] Human infection with schistosomes and soil-transmitted helminths is the cause of clinical morbidity in many areas of the world. Human schistosomiasis…
  • #107 Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/228392-overview
    Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by flukes (trematodes) of the genus Schistosoma. […] Sometimes referred to as bilharzias, bilharziasis, or snail fever, schistosomiasis was discovered by Theodore Bilharz, a German surgeon working in Cairo, who first identified the etiological agent Schistosoma hematobium in 1851. […] Most human schistosomiasis is caused by S haematobium, S mansoni, and S japonicum. Less prevalent species, such as S mekongi and S intercalatum, may also cause systemic human disease. […] Human beings become infected with schistosomiasis when larval forms of the parasite, released by freshwater snails, penetrate their skin during contact with infested water. […] Two major forms of schistosomiasis exist: intestinal and urogenital. These are caused by 5 main species.
  • #108 Schistosomiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554434/
    Schistosomiasis (Schistosoma haematobium), more specifically known as urogenital schistosomiasis, is an endemic disease to many countries in Africa and the Middle East that affects millions of individuals. […] Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease historically known as bilharzia caused by the trematode of the genus Schistosoma. […] Schistosoma haematobium is a trematode of the genus Schistosoma. It belongs to the trematode orderDiplostomida in the subclass Digenea. […] It is a parasitic flatworm (commonly known as a blood fluke) that parasitizes the venous plexus of the bladder and other urogenital organs. […] The lifecycle is complex and involves an intermediate host, primarily freshwater snails belonging to the genus Bulinus, and primary host, typically a human.
  • #109 Schistosoma haematobium – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosoma_haematobium
    Schistosoma haematobium is a species of digenetic trematode, belonging to a group (genus) of blood flukes (Schistosoma). It is found in Africa and the Middle East. It is the major agent of schistosomiasis, the most prevalent parasitic infection in humans. […] It is the only blood fluke that infects the urinary tract, causing urinary schistosomiasis, and is a leading cause of bladder cancer (only next to tobacco smoking). […] The diseases are caused by the eggs. […] The infectious nature was discovered by British physician Robert Thomson Leiper in 1915. […] Its role in cancer was first noted by a British Surgeon Reginald Harrison, at the Liverpool Royal Infirmary, in 1889. […] By 1905, he was convinced that carcinoma of bladder was due to bilharzia. […] After decades of assessing the medical reports, it was finally declared by the WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans in 2009 that S. haematobium is Group 1 carcinogen.
  • #110 Schistosomiasis – Infections – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/parasitic-infections-trematodes-flukes/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is infection caused by certain flatworms (flukes), called schistosomes. […] People acquire schistosomiasis by swimming or bathing in fresh water that is contaminated with the flukes. […] Schistosomiasis is acquired by swimming, wading, or bathing in fresh water that is contaminated with the free-swimming stage of the parasite. […] An infected person passes schistosome eggs in stool or urine. […] The eggs cause local tissue damage and inflammation, which may result in ulcers, bleeding, and scar tissue formation. […] Five Schistosoma species develop into adult flukes in people and account for most of the cases of schistosomiasis: Schistosoma hematobium infects the urinary tract (including the bladder). […] Schistosoma mansoni, Schistosoma japonicum, Schistosoma mekongi, and Schistosoma intercalatum infect the intestine and liver.
  • #111 Diagnosis of urinary Schistosomiasis
    https://www.xpedite-dx.com/applications/schistosomiasis/
    Schistosomiasis belongs to the group of Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs). It is also called Bilharzia or Snail fever. The disease is caused by infection with Schistosoma trematodes (also called blood flukes or flat worms). […] The genus Schistosoma comprises of more than 20 species. Most relevant to causing Schistosomiasis in humans are S. mansoni, S. haematobium, S. japonicum, whose genomes have been sequenced a while ago. […] Schistosomiasis is endemic in 70 mostly poor countries in Africa, Asia and South America, where it affects more than 200 million people. In fact, with about 200,000 annual deaths, it is the most deadly among all NTDs. […] The type that will develop is species-dependent. S. mansoni and S. japonicum cause intestinal schistosomiasis where the large bowel and the rectum are enlarged by immune reactions against Schistosoma eggs, which can cause colon obstruction, blood loss and diarrhea. In contrast, S. haematobium causes urogenital schistosomiasis with symptoms such as heavy pain at urination and blood in urine, but also urinary tract infections. Female patients often also suffer from inflammation of the vagina and cervix, which can even lead to infertility.
  • #112 Schistosoma haematobium – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosoma_haematobium
    Schistosoma haematobium is a species of digenetic trematode, belonging to a group (genus) of blood flukes (Schistosoma). It is found in Africa and the Middle East. It is the major agent of schistosomiasis, the most prevalent parasitic infection in humans. […] It is the only blood fluke that infects the urinary tract, causing urinary schistosomiasis, and is a leading cause of bladder cancer (only next to tobacco smoking). […] The diseases are caused by the eggs. […] The infectious nature was discovered by British physician Robert Thomson Leiper in 1915. […] Its role in cancer was first noted by a British Surgeon Reginald Harrison, at the Liverpool Royal Infirmary, in 1889. […] By 1905, he was convinced that carcinoma of bladder was due to bilharzia. […] After decades of assessing the medical reports, it was finally declared by the WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans in 2009 that S. haematobium is Group 1 carcinogen.
  • #113 Schistosomiasis: Epidemiology and clinical manifestations – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/schistosomiasis-epidemiology-and-clinical-manifestations/print
    Schistosomiasis is a disease caused by infection with parasitic blood flukes. It is also known as „bilharziasis” after Theodor Bilharz, who first identified the parasite in 1852. […] The parasites that cause schistosomiasis live in certain types of freshwater snails. Emergence of cercariae (the infectious form of the parasite) from the snail leads to contamination of the water. Individuals can become infected when skin comes in contact with contaminated water and is penetrated by cercariae. […] Seven schistosome species can cause infection in humans. The three major species are Schistosoma mansoni (Africa and South America), Schistosoma haematobium (Africa and Middle East), and Schistosoma japonicum (East Asia). In general, S. mansoni and S. japonicum cause intestinal tract disease, while S. haematobium causes genitourinary tract disease. […] Hybridization and introgressive gene transfer among phylogenetically related mammalian schistosome species occurs occasionally in areas where distinctive species and susceptible snail hosts coexist.
  • #114 Schistosomiasis | Graham Lab
    https://grahamlab.ucsf.edu/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is caused by a parasitic infection which comes from snails in fresh water. […] The parasites that cause schistosomiasis are primarily in Africa, Brazil, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. […] Schistosomiasis is considered a „neglected tropical disease” reflecting problems of the public health and medical communities in effectively controlling this disease. […] The eggs can be distinguished from the shape and spine orientation: S. mansoni is oblong with a spine that is at an angle; S. haematobium is oblong with a spine that is at the end; and S. japonicum is round and without a spine. […] The parasite releases eggs within the host. Animals and people infected with schistosomiasis develop granulomas around the eggs to contain the reaction.
  • #115 Schistosomiasis | Types, Causes, Transmission, Symptoms, & Treatment | Britannica
    https://www.britannica.com/science/schistosomiasis
    schistosomiasis, group of chronic disorders caused by small parasitic flatworms (family Schistosomatidae) commonly called blood flukes. […] The parasites were first identified as a cause of the disease in the 1850s by Theodor Bilharz, a German pathologist working in Egypt. […] There are three main types of schistosomiasis, caused by closely related organisms: (1) Japonica, or Eastern, schistosomiasis is caused by Schistosoma japonicum, found in Japan, southern China, the Philippines, Thailand, and Indonesia. (2) Mansons, or intestinal, schistosomiasis is caused by S. mansoni, found in Africa, the Middle East, the Caribbean, and northern South America. (3) Vesical, or urinary, schistosomiasis is caused by S. haematobium, found throughout Africa and the Middle East. […] Diagnosis is established by a history of residence in or travel to areas where schistosomiasis is endemic, by the presence of blood in the stool or urine, and by the presence of the fluke in a blood smear.
  • #116 Intestinal Schistosomiasis Caused by Schistosoma japonicum: A Literature Review
    https://www.infectiologyjournal.com/articles/intestinal-schistosomiasis-caused-by-emschistosoma-japonicumem-a-literature-review.html
    Schistosoma japonicum causes intestinal manifestations with fatigue, abdominal pain, cramping, anorexia, diarrhea, and dysentery. […] If S. japonicum remains untreated, periportal fibrosis could lead to portal hypertension and gastrointestinal bleeding. […] The treatment for schistosomiasis has important objectives such as reversing acute or early chronic disease and preventing complications. […] Praziquantel is the drug of choice for the treatment of all schistosoma species, it acts against adult schistosoma worms with the purpose to reduce egg production but has poor activity against immature schistosoma larvae. […] Schistosoma candidate vaccines are being identified through bioinformatics, OMICs approaches. […] Strategies to control schistosomiasis in endemic areas include water sanitation, minimizing contact with fresh water, community health-education, eradication of snail species, domestic animals care and treatment, proper work equipment to people at risk of exposition. […] Schistosomiasis is one of the neglected tropical diseases currently affecting mostly the poor population and causing thousands of deaths annually worldwide.
  • #117 Intestinal Schistosomiasis Caused by Schistosoma japonicum: A Literature Review
    https://www.infectiologyjournal.com/articles/intestinal-schistosomiasis-caused-by-emschistosoma-japonicumem-a-literature-review.html
    Schistosomiasis is a NTD caused by infection with parasitic blood flukes. […] The WHO reported that 258 million people worldwide were infected with trematodes of the genus schistosoma, and required treatment and preventive regime. […] There are five schistosome species that can cause infection in humans, but the ones that affect the intestinal tract are: S. mansoni found in Africa and South America, S. japonicum in East Asia, S. mekongi in Laos, Cambodia; and S. intercalatum in the West and Central Africa. […] The schistosoma japonicums life cycle starts when the eggs are eliminated with feces, hatch in the water and release the larvae (miracidia) that are viable for up to seven days until they penetrate the snail oncomelania. […] The physiopathology of chronic schistosomiasis results from the eggs lodging, inducing immune response, granuloma formation, fibrotic changes, damaging the organs and tissues of the human host.
  • #118 Schistosomiasis (bilharzia): Signs, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention
    https://www.gideononline.com/blogs/schistosomiasis-bilharzia-signs-diagnosis-treatment-prevention-parasitic-disease/
    Schistosomiasis is a disease caused by a parasite that affects millions worldwide. Also known as bilharzia, the disease spreads through contact with freshwater snails and is common in tropical and subtropical regions. […] Schistosomiasis is caused mainly by three species of blood flukes (trematodes) in the genus Schistosoma: S.haematobium, S. japonicum, and S. mansoni. Each of these parasites has a distinct preference for blood vessels in different parts of the human body. S.haematobium settles in the veins of the urinary tract, while S.mansoni and S.japonicum are found in the intestines.
  • #119 Exploring the link: a comprehensive literature review of Schistosoma japonicum infection and its oncogenic potential – Israel – Journal of Public Health and Emergency
    https://jphe.amegroups.org/article/view/10010/html
    Schistosomiasis, a neglected tropical disease caused by various Schistosoma species, notably Schistosoma japonicum, poses significant public health challenges. […] Chronic Schistosoma japonicum infection can cause numerous complications, including the development of cancer of the liver, colon and rectum. […] The parasites eggs in the hosts organs, especially the liver, induce tissue damage and chronic inflammation, which is the reason for the connection between schistosomiasis and cancer. […] The correlation between Schistosoma japonicum and cancer highlights the intricate relationship between oncogenesis and infectious diseases, emphasizing the need to treat the parasitic infection as well as any long-term effects it may have on impacted populations. […] In conclusion, the literature strongly supports a link between Schistosoma japonicum infection and various malignancies, including liver, colon, rectum, and rare locations.
  • #120 Exploring the link: a comprehensive literature review of Schistosoma japonicum infection and its oncogenic potential – Israel – Journal of Public Health and Emergency
    https://jphe.amegroups.org/article/view/10010/html
    Schistosomiasis, a neglected tropical disease caused by various Schistosoma species, notably Schistosoma japonicum, poses significant public health challenges. […] Chronic Schistosoma japonicum infection can cause numerous complications, including the development of cancer of the liver, colon and rectum. […] The parasites eggs in the hosts organs, especially the liver, induce tissue damage and chronic inflammation, which is the reason for the connection between schistosomiasis and cancer. […] The correlation between Schistosoma japonicum and cancer highlights the intricate relationship between oncogenesis and infectious diseases, emphasizing the need to treat the parasitic infection as well as any long-term effects it may have on impacted populations. […] In conclusion, the literature strongly supports a link between Schistosoma japonicum infection and various malignancies, including liver, colon, rectum, and rare locations.
  • #121
    https://www.who.int/health-topics/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is a disease of poverty that leads to chronic ill-health. Infection is acquired when people come into contact with fresh water infested with the larval forms (cercariae) of parasitic blood flukes, known as schistosomes. […] Urogenital schistosomiasis is caused by Schistosoma haematobium and intestinal schistosomiasis by any of the organisms S. guineensis, S. intercalatum, S. mansoni, S. japonicum, and S. mekongi. […] Human infection with schistosomes and soil-transmitted helminths is the cause of clinical morbidity in many areas of the world. Human schistosomiasis…
  • #122 Schistosomiasis
    https://www.rch.org.au/immigranthealth/clinical/Schistosomiasis/
    Schistosomiasis is a complex of several acute and/or chronic infections cause by the flatworm Schistosoma spp. (S. haematobium, S. guineensis, S. intercalatum, S. mansoni, S. japonicum, and S. mekongi). It has a low mortality rate but causes significant chronic illness and may lead to growth delay and cognitive impairment in children. […] The infection is acquired from fresh water sources in endemic areas (e.g. when a person walks bare foot in lakes or wetlands). There is no endemic Schistosoma infection in Australia (and no intermediate snail host), and transmission does not occur in salt water. […] Most Schistosoma spp. infection are asymptomatic. […] All recent immigrants from endemic areas should be screened for schistosomiasis infection by history, examination and investigation. […] All patients with evidence of schistosoma infection should be treated (including those with positive serology), even if asymptomatic, to prevent chronic complications.
  • #123 Diagnosis of urinary Schistosomiasis
    https://www.xpedite-dx.com/applications/schistosomiasis/
    Schistosomiasis belongs to the group of Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs). It is also called Bilharzia or Snail fever. The disease is caused by infection with Schistosoma trematodes (also called blood flukes or flat worms). […] The genus Schistosoma comprises of more than 20 species. Most relevant to causing Schistosomiasis in humans are S. mansoni, S. haematobium, S. japonicum, whose genomes have been sequenced a while ago. […] Schistosomiasis is endemic in 70 mostly poor countries in Africa, Asia and South America, where it affects more than 200 million people. In fact, with about 200,000 annual deaths, it is the most deadly among all NTDs. […] The type that will develop is species-dependent. S. mansoni and S. japonicum cause intestinal schistosomiasis where the large bowel and the rectum are enlarged by immune reactions against Schistosoma eggs, which can cause colon obstruction, blood loss and diarrhea. In contrast, S. haematobium causes urogenital schistosomiasis with symptoms such as heavy pain at urination and blood in urine, but also urinary tract infections. Female patients often also suffer from inflammation of the vagina and cervix, which can even lead to infertility.
  • #124 Schistosomiasis | GSA
    https://www.eliminateschisto.org/working-together/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia or snail fever, is a parasitic disease caused by tiny blood-dwelling worms. […] Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia or snail fever, is a disease caused by small, blood-dwelling parasitic worms. […] The schistosome parasite enters the persons blood system where it lives and reproduces. […] The adult worms themselves are not very harmful but the eggs they produce and release into the blood system lead to a lot of damage and are the cause of the disease. […] More worm pairs = more eggs = more damage to the organs and the host. […] There are two forms of the disease, depending on the species of the infecting schistosome worm: […] Schistosomiasis is both a water-borne, and a vector-borne disease. […] There are 23 species of schistosome parasitic worms, six infect people, but many others infect domestic animals.
  • #125 Schistosomiasis: Epidemiology and clinical manifestations – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/schistosomiasis-epidemiology-and-clinical-manifestations/print
    Schistosomiasis is a disease caused by infection with parasitic blood flukes. It is also known as „bilharziasis” after Theodor Bilharz, who first identified the parasite in 1852. […] The parasites that cause schistosomiasis live in certain types of freshwater snails. Emergence of cercariae (the infectious form of the parasite) from the snail leads to contamination of the water. Individuals can become infected when skin comes in contact with contaminated water and is penetrated by cercariae. […] Seven schistosome species can cause infection in humans. The three major species are Schistosoma mansoni (Africa and South America), Schistosoma haematobium (Africa and Middle East), and Schistosoma japonicum (East Asia). In general, S. mansoni and S. japonicum cause intestinal tract disease, while S. haematobium causes genitourinary tract disease. […] Hybridization and introgressive gene transfer among phylogenetically related mammalian schistosome species occurs occasionally in areas where distinctive species and susceptible snail hosts coexist.
  • #126 CDC – DPDx – Schistosomiasis Infection
    https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/schistosomiasis/index.html
    Schistosomiasis (Bilharziasis) is caused by some species of blood trematodes (flukes) in the genus Schistosoma. The three main species infecting humans are Schistosoma haematobium, S. japonicum, and S. mansoni. […] There have also been a few reports of hybrid schistosomes of cattle origin (S. haematobium, x S. bovis, x S. curassoni, x S. mattheei) infecting humans. […] Unlike other trematodes, which are hermaphroditic, Schistosoma spp. are dioecous (individuals of separate sexes).
  • #127 Schistosomiasis: Epidemiology and clinical manifestations – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/schistosomiasis-epidemiology-and-clinical-manifestations/print
    Schistosomiasis is a disease caused by infection with parasitic blood flukes. It is also known as „bilharziasis” after Theodor Bilharz, who first identified the parasite in 1852. […] The parasites that cause schistosomiasis live in certain types of freshwater snails. Emergence of cercariae (the infectious form of the parasite) from the snail leads to contamination of the water. Individuals can become infected when skin comes in contact with contaminated water and is penetrated by cercariae. […] Seven schistosome species can cause infection in humans. The three major species are Schistosoma mansoni (Africa and South America), Schistosoma haematobium (Africa and Middle East), and Schistosoma japonicum (East Asia). In general, S. mansoni and S. japonicum cause intestinal tract disease, while S. haematobium causes genitourinary tract disease. […] Hybridization and introgressive gene transfer among phylogenetically related mammalian schistosome species occurs occasionally in areas where distinctive species and susceptible snail hosts coexist.
  • #128
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is an acute and chronic disease caused by parasitic worms. […] People become infected when larval forms of the parasite released by freshwater snails penetrate the skin during contact with infested water. […] Schistosomiasis is prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas, especially in poor communities without access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation. […] There are 2 major forms of schistosomiasis intestinal and urogenital caused by 5 main species of blood fluke. […] The economic and health effects of schistosomiasis are considerable and the disease disables more than it kills. […] Praziquantel is the recommended treatment against all forms of schistosomiasis.
  • #129 Schistosomiasis: Still a Cause of Significant Morbidity and Mortality | RRTM
    https://www.dovepress.com/schistosomiasis-still-a-cause-of-significant-morbidity-and-mortality-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-RRTM
    Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, primarily a parasitic tropical disease, is as significant for morbidity and mortality as ever in developing countries. […] A leading authority in the study of Schistosomiasis conservatively estimated at least 230 million people worldwide were infected with Schistosoma species in 2014. […] A WHO estimate cites over 700 million people as being at risk of infection, and approximately 200,000 annual deaths from Schistosomiasis alone. […] Schistosomiasis is endemic in seventy-four developing countries, 80% of those infected living in sub-Saharan Africa with humans acting as the parasites reservoir. […] Most human Schistosomiasis commonly arises from three species, Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma japonicum, and Schistosoma mansoni. […] The intensity and prevalence of infection rise with age and peaks between 15 to 20 years of age.
  • #130 Schistosomiasis: Still a Cause of Significant Morbidity and Mortality | RRTM
    https://www.dovepress.com/schistosomiasis-still-a-cause-of-significant-morbidity-and-mortality-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-RRTM
    Factors responsible for continued infection included global warming, proximity to water, irrigation and dam construction as well as socio-economic factors. […] The disease may be more prevalent than thought after newer tests have shown increased sensitivity to pathological antigens. […] Schistosomiasis infections during pregnancy can cause debility with severe anemia. […] Long after the initial infection, a parasitic infection may cause renal failure from obstructive uropathy, pyelonephritis, or bladder carcinoma. […] Hepatic disease is more prevalent with heavy infestations, promoting collateral veins, and enabling eggs to reach the pulmonary circulation. […] The prevalence of the diseases pulmonary artery complication worldwide was estimated to exceed 270,000 individuals in 2009.
  • #131 Schistosomiasis – Pulmonary Hypertension Association
    https://phassociation.org/patients/aboutph/diseases-and-conditions-associated-with-ph/schistosomiasis/
    Schistosomiasis is caused by infection with the parasite schistosoma, which is a flatworm or fluke. Schistosomiasis is the third most common parasitic disease in the world after malaria and amoebiasis. It is endemic in more than 70 countries, affecting about 200 million people worldwide, of whom 80 percent are in sub-Saharan Africa. […] After infection, the schistosoma worm usually resides in humans and animals in targeted organs: the liver and the gastrointestinal tract for schistosoma mansoni or schistosoma japonicum, and the urinary tract for schistosoma haematobium. The worms may reside there for 30 years or more, and both male and female worms excrete eggs. The adult worms do not cause disease, but the eggs they release are highly antigenic (toxic) and the cause of disease. The eggs will produce pathological changes, mainly complex inflammatory lesions called granuloma which lead to scarring.
  • #132 Diagnosis of urinary Schistosomiasis
    https://www.xpedite-dx.com/applications/schistosomiasis/
    Schistosomiasis belongs to the group of Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs). It is also called Bilharzia or Snail fever. The disease is caused by infection with Schistosoma trematodes (also called blood flukes or flat worms). […] The genus Schistosoma comprises of more than 20 species. Most relevant to causing Schistosomiasis in humans are S. mansoni, S. haematobium, S. japonicum, whose genomes have been sequenced a while ago. […] Schistosomiasis is endemic in 70 mostly poor countries in Africa, Asia and South America, where it affects more than 200 million people. In fact, with about 200,000 annual deaths, it is the most deadly among all NTDs. […] The type that will develop is species-dependent. S. mansoni and S. japonicum cause intestinal schistosomiasis where the large bowel and the rectum are enlarged by immune reactions against Schistosoma eggs, which can cause colon obstruction, blood loss and diarrhea. In contrast, S. haematobium causes urogenital schistosomiasis with symptoms such as heavy pain at urination and blood in urine, but also urinary tract infections. Female patients often also suffer from inflammation of the vagina and cervix, which can even lead to infertility.
  • #133 Bilharzia affects 240 million people. Let’s get rid of it | World Economic Forum
    https://www.weforum.org/stories/2020/12/bilharzia-affects-240-million-people-we-can-eliminate-it/
    Cercariae Trichobilharzia szidati, the microscopic parasite that causes bilharzia (schistosomiasis) […] Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is a neglected tropical disease that kills 200,000 people a year worldwide. […] Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of 20 NTDs which require particular attention. It is a water-borne disease caused by parasitic worms specifically affecting children – it can impair their growth, learning capabilities and lead to life-threatening conditions. […] Schistosomiasis is a treatable disease. […] Schistosomiasis is not only treatable, it can also be eliminated. […] For the elimination of schistosomiasis to become reality, we will need to implement concerted, integrated health solutions and innovations. […] Today more than ever, it is important to keep fighting schistosomiasis and other NTDs – to leverage the strengths and knowledge of one another, to innovate, to improve access to health, and to ensure no one is left behind.
  • #134 Schistosomiasis | Types, Causes, Transmission, Symptoms, & Treatment | Britannica
    https://www.britannica.com/science/schistosomiasis
    schistosomiasis, group of chronic disorders caused by small parasitic flatworms (family Schistosomatidae) commonly called blood flukes. […] The parasites were first identified as a cause of the disease in the 1850s by Theodor Bilharz, a German pathologist working in Egypt. […] There are three main types of schistosomiasis, caused by closely related organisms: (1) Japonica, or Eastern, schistosomiasis is caused by Schistosoma japonicum, found in Japan, southern China, the Philippines, Thailand, and Indonesia. (2) Mansons, or intestinal, schistosomiasis is caused by S. mansoni, found in Africa, the Middle East, the Caribbean, and northern South America. (3) Vesical, or urinary, schistosomiasis is caused by S. haematobium, found throughout Africa and the Middle East. […] Diagnosis is established by a history of residence in or travel to areas where schistosomiasis is endemic, by the presence of blood in the stool or urine, and by the presence of the fluke in a blood smear.
  • #135 Schistosomiasis
    https://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/meded/mech/cases/case14/schistos.htm
    Portal hypertension can develop and cause hepatosplenomegaly, ascites, and esophageal varices. […] Swimmer’s itch (cercarial dermatitis) is caused by the larvae of other avian and mammalian schistosome species that penetrate human skin but do not complete the life cycle and do not cause chronic fibrotic disease. […] Schistosoma mansoni occurs throughout tropical Africa, in several Caribbean islands including Puerto Rico, and in Venezuela, Brazil, Suriname, and the Arabian peninsula. […] Schistosoma japonicum is found in China, the Philippines, and Indonesia. […] Schistosoma haematobium occurs in Africa and the eastern Mediterranean region. […] Schistosoma mekongi is limited to a small area of the Mekong delta in Southeast Asia (Kampuchea and Laos). […] Schistosoma intercalatum is found in Central Africa.
  • #136 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/news/20170704/Schistosomiasis-the-biggest-killer-youve-never-heard-of.aspx
    Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease (NTD) and a couple of weeks ago, there was a five-year celebration of the achievements that have taken place in WHO Geneva, since the London Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases in 2012. […] Schistosomiasis was found in Japan many years ago, but with development, improved water supplies, and the quality of life improvements in general, that has been overcome. […] It’s very high on their priority list and there’s a lot of resource and manpower going into control in China.
  • #137 Schistosomiasis: Still a Cause of Significant Morbidity and Mortality | RRTM
    https://www.dovepress.com/schistosomiasis-still-a-cause-of-significant-morbidity-and-mortality-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-RRTM
    Factors responsible for continued infection included global warming, proximity to water, irrigation and dam construction as well as socio-economic factors. […] The disease may be more prevalent than thought after newer tests have shown increased sensitivity to pathological antigens. […] Schistosomiasis infections during pregnancy can cause debility with severe anemia. […] Long after the initial infection, a parasitic infection may cause renal failure from obstructive uropathy, pyelonephritis, or bladder carcinoma. […] Hepatic disease is more prevalent with heavy infestations, promoting collateral veins, and enabling eggs to reach the pulmonary circulation. […] The prevalence of the diseases pulmonary artery complication worldwide was estimated to exceed 270,000 individuals in 2009.
  • #138 Schistosomiasis: Still a Cause of Significant Morbidity and Mortality | RRTM
    https://www.dovepress.com/schistosomiasis-still-a-cause-of-significant-morbidity-and-mortality-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-RRTM
    Schistosomiasis often develops over a while, leading to the delay of diagnosis. […] The task ahead to eliminate global human Schistosoma infection is extensive and will require investment. […] The prevalence of the three common Schistosoma species impacting human morbidity may be higher than detected.
  • #139 Three overviews on Environment and Aquaculture in the Tropics and Sub-tropics
    https://www.fao.org/4/ad002e/ad002e03.htm
    Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) is caused by trematode flatworms of the genus Schistosoma. […] The estimated mortality is approximately 200 000 people every year (Anon., 1990B). […] The number of infected people in the world is probably expanding. […] One of the best-known examples of the effects of water development on the spread of schistosomiasis is the Aswan High Dam in Egypt. […] Aquaculture and small-scale fisheries are important components of national and international programs concerned with the development of animal protein resources in developing countries. However, these activities are also perceived as increasing the spread of breeding sites for vector snails in countries where schistosomiasis is endemic. […] The severity of the disease is related to inflammatory and fibrotic response in the host to the eggs in the liver, lungs, intestine and urinary bladder.
  • #140 Three overviews on Environment and Aquaculture in the Tropics and Sub-tropics
    https://www.fao.org/4/ad002e/ad002e03.htm
    In urinary schistosomiasis (due to S. haematobium), damage to the urinary tract is revealed by blood in the urine. […] Intestinal schistosomiasis (due to S. mansoni) is slower to develop. […] Schistosomiasis is increasing in distribution as snails are carried from infected loci into new areas with water-related projects or as appropriate snails in previously uninfected areas become contaminated from eggs discharged into the water by infected individuals (Beaver et al, 1984). […] Major factors affecting the distribution and prevalence of schistosomiasis are: Surface water availability and permanence – important for the development of large snail populations. […] Water contact is the most critical variable in the transmission of schistosomiasis. […] The actual number of snails infected in nature is surprisingly low.
  • #141 Three overviews on Environment and Aquaculture in the Tropics and Sub-tropics
    https://www.fao.org/4/ad002e/ad002e03.htm
    In urinary schistosomiasis (due to S. haematobium), damage to the urinary tract is revealed by blood in the urine. […] Intestinal schistosomiasis (due to S. mansoni) is slower to develop. […] Schistosomiasis is increasing in distribution as snails are carried from infected loci into new areas with water-related projects or as appropriate snails in previously uninfected areas become contaminated from eggs discharged into the water by infected individuals (Beaver et al, 1984). […] Major factors affecting the distribution and prevalence of schistosomiasis are: Surface water availability and permanence – important for the development of large snail populations. […] Water contact is the most critical variable in the transmission of schistosomiasis. […] The actual number of snails infected in nature is surprisingly low.
  • #142
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00281-020-00789-x
    Schistosomiasis (bilharzia) is a neglected tropical disease caused by trematode worms of the genus Schistosoma. […] The main disease-causing species are S. haematobium, S. mansoni and S. japonicum. […] Schistosomiasis is characterised by focal epidemiology and an over-dispersed population distribution, with higher infection rates in children. […] Chronic schistosomiasis affects mainly individuals with long-standing infections residing in poor rural areas. […] Immunopathological reactions against schistosome eggs trapped in host tissues lead to inflammatory and obstructive disease in the urinary system (S. haematobium) or intestinal disease, hepatosplenic inflammation and liver fibrosis (S. mansoni and S. japonicum). […] An effective drug praziquantel is available for treatment but, despite intensive efforts, no schistosomiasis vaccines have yet been accepted for public use.
  • #143 Schistosomiasis outbreak investigation, Empandeni Ward, Mangwe District, Matabeleland South Province, June 2012; a case control study | BMC Research Notes | Full Text
    https://bmcresnotes.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1756-0500-7-623
    On 20th of June 2012, 31 pupils from Kwite primary school reported to the local clinic complaining of passing bloody urine. A study was conducted to identify factors, the etiology and risks of contracting the disease. […] Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is a chronic disease caused by parasitic trematode flatworms of the genus Schistosoma spp. […] When a person gets in contact with water contaminated with the parasite causing schistosomiasis, the parasite penetrates into the human skin and develops into adult worms in the human blood vessels. […] The presenting signs and symptoms of schistosomiasis are caused by immunological reaction of the body against the worms as migrate through the body tissues and effects of eggs on epithelial mucosa. […] Bilharzia is diagnosed through detection of parasitic eggs in stool or urine of cases.
  • #144 Schistosomiasis: Still a Cause of Significant Morbidity and Mortality | RRTM
    https://www.dovepress.com/schistosomiasis-still-a-cause-of-significant-morbidity-and-mortality-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-RRTM
    Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, primarily a parasitic tropical disease, is as significant for morbidity and mortality as ever in developing countries. […] A leading authority in the study of Schistosomiasis conservatively estimated at least 230 million people worldwide were infected with Schistosoma species in 2014. […] A WHO estimate cites over 700 million people as being at risk of infection, and approximately 200,000 annual deaths from Schistosomiasis alone. […] Schistosomiasis is endemic in seventy-four developing countries, 80% of those infected living in sub-Saharan Africa with humans acting as the parasites reservoir. […] Most human Schistosomiasis commonly arises from three species, Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma japonicum, and Schistosoma mansoni. […] The intensity and prevalence of infection rise with age and peaks between 15 to 20 years of age.
  • #145 Schistosomiasis | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-018-0013-8
    Schistosomiasis (bilharzia) is a neglected tropical disease caused by parasitic flatworms (blood flukes) of the genus Schistosoma, with considerable morbidity in parts of the Middle East, South America, Southeast Asia and, particularly, in sub-Saharan Africa. […] Infective larvae grow in an intermediate host (fresh-water snails) before penetrating the skin of the definitive human host. […] Mature adult worms reside in the mesenteric (Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum) or pelvic (Schistosoma haematobium) veins, where female worms lay eggs, which are secreted in stool or urine. […] Eggs trapped in the surrounding tissues and organs, such as the liver and bladder, cause inflammatory immune responses (including granulomas) that result in intestinal, hepato-splenic or urogenital disease. […] Schistosomiasis elimination will require a multifaceted approach, including: treatment; snail control; information, education and communication; improved water, sanitation and hygiene; accurate diagnostics; and surveillance-response systems that are readily tailored to social-ecological settings.
  • #146 Schistosomiasis in children: a major public health problem | Pediatric Praziquantel Consortium
    https://www.pediatricpraziquantelconsortium.org/what-we-do/schistosomiasis-children-major-public-health-problem
    Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia) is one of the most prevalent parasitic diseases worldwide and a very important one in terms of public health burden and economic impact. […] People become infected with schistosomiasis when they come into contact with fresh water infested with schistosomes the larval forms (cercariae) of parasitic blood flukes released by freshwater snails. […] An estimated 50 million preschool-age children are at risk of schistosomiasis. […] The existing drug of choice for the treatment of schistosomiasis is praziquantel, developed in the 1970s. […] More importantly, an appropriate treatment with praziquantel for these children using the optimal dosing, and that encourages compliance, does not yet exist.
  • #147 Bilharzia affects 240 million people. Let’s get rid of it | World Economic Forum
    https://www.weforum.org/stories/2020/12/bilharzia-affects-240-million-people-we-can-eliminate-it/
    Cercariae Trichobilharzia szidati, the microscopic parasite that causes bilharzia (schistosomiasis) […] Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is a neglected tropical disease that kills 200,000 people a year worldwide. […] Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of 20 NTDs which require particular attention. It is a water-borne disease caused by parasitic worms specifically affecting children – it can impair their growth, learning capabilities and lead to life-threatening conditions. […] Schistosomiasis is a treatable disease. […] Schistosomiasis is not only treatable, it can also be eliminated. […] For the elimination of schistosomiasis to become reality, we will need to implement concerted, integrated health solutions and innovations. […] Today more than ever, it is important to keep fighting schistosomiasis and other NTDs – to leverage the strengths and knowledge of one another, to innovate, to improve access to health, and to ensure no one is left behind.
  • #148
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schistosomiasis
    Schistosomiasis is an acute and chronic disease caused by parasitic worms. […] People become infected when larval forms of the parasite released by freshwater snails penetrate the skin during contact with infested water. […] Schistosomiasis is prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas, especially in poor communities without access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation. […] There are 2 major forms of schistosomiasis intestinal and urogenital caused by 5 main species of blood fluke. […] The economic and health effects of schistosomiasis are considerable and the disease disables more than it kills. […] Praziquantel is the recommended treatment against all forms of schistosomiasis.
  • #149 Schistosomiasis | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-018-0013-8
    Schistosomiasis (bilharzia) is a neglected tropical disease caused by parasitic flatworms (blood flukes) of the genus Schistosoma, with considerable morbidity in parts of the Middle East, South America, Southeast Asia and, particularly, in sub-Saharan Africa. […] Infective larvae grow in an intermediate host (fresh-water snails) before penetrating the skin of the definitive human host. […] Mature adult worms reside in the mesenteric (Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum) or pelvic (Schistosoma haematobium) veins, where female worms lay eggs, which are secreted in stool or urine. […] Eggs trapped in the surrounding tissues and organs, such as the liver and bladder, cause inflammatory immune responses (including granulomas) that result in intestinal, hepato-splenic or urogenital disease. […] Schistosomiasis elimination will require a multifaceted approach, including: treatment; snail control; information, education and communication; improved water, sanitation and hygiene; accurate diagnostics; and surveillance-response systems that are readily tailored to social-ecological settings.
  • #150 Three overviews on Environment and Aquaculture in the Tropics and Sub-tropics
    https://www.fao.org/4/ad002e/ad002e03.htm
    Schistosomiasis can be found in all the SADC countries. […] In recent years there has been a number of notable cases of detrimental changes in patterns of water-borne diseases resulting from development of water-related projects, mainly irrigation. […] Attempts to control schistosomiasis aim at breaking the transmission cycle at one of the four points: by preventing infective cercariae from reaching people; eliminating the parasites in the human host; stopping eggs from reaching the water; and controlling vector snails (Woolhouse, 1987). […] It may not be possible to eradicate schistosomiasis completely, but the number of people infected with symptoms of the disease can be significantly reduced. […] ALCOM’s main contribution to the mitigation of schistosomiasis is consequently to disseminate information about pond management with respect to the snail’s intermediate host.
  • #151 Intestinal Schistosomiasis Caused by Schistosoma japonicum: A Literature Review
    https://www.infectiologyjournal.com/articles/intestinal-schistosomiasis-caused-by-emschistosoma-japonicumem-a-literature-review.html
    Schistosoma japonicum causes intestinal manifestations with fatigue, abdominal pain, cramping, anorexia, diarrhea, and dysentery. […] If S. japonicum remains untreated, periportal fibrosis could lead to portal hypertension and gastrointestinal bleeding. […] The treatment for schistosomiasis has important objectives such as reversing acute or early chronic disease and preventing complications. […] Praziquantel is the drug of choice for the treatment of all schistosoma species, it acts against adult schistosoma worms with the purpose to reduce egg production but has poor activity against immature schistosoma larvae. […] Schistosoma candidate vaccines are being identified through bioinformatics, OMICs approaches. […] Strategies to control schistosomiasis in endemic areas include water sanitation, minimizing contact with fresh water, community health-education, eradication of snail species, domestic animals care and treatment, proper work equipment to people at risk of exposition. […] Schistosomiasis is one of the neglected tropical diseases currently affecting mostly the poor population and causing thousands of deaths annually worldwide.
  • #152 Schistosomiasis | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-018-0013-8
    Schistosomiasis (bilharzia) is a neglected tropical disease caused by parasitic flatworms (blood flukes) of the genus Schistosoma, with considerable morbidity in parts of the Middle East, South America, Southeast Asia and, particularly, in sub-Saharan Africa. […] Infective larvae grow in an intermediate host (fresh-water snails) before penetrating the skin of the definitive human host. […] Mature adult worms reside in the mesenteric (Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum) or pelvic (Schistosoma haematobium) veins, where female worms lay eggs, which are secreted in stool or urine. […] Eggs trapped in the surrounding tissues and organs, such as the liver and bladder, cause inflammatory immune responses (including granulomas) that result in intestinal, hepato-splenic or urogenital disease. […] Schistosomiasis elimination will require a multifaceted approach, including: treatment; snail control; information, education and communication; improved water, sanitation and hygiene; accurate diagnostics; and surveillance-response systems that are readily tailored to social-ecological settings.
  • #153
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00281-020-00789-x
    Schistosomiasis (bilharzia) is a neglected tropical disease caused by trematode worms of the genus Schistosoma. […] The main disease-causing species are S. haematobium, S. mansoni and S. japonicum. […] Schistosomiasis is characterised by focal epidemiology and an over-dispersed population distribution, with higher infection rates in children. […] Chronic schistosomiasis affects mainly individuals with long-standing infections residing in poor rural areas. […] Immunopathological reactions against schistosome eggs trapped in host tissues lead to inflammatory and obstructive disease in the urinary system (S. haematobium) or intestinal disease, hepatosplenic inflammation and liver fibrosis (S. mansoni and S. japonicum). […] An effective drug praziquantel is available for treatment but, despite intensive efforts, no schistosomiasis vaccines have yet been accepted for public use.
  • #154
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00281-020-00789-x
    We then explore aspects of the immunology and host-parasite interplay in schistosome infections paying special attention to the current status of schistosomiasis vaccine development highlighting the advancement of a new controlled human challenge infection model for testing schistosomiasis vaccines.
  • #155 Schistosomiasis and the impact on sexual and reproductive health | GSA
    https://www.eliminateschisto.org/blog/schistosomiasis-and-the-impact-on-sexual-and-reproductive-health
    The pathology of genital schistosomiasis mimics many sexually transmitted diseases and when patients present themselves at a local health facility with these symptoms they are often misdiagnosed by healthcare professionals due to the lack of awareness and clear diagnostics. […] We rely on microscopic identification of schistosome eggs in urine and stool samples to diagnose someone with schistosome infections. […] The evidence indicates that giving PZQ at its current recommended dosage of 40mg/kg is not an effective treatment for FGS. […] A potential solution might be found in PZQ itself. […] Regular treatment of children is crucial to ensure the long-term damage of genital schistosomiasis is stamped out in the next generation! […] However, MGS is severely neglected. […] More research is underway but we need more studies to better understand the impact of genital schistosomiasis on men.
  • #156 Schistosomiasis
    https://mobile.fpnotebook.com/ID/Parasite/Schstsms.htm
    Schistosomiasis, Bilharziasis, Katayama Fever, Acute Schistosomiasis, Acute Toxemic Schistosomiasis […] Trematode Parasite […] Schistosoma mansoni (South America, Caribbean, Africa) […] Schistosoma japonicum (Asia) […] Schistosoma haematobium (Africa) […] Parasite enters unbroken skin in infested fresh water […] Illness is secondary to immunologic response to schistosomal worms […] Eosinophilia differentiates Schistosomiasis from other causes of Fever in the Returning Traveler […] Chronic infection affecting liver, Bladder, Uterus, Gastrointestinal Tract.
  • #157 Schistosomiasis
    https://mobile.fpnotebook.com/ID/Parasite/Schstsms.htm
    Schistosomiasis, Bilharziasis, Katayama Fever, Acute Schistosomiasis, Acute Toxemic Schistosomiasis […] Trematode Parasite […] Schistosoma mansoni (South America, Caribbean, Africa) […] Schistosoma japonicum (Asia) […] Schistosoma haematobium (Africa) […] Parasite enters unbroken skin in infested fresh water […] Illness is secondary to immunologic response to schistosomal worms […] Eosinophilia differentiates Schistosomiasis from other causes of Fever in the Returning Traveler […] Chronic infection affecting liver, Bladder, Uterus, Gastrointestinal Tract.
  • #158 Schistosoma haematobium – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosoma_haematobium
    The main cause of schistomiasis is the dumping of human waste into water supplies. […] Normal infection of adults does not produce symptoms. When eggs are released, they sometimes become permanently stuck in the bladder and cause pathological symptoms. […] The distinct symptom for urogenital schistosomiasis is blood in the urine (haematuria), which is often associated with frequent urination, painful micturition, and discomfort in the groin. […] In the most severe condition, chronic bladder ulcers and bladder carcinoma develop.
  • #159 Schistosomiasis and the impact on sexual and reproductive health | GSA
    https://www.eliminateschisto.org/blog/schistosomiasis-and-the-impact-on-sexual-and-reproductive-health
    The pathology of genital schistosomiasis mimics many sexually transmitted diseases and when patients present themselves at a local health facility with these symptoms they are often misdiagnosed by healthcare professionals due to the lack of awareness and clear diagnostics. […] We rely on microscopic identification of schistosome eggs in urine and stool samples to diagnose someone with schistosome infections. […] The evidence indicates that giving PZQ at its current recommended dosage of 40mg/kg is not an effective treatment for FGS. […] A potential solution might be found in PZQ itself. […] Regular treatment of children is crucial to ensure the long-term damage of genital schistosomiasis is stamped out in the next generation! […] However, MGS is severely neglected. […] More research is underway but we need more studies to better understand the impact of genital schistosomiasis on men.
  • #160 Schistosomiasis and the impact on sexual and reproductive health | GSA
    https://www.eliminateschisto.org/blog/schistosomiasis-and-the-impact-on-sexual-and-reproductive-health
    The pathology of genital schistosomiasis mimics many sexually transmitted diseases and when patients present themselves at a local health facility with these symptoms they are often misdiagnosed by healthcare professionals due to the lack of awareness and clear diagnostics. […] We rely on microscopic identification of schistosome eggs in urine and stool samples to diagnose someone with schistosome infections. […] The evidence indicates that giving PZQ at its current recommended dosage of 40mg/kg is not an effective treatment for FGS. […] A potential solution might be found in PZQ itself. […] Regular treatment of children is crucial to ensure the long-term damage of genital schistosomiasis is stamped out in the next generation! […] However, MGS is severely neglected. […] More research is underway but we need more studies to better understand the impact of genital schistosomiasis on men.
  • #161 Intestinal Schistosomiasis Caused by Schistosoma japonicum: A Literature Review
    https://www.infectiologyjournal.com/articles/intestinal-schistosomiasis-caused-by-emschistosoma-japonicumem-a-literature-review.html
    Schistosomiasis is a NTD caused by infection with parasitic blood flukes. […] The WHO reported that 258 million people worldwide were infected with trematodes of the genus schistosoma, and required treatment and preventive regime. […] There are five schistosome species that can cause infection in humans, but the ones that affect the intestinal tract are: S. mansoni found in Africa and South America, S. japonicum in East Asia, S. mekongi in Laos, Cambodia; and S. intercalatum in the West and Central Africa. […] The schistosoma japonicums life cycle starts when the eggs are eliminated with feces, hatch in the water and release the larvae (miracidia) that are viable for up to seven days until they penetrate the snail oncomelania. […] The physiopathology of chronic schistosomiasis results from the eggs lodging, inducing immune response, granuloma formation, fibrotic changes, damaging the organs and tissues of the human host.
  • #162 Intestinal Schistosomiasis Caused by Schistosoma japonicum: A Literature Review
    https://www.infectiologyjournal.com/articles/intestinal-schistosomiasis-caused-by-emschistosoma-japonicumem-a-literature-review.html
    Schistosoma japonicum causes intestinal manifestations with fatigue, abdominal pain, cramping, anorexia, diarrhea, and dysentery. […] If S. japonicum remains untreated, periportal fibrosis could lead to portal hypertension and gastrointestinal bleeding. […] The treatment for schistosomiasis has important objectives such as reversing acute or early chronic disease and preventing complications. […] Praziquantel is the drug of choice for the treatment of all schistosoma species, it acts against adult schistosoma worms with the purpose to reduce egg production but has poor activity against immature schistosoma larvae. […] Schistosoma candidate vaccines are being identified through bioinformatics, OMICs approaches. […] Strategies to control schistosomiasis in endemic areas include water sanitation, minimizing contact with fresh water, community health-education, eradication of snail species, domestic animals care and treatment, proper work equipment to people at risk of exposition. […] Schistosomiasis is one of the neglected tropical diseases currently affecting mostly the poor population and causing thousands of deaths annually worldwide.
  • #163 Neuroschistosomiasis
    https://practicalneurology.com/articles/2020-may/neuroschistosomiasis
    Neuroschistosomiasis is an underrecognized complication of the second most common parasitic infection in the world. […] Schistosoma infection is acquired when a person comes into contact with infected fresh water and the parasite penetrates the skin. Freshwater snails serve as the intermediate host for the parasite and release thousands of infective schistosomal larvae into freshwater. […] Schistosoma mansoni is 1 of 5 major schistosomal species and is found throughout Africa within the freshwater of the great lakes, rivers, and smaller bodies of water. […] Approximately 1% to 4% of spinal cord lesions in sub-Saharan Africa are thought to be caused by schistosomal infections. […] Diagnosis of neuroschistosomiasis requires clinical signs of CNS involvement (eg, altered mental status, seizures, or myeloradiculopathy), typical imaging findings (eg, obstructive hydrocephalus, transverse myelitis, or vasculitis), demonstration of schistosomal infection, and exclusion of other causes.
  • #164 Neuroschistosomiasis
    https://practicalneurology.com/articles/2020-may/neuroschistosomiasis
    Making the diagnosis can be difficult because diagnostic modalities are limited. […] Schistosoma eggs do not appear in the urine until at least 2 months after the initial infection, and eggs are shed at different times in the stool or urine depending on the species. […] Praziquantel is the antiparasitic of choice for schistosomiasis because of a reported cure rate of 70% to 90% for parasitic infections. […] Although established treatment regimens exist for more common manifestations of systemic schistosomal infection (eg, swimmers itch and Katayama fever), there are no consensus guidelines or randomized controlled trials for the treatment of neuroschistosomiasis.
  • #165 Schistosomiasis – Pulmonary Hypertension Association
    https://phassociation.org/patients/aboutph/diseases-and-conditions-associated-with-ph/schistosomiasis/
    Some of the eggs may escape from where the adult worms are and migrate to other tissues, particularly to the lung. The inflammation caused by the eggs causes changes in the blood vessels that leads to pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). […] The diagnosis of schistosomiasis-associated PAH is similar to other types of PAH. Studies are done to rule out other causes of the disease, and for persons from areas where infection is common, specific tests for schistosomiasis are needed. […] It is important to treat active schistosomiasis infection if present. This may help to decrease the inflammation and possibly prevent further worsening of the PH. For schistosomiasis-associated PAH, treatment is similar to other forms of PAH. However, there are no clinical trials to confirm the effectiveness of treatment in these patients. […] The prognosis of schistosomiasis-associated PAH is not well understood and is likely very similar to that of idiopathic PAH.
  • #166 Neuroschistosomiasis
    https://practicalneurology.com/articles/2020-may/neuroschistosomiasis
    Making the diagnosis can be difficult because diagnostic modalities are limited. […] Schistosoma eggs do not appear in the urine until at least 2 months after the initial infection, and eggs are shed at different times in the stool or urine depending on the species. […] Praziquantel is the antiparasitic of choice for schistosomiasis because of a reported cure rate of 70% to 90% for parasitic infections. […] Although established treatment regimens exist for more common manifestations of systemic schistosomal infection (eg, swimmers itch and Katayama fever), there are no consensus guidelines or randomized controlled trials for the treatment of neuroschistosomiasis.
  • #167 Schistosomiasis: Still a Cause of Significant Morbidity and Mortality | RRTM
    https://www.dovepress.com/schistosomiasis-still-a-cause-of-significant-morbidity-and-mortality-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-RRTM
    Schistosomiasis often develops over a while, leading to the delay of diagnosis. […] The task ahead to eliminate global human Schistosoma infection is extensive and will require investment. […] The prevalence of the three common Schistosoma species impacting human morbidity may be higher than detected.
  • #168 Schistosomiasis and the impact on sexual and reproductive health | GSA
    https://www.eliminateschisto.org/blog/schistosomiasis-and-the-impact-on-sexual-and-reproductive-health
    The pathology of genital schistosomiasis mimics many sexually transmitted diseases and when patients present themselves at a local health facility with these symptoms they are often misdiagnosed by healthcare professionals due to the lack of awareness and clear diagnostics. […] We rely on microscopic identification of schistosome eggs in urine and stool samples to diagnose someone with schistosome infections. […] The evidence indicates that giving PZQ at its current recommended dosage of 40mg/kg is not an effective treatment for FGS. […] A potential solution might be found in PZQ itself. […] Regular treatment of children is crucial to ensure the long-term damage of genital schistosomiasis is stamped out in the next generation! […] However, MGS is severely neglected. […] More research is underway but we need more studies to better understand the impact of genital schistosomiasis on men.
  • #169 Schistosomiasis – Infections – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/parasitic-infections-trematodes-flukes/schistosomiasis
    None of these five Schistosoma species cause schistosomiasis in people who live in Canada or the United States, including Puerto Rico, where schistosomiasis used to be endemic. […] The eggs of Schistosoma hematobium typically lodge in the bladder, sometimes causing ulcers, bleeding into the urine, and scarring. Schistosoma hematobium infection increases the risk of bladder cancer. […] All types of schistosomiasis can affect other organs (such as the lungs, spinal cord, and brain). […] Adult schistosomes live on average 3 to 10 years, but sometimes longer. […] Schistosomiasis is best prevented by avoiding swimming, bathing, or wading in fresh water in areas known to contain schistosomes. […] Using chemicals that kill snails (molluscicides) in bodies of fresh water known to contain schistosomes.
  • #170 Schistosomiasis
    https://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/meded/mech/cases/case14/schistos.htm
    The trematodes (flukes) . Schistosomes are flukes that inhabit the portal vascular system. All species have similar life cycles. […] Persistence of schistosomiasis depends on the presence of an appropriate snail as an intermediate host. […] Eggs excreted in stool (S mansoni and S japonicum) or urine (S haematobium) into fresh water hatch into motile miracidia, which infect snails. […] After development in the snails, cercariae emerge and penetrate the skin of humans encountered in the water. […] The cercariae pass through lungs to liver where they mature, mate and pass down into mesenteric or vescical venules to begin egg production. […] Adult worms of the S mansoni species have been documented to live as long as 26 years in the human host. […] Thus, schistosomiasis can be diagnosed in patients many years after they have left the endemic areas.
  • #171 Schistosomiasis
    https://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/meded/mech/cases/case14/schistos.htm
    The trematodes (flukes) . Schistosomes are flukes that inhabit the portal vascular system. All species have similar life cycles. […] Persistence of schistosomiasis depends on the presence of an appropriate snail as an intermediate host. […] Eggs excreted in stool (S mansoni and S japonicum) or urine (S haematobium) into fresh water hatch into motile miracidia, which infect snails. […] After development in the snails, cercariae emerge and penetrate the skin of humans encountered in the water. […] The cercariae pass through lungs to liver where they mature, mate and pass down into mesenteric or vescical venules to begin egg production. […] Adult worms of the S mansoni species have been documented to live as long as 26 years in the human host. […] Thus, schistosomiasis can be diagnosed in patients many years after they have left the endemic areas.

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