Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Cervical cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cervical-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352506

  Pap smear screenings begin at age 21 and continue, varying by age, every three to five years. […] Having an abnormal Pap smear is very common, so don’t feel alone. It just means that additional tests are needed to prove that cervical cancer isn’t present. Most people with abnormal Pap smear do not end up having a diagnosis of cervical cancer. […] Certainly, we aim to detect cervical cancer as early as possible. Early stage cervical cancer has much improved overall survival and reduced recurrence. […] During a cone biopsy, also called conization, a doctor surgically removes a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix. Typically, the cone-shaped piece includes tissue from both the upper and lower parts of the cervix. […] If you might have cervical cancer, testing is likely to start with a thorough exam of your cervix. A special magnifying instrument, called a colposcope, is used to check for signs of cancer.

• #2 Cervical Cancer Diagnosis & Stages 0, 1, 2 ,3, 4 | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/cervical/diagnosis

  Surgeon Jennifer Mueller specializes in caring for women with cervical cancer. She works as part of a team of experts who are dedicated to providing the highest standard of care. […] Many women come to Memorial Sloan Kettering after they have had an abnormal Pap smear that indicates cancerous changes in the cervix during a routine visit to the doctor. When you come to us, our doctors will likely examine the cervix, take a biopsy of cervical tissue, and perform other tests to assess the stage of the cancer. […] A Pap smear is a test most commonly used to screen for and detect the possibility of cervical cancer or precancer, called dysplasia. […] The tissue samples are then sent to a lab at Memorial Sloan Kettering to be analyzed under a microscope by one of our expert pathologists. Collection, sampling, screening, and interpretation of Pap smears require considerable experience and skill to ensure an accurate diagnosis.

• #3 Diagnosis of cervical cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/cervical/diagnosis

  Usually, diagnosing cervical cancer begins when a Pap test becomes abnormal. Your doctor will ask you about any symptoms you have and may do a physical exam. Based on this information, your doctor will refer you to a specialist or order tests to check for cervical cancer or other health problems. […] The following tests are usually used to rule out or diagnose cervical cancer. Many of the same tests used to diagnose cancer are used to find out the stage (how far the cancer has spread). Your doctor may also order other tests to check your general health and to help plan your treatment. […] A Pap test removes a small sample of cells from the surface of the cervix. Doctors look at the cells under a microscope to see if they look normal or abnormal. The test can find abnormal changes in cells early, before cancer develops.

• #4 Cervical Cancer Screening – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/screening

  Screening means checking for a disease before there are symptoms. Cervical cancer screening is an important part of routine health care for people who have a cervix. […] The goal of screening for cervical cancer is to find precancerous cervical cell changes, when treatment can prevent cervical cancer from developing. Sometimes, cancer is found during cervical screening. Cervical cancer found at an early stage is usually easier to treat. By the time symptoms appear, cervical cancer may have begun to spread, making treatment more difficult. […] There are three main ways to screen for cervical cancer: The human papillomavirus (HPV) test checks cells for infection with high-risk HPV types that can cause cervical cancer. The Pap test (also called a Pap smear or cervical cytology) collects cervical cells so they can be checked for changes caused by HPV that may if left untreated turn into cervical cancer. It can find precancerous cells and cervical cancer cells. A Pap test also sometimes finds conditions that are not cancer, such as infection or inflammation. The HPV/Pap cotest uses an HPV test and Pap test together to check for both high-risk HPV and cervical cell changes.

• #5 Cervical cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cervical-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352506

  Pap smear screenings begin at age 21 and continue, varying by age, every three to five years. […] Having an abnormal Pap smear is very common, so don’t feel alone. It just means that additional tests are needed to prove that cervical cancer isn’t present. Most people with abnormal Pap smear do not end up having a diagnosis of cervical cancer. […] Certainly, we aim to detect cervical cancer as early as possible. Early stage cervical cancer has much improved overall survival and reduced recurrence. […] During a cone biopsy, also called conization, a doctor surgically removes a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix. Typically, the cone-shaped piece includes tissue from both the upper and lower parts of the cervix. […] If you might have cervical cancer, testing is likely to start with a thorough exam of your cervix. A special magnifying instrument, called a colposcope, is used to check for signs of cancer.

• #6 Cervical Cancer Screening – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/screening

  Cervical screening recommendations are developed by several organizations, including the United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) and the American Cancer Society (ACS). How often you should be screened for cervical cancer and which tests you should get will depend on your age and health history. […] If you are in this age group, USPSTF recommends getting your first Pap test at age 21, followed by Pap testing every 3 years. […] If you are in this age group, USPSTF recommends getting screened for cervical cancer using one of the following methods: HPV test every 5 years, HPV/Pap cotest every 5 years, Pap test every 3 years. […] Updated cervical cancer screening guidelines from ACS recommend starting screening at age 25 with an HPV test and having HPV testing every 5 years through age 65.

• #7 Cervical Cancer Detection Techniques: A Chronological Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10217496/

  Cervical cancer is caused by a group of viruses called HPV. Having sexual activity with another person may transmit HPV. There is evidence that HPV plays a role in the occurrence of penis, vagina, vulva, and anus cancers. There are more than 100 types of HPV, and HPV types 16 and 18 account for approximately 70% of all cervical cancer cases globally. All women ranging in age from 25 to 74 are invited to screening tests. There are various methods to screen the cervical lining using a colposcopy, which is used to magnify the area that the doctor wants to check after inserting the speculum into the vagina to check both the vagina and the cervix. […] Early detection of cervical cancer is crucial since late diagnosis reduces the chance of survival in the entire worlds female population. According to Logeswaran (2020), 90% of women with cervical cancer diagnoses in low- and middle-income countries such as India may die unexpectedly as a consequence of inadequate detection, early diagnosis, effective screening, and treatment. J. Lu et al. (2020) conducted a similar study and discovered that early screening is the most successful strategy for reducing the worldwide cervical cancer burden. Nonetheless, because of a lack of information, limited access to medical facilities, and prohibitively costly processes in developing countries, vulnerable patient populations are unable to bear routine examinations.

• #8 Cervical Cancer: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/12216-cervical-cancer

  Cervical cancer is cancer that begins on the surface of your cervix. It happens when the cells on your cervix start to change to precancerous cells. HPV (human papillomavirus) infection causes almost all cases of cervical cancer. HPV is a virus that spreads through sexual contact. You can lower your risk of cervical cancer by getting regular cervical cancer screenings (like a Pap smear) and receiving the HPV vaccine. […] Regular cervical cancer screenings with a Pap test can detect most cases of cervical cancer. The goal of cervical cancer screening is to detect cell changes on your cervix before they become cancer. A Pap test, or Pap smear, involves looking at cells from your cervix under a microscope. These cells are examined for signs of precancers or other irregularities. […] If your Pap comes back as abnormal, further testing is necessary. This could include an HPV test, which is a specific test that checks the cells of your cervix for the HPV strains that are most likely to cause cancer.

• #9 Cervical Cancer Screening – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/screening

  Cervical screening recommendations are developed by several organizations, including the United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) and the American Cancer Society (ACS). How often you should be screened for cervical cancer and which tests you should get will depend on your age and health history. […] If you are in this age group, USPSTF recommends getting your first Pap test at age 21, followed by Pap testing every 3 years. […] If you are in this age group, USPSTF recommends getting screened for cervical cancer using one of the following methods: HPV test every 5 years, HPV/Pap cotest every 5 years, Pap test every 3 years. […] Updated cervical cancer screening guidelines from ACS recommend starting screening at age 25 with an HPV test and having HPV testing every 5 years through age 65.

• #10 Cervical Cancer Screening | ACOG

  https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/cervical-cancer-screening

  Cervical cancer screening saves lives. Over the past 30 years in the United States, the number of cases of cervical cancer and deaths has decreased by one half. This is mainly the result of women getting regular cervical cancer screening. […] Cervical cancer screening includes the Pap test, an HPV test, or both. Both tests use cells taken from the cervix. The screening process is simple and fast. […] Women who are 21 to 29 should have a Pap test alone every 3 years. HPV testing alone can be considered for women who are 25 to 29, but Pap tests are preferred. […] Women should stop having cervical cancer screening after age 65 if they do not have a history of moderate or severe abnormal cervical cells or cervical cancer, and they have had either three negative Pap test results in a row, two negative HPV tests in a row, or two negative co-test results in a row within the past 10 years.

• #11 Cervical Cancer Screening – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/screening

  Cervical screening recommendations are developed by several organizations, including the United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) and the American Cancer Society (ACS). How often you should be screened for cervical cancer and which tests you should get will depend on your age and health history. […] If you are in this age group, USPSTF recommends getting your first Pap test at age 21, followed by Pap testing every 3 years. […] If you are in this age group, USPSTF recommends getting screened for cervical cancer using one of the following methods: HPV test every 5 years, HPV/Pap cotest every 5 years, Pap test every 3 years. […] Updated cervical cancer screening guidelines from ACS recommend starting screening at age 25 with an HPV test and having HPV testing every 5 years through age 65.

• #12 Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Infection – STI Treatment Guidelines

  https://www.cdc.gov/std/treatment-guidelines/hpv-cancer.htm

  Recommendations for cervical cancer screening in the United States are based on systematic evidence reviews by major medical and advocacy organizations, including USPSTF, ACS, and ACOG. […] USPSTF screening recommendations apply to persons with a cervix at average risk, defined as those with no previous cervical cancer or high-grade precancer, not currently under close follow-up for a recent abnormal result, not immunocompromised, and who had no exposure to diethylstilbestrol in utero. Among these persons, screening should be performed starting at age 21 years and continue through age 65 years. […] Annual cervical cancer screening is not recommended for persons at average risk. Instead, cytology testing is recommended every 3 years for persons aged 21-29 years. For persons aged 30-65 years, a cytology test every 3 years, an HPV test alone every 5 years, or a cytology test plus an HPV test (cotest) every 5 years is recommended.

• #13 Cervical cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cervical-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352506

  Pap smear screenings begin at age 21 and continue, varying by age, every three to five years. […] Having an abnormal Pap smear is very common, so don’t feel alone. It just means that additional tests are needed to prove that cervical cancer isn’t present. Most people with abnormal Pap smear do not end up having a diagnosis of cervical cancer. […] Certainly, we aim to detect cervical cancer as early as possible. Early stage cervical cancer has much improved overall survival and reduced recurrence. […] During a cone biopsy, also called conization, a doctor surgically removes a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix. Typically, the cone-shaped piece includes tissue from both the upper and lower parts of the cervix. […] If you might have cervical cancer, testing is likely to start with a thorough exam of your cervix. A special magnifying instrument, called a colposcope, is used to check for signs of cancer.

• #14 Cervical Cancer: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/12216-cervical-cancer

  If your screenings come back as abnormal, your healthcare provider will want to run more tests to confirm you have cervical cancer. The first step in that is typically a colposcopy. A colposcope magnifies the cells of your cervix so your healthcare provider can see irregular cells. If the cells look suspicious or unusual, they’ll remove a sample of cervical cells and send them to a lab for further testing. […] Regular screenings and the HPV vaccine are so important. Cervical cancer is highly treatable when found in the early stages. A healthcare provider can treat it with surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy and other cancer medications. […] Cervical cancer usually develops slowly and over many years. Before turning into cancer, the cells in your cervix go through a lot of changes. The once normal cells in your cervix start to appear irregular or abnormal. These abnormal cells may go away, stay the same or turn into cancer cells.

• #15 Cervical Cancer Diagnosis – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/diagnosis

  If you have symptoms or screening test results that suggest the possibility of cervical cancer, your doctor will do follow-up tests to find out if it is due to cancer or some other cause. […] They may recommend diagnostic tests to find out if you have cervical cancer, and if so, whether it has spread to another part of the body. […] The following procedures are used to diagnose cervical cancer: […] Colposcopy is a procedure in which the health care provider inserts a speculum to gently open the vagina and view the cervix. […] A biopsy is a procedure in which a sample of tissue is removed from the cervix so that a pathologist can view it under a microscope to check for signs of cancer. […] If you are diagnosed with cervical cancer, you will be referred to a gynecologic oncologist.

• #16 Cervical Cancer Diagnosis – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/diagnosis

  If you have symptoms or screening test results that suggest the possibility of cervical cancer, your doctor will do follow-up tests to find out if it is due to cancer or some other cause. […] They may recommend diagnostic tests to find out if you have cervical cancer, and if so, whether it has spread to another part of the body. […] The following procedures are used to diagnose cervical cancer: […] Colposcopy is a procedure in which the health care provider inserts a speculum to gently open the vagina and view the cervix. […] A biopsy is a procedure in which a sample of tissue is removed from the cervix so that a pathologist can view it under a microscope to check for signs of cancer. […] If you are diagnosed with cervical cancer, you will be referred to a gynecologic oncologist.

• #17 Diagnosis of cervical cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/cervical/diagnosis

  A human papillomavirus (HPV) test is a lab test that looks for the DNA of only high-risk types of HPV that have been linked to cervical cancer. […] A colposcopy is done after an abnormal Pap test or a positive HPV test suggests a precancerous condition of the cervix or cervical cancer. […] If a Pap test returns abnormal results, your doctor will likely need to take a biopsy from the cervix. During a biopsy, the doctor removes tissues or cells from the body so they can be looked at under a microscope to see if cancer cells are present in the sample. […] A CBC may be done to check for anemia from long-term, or chronic, vaginal bleeding. […] Blood chemistry tests are done to check how well the kidneys and liver are working as part of the diagnosis process for cervical cancer. […] A positron emission tomography (PET) scan may be used to find cervical cancer that has come back or has spread to other organs or tissues.

• #18 What is Cervical Cancer? Symptoms, Risk Factors & Treatments | MD Anderson Cancer Center

  https://www.mdanderson.org/cancer-types/cervical-cancer.html

  Most women who develop cervical cancer are between 20 and 50 years old. […] The widespread use of the Pap test has helped doctors find cervical cancer in the early stages, when treatment is most effective. […] A Papanicolaou test (Pap test) given every three to five years looks for these changes. […] If precancerous cells are found, they often can be removed preventing the formation of cancer. […] Cervical cancer was once one of the main causes of death from cancer in the United States, but the widespread use of the Pap test has helped doctors find cervical cancer in the early stages, when treatment is most effective. […] MD Anderson also offers treatment for pre-cancerous changes of the cervix and performs cervical biopsies to investigate abnormal Pap tests. […] Surgery often is an integral part of cervical cancer treatment, and the surgeon’s skill can make a crucial difference in the success of these delicate operations.

• #19 Cervical Cancer Diagnosis & Stages 0, 1, 2 ,3, 4 | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/cervical/diagnosis

  If a Pap smear or liquid-based cytology test shows an abnormality, your doctor may perform a colposcopy, in which a lighted magnifying instrument attached to magnifying binoculars (a colposcope) is used to examine your cervix. […] Your doctor may also perform a biopsy at the same time, removing a tiny section of the surface of the cervix to examine under the microscope. One of our specially trained pathologists will examine the sample to see whether it contains abnormal or cancerous cells. […] If abnormal cells are found or if a diagnosis is not clear after a colposcopy, it may be necessary to have minor surgery to remove a slightly larger piece of tissue from the cervix. This procedure is called a cone biopsy, or conization. In addition to helping to confirm a diagnosis, a cone biopsy can serve as an initial treatment, to simultaneously remove any precancerous or cancerous cells.

• #20 Cervical Cancer Tests | How to Test For Cervical Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/cervical-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging/how-diagnosed.html

  Finding cervical cancer often starts with an abnormal HPV (human papillomavirus) or Pap test result. This will lead to further tests which can diagnose cervical cancer or pre-cancer. The Pap test and HPV test are screening tests, not diagnostic tests. They cannot tell for certain if you have cervical cancer. An abnormal Pap test or HPV test result may mean more testing is needed to see if a cancer or a pre-cancer is present. […] Your primary doctor or gynecologist often can do the tests needed to diagnose pre-cancers and cancers. […] If you have certain symptoms that could mean cancer, if your Pap test result shows abnormal cells, or if your HPV test is positive, you will most likely need to have a procedure called a colposcopy. […] A biopsy is the best way to tell for certain if an abnormal area is a pre-cancer, an invasive cancer, or neither.

• #21 Diagnosis of cervical cancer – Canadian Cancer Survivor Network

  https://survivornet.ca/cancer-type/cervical-cancer/diagnosis-of-cervical-cancer/

  Several types of biopsies can be used to diagnose cervical pre-cancers and cancers. If the biopsy can completely remove all of the abnormal tissue, it may be the only treatment needed. […] The cervix is first examined with a colposcope to find the abnormal areas. Using a biopsy forceps, a small (about 1/8-inch) section of the abnormal area on the surface of the cervix is removed. […] Sometimes the transformation zone (the area at risk for HPV infection and pre-cancer) cannot be seen by the colposcope. Instead, a scraping of tissue from the endocervix is taken by inserting a narrow instrument (called a curette) into the endocervical canal (the part of the cervix closest to the uterus). […] The doctor removes a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix. […] If a cancer is found on a biopsy, it will be identified as either squamous cell carcinoma or adenocarcinoma.

• #22 Cervical Cancer Diagnosis & Stages 0, 1, 2 ,3, 4 | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/cervical/diagnosis

  If a Pap smear or liquid-based cytology test shows an abnormality, your doctor may perform a colposcopy, in which a lighted magnifying instrument attached to magnifying binoculars (a colposcope) is used to examine your cervix. […] Your doctor may also perform a biopsy at the same time, removing a tiny section of the surface of the cervix to examine under the microscope. One of our specially trained pathologists will examine the sample to see whether it contains abnormal or cancerous cells. […] If abnormal cells are found or if a diagnosis is not clear after a colposcopy, it may be necessary to have minor surgery to remove a slightly larger piece of tissue from the cervix. This procedure is called a cone biopsy, or conization. In addition to helping to confirm a diagnosis, a cone biopsy can serve as an initial treatment, to simultaneously remove any precancerous or cancerous cells.

• #23 Cervical Cancer Diagnostic Tests | Society of Gynecologic Oncology

  https://www.sgo.org/patient-resources/cervical-cancer/cervical-cancer-diagnostic-tests/

  The first step is to confirm the diagnosis of cervical cancer and to establish the stage of your cancer. The diagnosis of cervical cancer requires a biopsy from the cervix for the pathologist to review under the microscope. This biopsy might be done in the office or in the operating room. Your doctor will review which option is best for you. The stage of cervical cancer is a standardized way to describe the extent of the cancer in the body and to establish whether the cancer has spread outside the cervix elsewhere in the body. The stage of a cervical cancer is based on a thorough pelvic and rectal exam in addition to some radiologic studies and possibly other diagnostic tests. Your gynecologic oncologist will recommend treatment based on the stage of the cancer, your overall health status, and, if appropriate, your desires about preserving fertility.

• #24 Cervical cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cervical-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352506

  Pap smear screenings begin at age 21 and continue, varying by age, every three to five years. […] Having an abnormal Pap smear is very common, so don’t feel alone. It just means that additional tests are needed to prove that cervical cancer isn’t present. Most people with abnormal Pap smear do not end up having a diagnosis of cervical cancer. […] Certainly, we aim to detect cervical cancer as early as possible. Early stage cervical cancer has much improved overall survival and reduced recurrence. […] During a cone biopsy, also called conization, a doctor surgically removes a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix. Typically, the cone-shaped piece includes tissue from both the upper and lower parts of the cervix. […] If you might have cervical cancer, testing is likely to start with a thorough exam of your cervix. A special magnifying instrument, called a colposcope, is used to check for signs of cancer.

• #25 Cervical Cancer Diagnosis & Stages 0, 1, 2 ,3, 4 | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/cervical/diagnosis

  If a Pap smear or liquid-based cytology test shows an abnormality, your doctor may perform a colposcopy, in which a lighted magnifying instrument attached to magnifying binoculars (a colposcope) is used to examine your cervix. […] Your doctor may also perform a biopsy at the same time, removing a tiny section of the surface of the cervix to examine under the microscope. One of our specially trained pathologists will examine the sample to see whether it contains abnormal or cancerous cells. […] If abnormal cells are found or if a diagnosis is not clear after a colposcopy, it may be necessary to have minor surgery to remove a slightly larger piece of tissue from the cervix. This procedure is called a cone biopsy, or conization. In addition to helping to confirm a diagnosis, a cone biopsy can serve as an initial treatment, to simultaneously remove any precancerous or cancerous cells.

• #26 Diagnosis and Stages – Brigham and Women’s Hospital

  https://www.brighamandwomens.org/cancer/cervical-cancer/diagnosis-and-stages

  This procedure uses a thin wire loop heated with electric current to take a sample of cervical tissue for examination in the lab. This procedure is usually done with local anesthesia in your doctors office. […] A cone biopsy may be done if a diagnosis cannot be determined after a colposcopy. During this procedure, your doctor will remove a cone-shaped piece of cervical tissue for further examination. A cone biopsy may be used to diagnose cervical cancer, or to treat or remove precancerous or early cancerous tissue. […] After being diagnosed with cervical cancer, our pathology team will determine the stage of your cancer. Staging your cancer involves determining the size of the tumor and how far it has spread in your body. Knowing the stage of your cancer will help your health care team decide how best to treat it, including whether your cancer can be removed (resected) with surgery. You may need additional tests to help our team assign a stage to your cancer.

• #27 Cervical cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cervical-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352506

  If the results of these tests are concerning, you might have more tests. […] If you’re diagnosed with cervical cancer, you might need other tests to find out the extent of the cancer, also called the stage. Your health care team uses the information from staging tests to plan your treatment. […] Tests used for cervical cancer staging include imaging tests, which make pictures of the body and can show the location and size of the cancer. […] The stages of vaginal cancer range from 1 to 4. The lowest number means that the cancer is only in the cervix. As the numbers get higher, the cancer is more advanced. A stage 4 cervical cancer may have grown to involve nearby organs or spread to other areas of the body. […] Treatment for cervical cancer depends on several factors, such as the stage of the cancer, other health conditions you may have and your preferences.

• #28 Cervical Cancer Diagnosis – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/diagnosis

  They will recommend tests to determine the extent (stage) of cancer. […] The following procedures may be used to determine the cervical cancer stage: […] Imaging tests […] Lab tests […] Visual examination […] Some people want to get a second opinion to confirm their cervical cancer diagnosis and treatment plan.

• #29 Cervical Cancer Diagnosis & Stages 0, 1, 2 ,3, 4 | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/cervical/diagnosis

  Our doctors may order a chest x-ray, CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis, and/or an MRI scan if there is reason to believe that the cancer has spread, or metastasized, beyond the cervix to other parts of the body. […] Regardless of whether you are treated at Memorial Sloan Kettering or at another institution, the stage of the cancer will largely determine the treatment approach that your doctor recommends. […] Cervical cancer is classified into several stages: The first stage of cervical cancer is carcinoma in situ (also known as precancer or severe dysplasia), in which a group of abnormal cells has started to grow but has not yet spread to nearby tissues. Because stage 0 precancers are likely to eventually spread deeper into the tissue and become cancerous, they should be treated. […] Although more extensive than stage 0, these cancers are still limited to the cervix.

• #30 Cervical Cancer Diagnostic Tests | Society of Gynecologic Oncology

  https://www.sgo.org/patient-resources/cervical-cancer/cervical-cancer-diagnostic-tests/

  Further tests may be necessary to either establish the stage of the. During your consultation, your gynecologic oncologist may order additional testing. Common tests and procedures performed during the workup of cervical cancer are as follows: Rectovaginal exam. This is a relatively simple type of pelvic exam done in the office performed by examining the vaginal area and the rectal area at the same time. This allows your doctor to better determine if the cervical cancer extends past the cervix. […] CT or CAT scan, also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography. To do a CT scan, a dye must be swallowed or injected into a vein. The dye helps certain organs to show up better in x-ray images. […] MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan, sometimes called an NMRI (nuclear magnetic resonance imaging scan). This procedure uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make pictures of areas inside the body.

• #31 Cervical Cancer Diagnostic Tests | Society of Gynecologic Oncology

  https://www.sgo.org/patient-resources/cervical-cancer/cervical-cancer-diagnostic-tests/

  PET (positron emission tomography scan). In this procedure, radioactive glucose is injected into a vein. The PET scanner takes pictures of places where glucose is being used up in the body at a greater rate. Cancer cells look brighter in PET scan images because cancer cells are more active and use more glucose than normal cells do. […] Chest X-ray, to determine if cancer has spread into your chest or lungs. […] Blood tests evaluating your blood count, kidney function, and related issues. […] Cystoscopy. An outpatient procedure that uses a very small lighted camera to look inside the bladder. Your doctor might recommend this test if there is any concern that the cancer involves the bladder or has caused a blockage of urine going from the kidney to the bladder. Biopsies can be taken using the cystoscope.

• #32 How to Test, Diagnose and Detect Cervical Cancer

  https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/cervical-cancer/diagnosis-and-detection

  This test involves identifying, removing and examining the sentinel lymph node(s) the first lymph node(s) to which cancer cells are most likely to spread from a primary tumor may help determine if cancer has spread beyond the cervix. […] A CT scan reveals a detailed, 3-D image of the abdomen and pelvis. […] Your doctor may order a PET/CT scan as part of the evaluation for cervical cancer. […] An MRI is used to determine whether cervical cancer involves the bladder, rectum or tissues next to the cervix. […] The main lab test for cervical cancer is advanced genomic testing of the tumor, which examines a tumor to look for DNA alterations driving the growth of cancer. […] Within the first two days of your arrival at one of our hospitals or outpatient care centers, we will perform a complete array of diagnostic tests, and thoroughly review your medical records and health history.

• #33 Cervical Cancer Diagnosis | MD Anderson Cancer Center

  https://www.mdanderson.org/cancer-types/cervical-cancer/cervical-cancer-diagnosis.html

  Its important to diagnose cervical cancer early and accurately and find out if it has spread. This helps doctors choose the best treatment. At MD Anderson, our pathologists, diagnostic radiologists and specially trained technicians use the most modern and accurate equipment to diagnose cervical cancer and the stage of the disease, which increases the likelihood treatment will be successful. […] If symptoms or Pap test results suggest precancerous cells or cervical cancer, the patients doctor will conduct an examination and ask questions about her health; lifestyle habits; and family medical history. […] One or more of the following tests may be used to find out if you have cervical cancer and if it has spread. These tests also may be used to find out if treatment is working. […] During a biopsy to look for cervical cancer, the doctor removes a small amount of tissue from the cervix to observe under a microscope.

• #34 Cervical Cancer Diagnostic Tests | Society of Gynecologic Oncology

  https://www.sgo.org/patient-resources/cervical-cancer/cervical-cancer-diagnostic-tests/

  PET (positron emission tomography scan). In this procedure, radioactive glucose is injected into a vein. The PET scanner takes pictures of places where glucose is being used up in the body at a greater rate. Cancer cells look brighter in PET scan images because cancer cells are more active and use more glucose than normal cells do. […] Chest X-ray, to determine if cancer has spread into your chest or lungs. […] Blood tests evaluating your blood count, kidney function, and related issues. […] Cystoscopy. An outpatient procedure that uses a very small lighted camera to look inside the bladder. Your doctor might recommend this test if there is any concern that the cancer involves the bladder or has caused a blockage of urine going from the kidney to the bladder. Biopsies can be taken using the cystoscope.

• #35 Cervical Cancer Diagnostic Tests | Society of Gynecologic Oncology

  https://www.sgo.org/patient-resources/cervical-cancer/cervical-cancer-diagnostic-tests/

  Proctoscopy. This is another outpatient procedure that uses a small lighted camera to look inside the anal and rectal canal. Your doctor might recommend this test if the clinical exam raises concern about growth of the cancer from the cervix into the rectal area. […] Exam under anesthesia. This is an outpatient procedure that may be recommended by your doctor to perform a more thorough examination with the assistance of intravenous sedation by an anesthesiologist. This may be recommended to you if the office exam is too painful for you and your doctor needs to perform a better exam to determine the stage. This is often done with cystoscopy, proctoscopy, and tumor biopsies at the same time.

• #36 Cervical Cancer – Diagnosis, Evaluation and Treatment

  https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/cervicalcancer

  If cancer has been detected, your doctor will evaluate its local extent to determine whether surgical removal is a suitable option. Imaging is often useful to determine if the cancer has spread. The following imaging tests may be performed: Body CT scan: This procedure combines special x-ray equipment with sophisticated computers to produce multiple images or pictures of the inside of the body. […] If cancer is detected, your doctor may also order a cystoscopy (visual examination of the bladder) or proctoscopy (visual examination of the tail end of the bowel) to make sure those organs are not affected by the disease. […] Depending on the stage (extent) of cancer, one or more of the following treatments may be performed: Cone biopsy: For the earliest stage of cervical cancer, a cone biopsy with wide margins can be performed.

• #37 Diagnosis of cervical cancer – Canadian Cancer Survivor Network

  https://survivornet.ca/cancer-type/cervical-cancer/diagnosis-of-cervical-cancer/

  If a biopsy shows that cancer is present, your doctor may order certain tests to see how far the cancer has spread. […] A slender tube with a lens and a light is placed into the bladder through the urethra. This lets the doctor check your bladder and urethra to see if cancer is growing into these areas. […] A visual inspection of the rectum through a lighted tube to check for spread of cervical cancer into your rectum. […] If your doctor finds that you have cervical cancer, certain imaging studies may be done. These include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) scans. […] Your chest may be x-rayed to see if the cervical cancer has spread to your lungs, however, this is very unlikely unless the cancer is far advanced. […] The computed tomography (CT) scan is an x-ray procedure that produces detailed cross-sectional images of your body.

• #38 Diagnosis of cervical cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/cervical/diagnosis

  A human papillomavirus (HPV) test is a lab test that looks for the DNA of only high-risk types of HPV that have been linked to cervical cancer. […] A colposcopy is done after an abnormal Pap test or a positive HPV test suggests a precancerous condition of the cervix or cervical cancer. […] If a Pap test returns abnormal results, your doctor will likely need to take a biopsy from the cervix. During a biopsy, the doctor removes tissues or cells from the body so they can be looked at under a microscope to see if cancer cells are present in the sample. […] A CBC may be done to check for anemia from long-term, or chronic, vaginal bleeding. […] Blood chemistry tests are done to check how well the kidneys and liver are working as part of the diagnosis process for cervical cancer. […] A positron emission tomography (PET) scan may be used to find cervical cancer that has come back or has spread to other organs or tissues.

• #39 Diagnostics of cervical cancer. Booking Health

  https://bookinghealth.com/blog/diagnoses-and-treatment/diagnosis-and-treatment/384354-diagnostics-of-cervical-cancer.html

  The main cervical cancer oncologic marker is SCC Ag (squamous cell carcinoma antigen). It is not used for screening the disease, because it is inferior in sensitivity and specificity to cytological examination of the cervical swab. […] A cytological examination of a stained swab taken from the cervical canal is the main test for cervical cancer. […] Ultrasound is one of the most often used methods of diagnostics in gynecology. […] Cytological examination of the swab is what helps to identify cervical cancer in the process of primary diagnostics. […] Cervical cancer can be detected with the help of the following biopsy types: Colposcopic biopsy, Endocervical curettage (scraping), Cone-shaped biopsy. […] There are many kinds of tests that can be applied to identify the stage of the disease. These are ultrasound, CT, MRI, radiography, endoscopic studies. […] The accurate definition of the illness stage helps to choose proper treatment strategy.

• #40 Cervical cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cervical-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20352501

  During the colposcopy, your provider might take several deeper samples of cells to examine. This could include a punch biopsy that collects tiny samples of cells, or an endocervical curettage that uses a narrow instrument to take an internal tissue sample. […] And if after further examination, the sample tissue is worrisome, your doctor may run more tests or collect other tissue samples from deeper layers of the cells. […] Cervical cancer begins when healthy cells in the cervix develop changes in their DNA. […] Most cervical cancers are caused by HPV. HPV is a common virus that’s passed through sexual contact. […] Cervical cancer is divided into types based on the type of cell in which the cancer begins. The main types of cervical cancer are: Squamous cell carcinoma and Adenocarcinoma.

• #41 Cervical Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431093/

  Cervical cancer, the fourth most common cancer among women worldwide, is caused almost entirely by human papillomavirus (HPV). High-risk types of HPV can lead to cervical intraepithelial lesions which, over time, can progress to cervical cancer. In the United States and other developed countries, most screening and early detection efforts involve HPV testing and Papanicolaou (Pap) smears. HPV testing identifies exposure to both low- and high-risk types of HPV, whereas Pap smears identify abnormal cytology. […] Cervical cancer is a largely preventable disease. Primary prevention and screening are the most effective modalities for decreasing the healthcare burden and mortality attributable to cervical cancer. Since 2006, HPV vaccination has been available to prevent cervical cancer. Interprofessional team members must educate young female patients (ideally, prior to initiating sexual activity) and their families about this highly effective vaccine. This activity details primary prevention strategies, screening guidelines, diagnostic evaluations, current staging, and specific treatment modalities for invasive cervical cancer.

• #42 Cervical Cancer Screening | The University of Kansas Cancer Center

  https://www.kucancercenter.org/cancer/cancer-types/cervical-cancer/cervical-cancer-diagnosis-screening

  The best thing you can do to reduce your risks of cervical cancer is to have a gynecologic exam performed by a healthcare professional every year. […] With the HPV vaccine, which is approved for individuals age 9 to 45, routine Pap tests and HPV testing, we can prevent cervical cancer and dysplasia. […] Cervical cancers and precancers are classified by how they appear under a microscope. The main types of cervical cancers are diagnosed as either squamous cell carcinoma or adenocarcinoma: […] After we diagnose cervical cancer, additional testing can determine whether cancer cells have spread within the cervix or to other parts of your body. Information we gather from the staging process helps us determine the stage of your cancer, which is critical to planning appropriate cervical cancer treatment.

• #43 Diagnosis of cervical cancer – Canadian Cancer Survivor Network

  https://survivornet.ca/cancer-type/cervical-cancer/diagnosis-of-cervical-cancer/

  Several types of biopsies can be used to diagnose cervical pre-cancers and cancers. If the biopsy can completely remove all of the abnormal tissue, it may be the only treatment needed. […] The cervix is first examined with a colposcope to find the abnormal areas. Using a biopsy forceps, a small (about 1/8-inch) section of the abnormal area on the surface of the cervix is removed. […] Sometimes the transformation zone (the area at risk for HPV infection and pre-cancer) cannot be seen by the colposcope. Instead, a scraping of tissue from the endocervix is taken by inserting a narrow instrument (called a curette) into the endocervical canal (the part of the cervix closest to the uterus). […] The doctor removes a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix. […] If a cancer is found on a biopsy, it will be identified as either squamous cell carcinoma or adenocarcinoma.

• #44 Cervical Cancer Detection Techniques: A Chronological Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10217496/

  Cervical cancer affects the female reproductive system and is strongly associated with HPV infection, obesity, smoking, and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Manual Pap tests (Papanicolaou tests) are widely used for the early detection of cancer, but they are costly, stagnant, and highly dependent on the pathologists expertise. Several computer aided diagnostic (CAD) systems were developed to automatically detect cervical cancer. Developing automatic prediction models to identify vulnerable patients can improve the efficacy of screening programs and eliminate inconsistencies and subjectivity resulting from cytopathologists lack of expertise. […] Cervical cancer detection has evolved significantly over the years, with several different techniques now available. The Pap smear test remains the most frequently employed method. Still, newer techniques such as visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) and HPV testing, as well as Lugols iodine, are becoming more widely used. Early detection is the key to successful treatment and improved outcomes, and women should undergo regular cervical cancer screening according to recommended guidelines.

• #45 Cervical Cancer Diagnostic Tests | Society of Gynecologic Oncology

  https://www.sgo.org/patient-resources/cervical-cancer/cervical-cancer-diagnostic-tests/

  The first step is to confirm the diagnosis of cervical cancer and to establish the stage of your cancer. The diagnosis of cervical cancer requires a biopsy from the cervix for the pathologist to review under the microscope. This biopsy might be done in the office or in the operating room. Your doctor will review which option is best for you. The stage of cervical cancer is a standardized way to describe the extent of the cancer in the body and to establish whether the cancer has spread outside the cervix elsewhere in the body. The stage of a cervical cancer is based on a thorough pelvic and rectal exam in addition to some radiologic studies and possibly other diagnostic tests. Your gynecologic oncologist will recommend treatment based on the stage of the cancer, your overall health status, and, if appropriate, your desires about preserving fertility.

• #46 Cervical Cancer Diagnosis | MD Anderson Cancer Center

  https://www.mdanderson.org/cancer-types/cervical-cancer/cervical-cancer-diagnosis.html

  Lymph nodes are removed to help find if cancer has spread. […] The pathologists at MD Anderson are highly specialized in diagnosing and staging cervical cancers and welcome the opportunity to provide second opinions. […] If you are diagnosed with cervical cancer, your doctor will determine the stage (or extent) of the disease. Staging is a way of classifying cancer by how much disease is in the body and where it has spread when it is diagnosed. This helps your doctor plan the best way to treat the cancer. […] Once the staging classification is determined, it stays the same even if treatment works or the cancer spreads. […] Cancer has formed and is in the cervix only. […] Cancer spreads beyond the cervix and uterus but has not spread to the lower third of the vagina or to the pelvic wall (the tissues that line the part of the body adjacent to the hips). […] Cancer has spread to the lower third of the vagina and/or extends to the pelvic wall. […] Cancer has invaded the bladder or rectum in the pelvis or spread to distant organs.

• #47 Cervical Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431093/

  Patients diagnosed with invasive disease require a comprehensive staging workup. The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) staging system employs several methods to stage a patient’s disease. Classically, staging was based on the local extent of the tumor, which could be determined with a combination of pelvic examination, cystoscopy, proctoscopy, chest x-ray, intravenous pyrography, and basic labs. More recently, advanced imaging modalities such as MRI and PET scans have been utilized for staging. […] The physical exam must include a complete evaluation of the external and internal genitalia. Positive exam findings in women with cervical cancer might include a friable cervix, visible cervical lesions, erosions, masses, bleeding with the examination, and fixed adnexa.

• #48 Cervical Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431093/

  If invasive cancer is diagnosed, the next step in management is staging to determine further treatment. Staging is based on findings and results from reported signs and symptoms, examination, tissue pathology, and imaging. Grading is based on the size and depth of the cancer and signs of spread to other organs. Treatment of early-stage disease is typically surgical resection, ranging from a conization to a modified radical hysterectomy. However, women with high-risk pathology postresection may require adjuvant treatment with chemotherapy and radiation. […] The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) staging system was updated in 2018 and remains the dominant staging methodology. The 8th edition of the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) Staging Manual also has a tumor-node-metastasis classification system in which the tumor stages correspond with the FIGO stages; however, it is not regularly used.

• #49 Cervical Cancer Diagnosis & Stages 0, 1, 2 ,3, 4 | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/cervical/diagnosis

  Our doctors may order a chest x-ray, CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis, and/or an MRI scan if there is reason to believe that the cancer has spread, or metastasized, beyond the cervix to other parts of the body. […] Regardless of whether you are treated at Memorial Sloan Kettering or at another institution, the stage of the cancer will largely determine the treatment approach that your doctor recommends. […] Cervical cancer is classified into several stages: The first stage of cervical cancer is carcinoma in situ (also known as precancer or severe dysplasia), in which a group of abnormal cells has started to grow but has not yet spread to nearby tissues. Because stage 0 precancers are likely to eventually spread deeper into the tissue and become cancerous, they should be treated. […] Although more extensive than stage 0, these cancers are still limited to the cervix.

• #50 Cervical Cancer Diagnosis & Stages 0, 1, 2 ,3, 4 | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/cervical/diagnosis

  Cervical cancer that has spread beyond the cervix and invaded the surrounding pelvic tissues in the vagina, rectum, or bladder is known as locally advanced cervical cancer. […] Cervical cancer that has spread beyond the pelvis (into the lungs or liver, for example), or has returned following initial therapy, is placed in this category.

• #51 Cervical Cancer Diagnosis | MD Anderson Cancer Center

  https://www.mdanderson.org/cancer-types/cervical-cancer/cervical-cancer-diagnosis.html

  Lymph nodes are removed to help find if cancer has spread. […] The pathologists at MD Anderson are highly specialized in diagnosing and staging cervical cancers and welcome the opportunity to provide second opinions. […] If you are diagnosed with cervical cancer, your doctor will determine the stage (or extent) of the disease. Staging is a way of classifying cancer by how much disease is in the body and where it has spread when it is diagnosed. This helps your doctor plan the best way to treat the cancer. […] Once the staging classification is determined, it stays the same even if treatment works or the cancer spreads. […] Cancer has formed and is in the cervix only. […] Cancer spreads beyond the cervix and uterus but has not spread to the lower third of the vagina or to the pelvic wall (the tissues that line the part of the body adjacent to the hips). […] Cancer has spread to the lower third of the vagina and/or extends to the pelvic wall. […] Cancer has invaded the bladder or rectum in the pelvis or spread to distant organs.

• #52 Diagnosis and Stages – Brigham and Women’s Hospital

  https://www.brighamandwomens.org/cancer/cervical-cancer/diagnosis-and-stages

  The stages of cervical cancer are: Stage 0 (also called carcinoma in situ or dysplasia): Abnormal cells are growing in the lining of the cervix. These cells are precancerous and can either go away on their own or become cancer. Treating precancerous cells prevents them from spreading and becoming cancer. […] Stage I: The cancer is in the cervix only. […] Stage II: The cancer has spread to the tissue around the uterus or parts of the vagina. The cancer has not spread to the pelvic wall. […] Stage III: The cancer has spread to most of the vagina and possibly the pelvic wall or lymph nodes. The cancer may be interfering with kidney function. […] Stage IV: The cancer has spread to the vulva or urethra, bladder, and rectum. It may also have spread to other areas of the body, such as the kidneys, lungs, liver, abdomen, or intestinal tract.

• #53 Cervical cancer diagnosis

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/cervical-cancer/diagnosis/

  If you have cervical cancer, your doctor will do tests to check if the cancer has spread. […] The tests may include: blood tests, a pelvic examination – to check your womb, vagina, rectum and bladder for cancer while you’re under general anaesthetic (unconscious), a computerised tomography (CT) scan – to help check for cancerous tumours and show if cancerous cells have spread, an MRI scan – to check if the cancer has spread, a positron emission tomography (PET) scan – often done with a CT scan – to see if the cancer has spread or if you’re responding to treatment. […] Staging is a way to measure how far the cancer has spread. It usually happens after you have all your test results. […] The cancer is only inside the cervix. […] The cancer has spread outside the cervix into the tissue around it. But it has not reached the tissues lining the pelvis (pelvic wall) or the lower part of the vagina. […] The cancer has spread into the lower section of the vagina or pelvic wall. […] The cancer has spread into the bowel, bladder or other organs.

• #54 Cervical cancer | Causes, Symptoms & Treatments | Cancer Council

  https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer/cervical-cancer

  After finding out you have cervical cancer, you may feel shocked, anxious, upset or confused. […] If cervical cancer is detected, it will be staged, from stage 1, which means abnormal cells are found only in the tissue of the cervix to stage 4, which means the cancer has spread beyond the pelvis to the lung, liver or bones. […] Treatment depends on disease stage. […] For early and non-bulky disease (less than 4cm), treatment is surgery, sometimes with chemoradiation therapy afterwards. […] If the tumour is small, a cone biopsy may suffice; in some cases hysterectomy (surgical removal of the uterus) is required. […] For locally advanced disease, a combination of radiation therapy (radiotherapy) and chemotherapy (cisplatin) is used. […] For metastatic disease, the treatment is chemotherapy (platinum/fluorouracil) or palliative care alone.

• #55 Cervical Cancer Detection Techniques: A Chronological Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10217496/

  Cervical cancer is known as a major health problem globally, with high mortality as well as incidence rates. Over the years, there have been significant advancements in cervical cancer detection techniques, leading to improved accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity. This article provides a chronological review of cervical cancer detection techniques, from the traditional Pap smear test to the latest computer-aided detection (CAD) systems. The traditional method for cervical cancer screening is the Pap smear test. It consists of examining cervical cells under a microscope for abnormalities. However, this method is subjective and may miss precancerous lesions, leading to false negatives and a delayed diagnosis. Therefore, a growing interest has been in shown developing CAD methods to enhance cervical cancer screening. However, the effectiveness and reliability of CAD systems are still being evaluated. A systematic review of the literature was performed using the Scopus database to identify relevant studies on cervical cancer detection techniques published between 1996 and 2022. The results of the review showed that CAD technology for cervical cancer detection has come a long way since it was introduced in the 1990s. Early CAD systems utilized image processing and pattern recognition techniques to analyze digital images of cervical cells, with limited success due to low sensitivity and specificity. In the early 2000s, machine learning (ML) algorithms were introduced to the CAD field for cervical cancer detection, allowing for more accurate and automated analysis of digital images of cervical cells. ML-based CAD systems have shown promise in several studies, with improved sensitivity and specificity reported compared to traditional screening methods. In summary, this chronological review of cervical cancer detection techniques highlights the significant advancements made in this field over the past few decades. ML-based CAD systems have shown promise for improving the accuracy and sensitivity of cervical cancer detection. The Hybrid Intelligent System for Cervical Cancer Diagnosis (HISCCD) and the Automated Cervical Screening System (ACSS) are two of the most promising CAD systems. Still, deeper validation and research are required before being broadly accepted. Continued innovation and collaboration in this field may help enhance cervical cancer detection as well as ultimately reduce the diseases burden on women worldwide.

• #56 Cervical Cancer Detection Techniques: A Chronological Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10217496/

  In the early 2000s, ML algorithms were introduced to the field of CAD for cervical cancer detection. ML algorithms can analyze large datasets and learn from them to identify patterns and make predictions. This allowed for more accurate and automated analysis of digital images of cervical cells. ML-based CAD systems have shown promise in several studies, with improved sensitivity and specificity reported compared to traditional screening methods. Among the most promising CAD systems for cervical cancer detection is the Hybrid Intelligent System for Cervical Cancer Diagnosis (HISCCD), which was developed in 2012. HISCCD is a combination of ML algorithms and rule-based systems that analyze digital images of cervical cells to detect abnormal cells and lesions. Several studies have reported improved sensitivity and specificity of HISCCD compared to traditional screening methods. Another promising CAD system is the Automated Cervical Screening System (ACSS), which was introduced in 2016. ACSS uses an ML-based algorithm to analyze digital images of cervical cells and identify abnormal cells and lesions. In a study comparing ACSS to the Pap smear test, ACSS showed higher specificity and sensitivity for detecting high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. In addition to these systems, there have been several other CAD systems developed over the years, each with its own strengths and limitations. One of the major challenges with CAD systems for cervical cancer detection is the lack of standardized protocols and data sharing, which limits their widespread adoption and validation.

• #57 Cervical cancer – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment | BMJ Best Practice

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/259

  Cervical cancer is a human papillomavirus (HPV)-related malignancy, preventable by HPV vaccination and screening. […] Cervical cancer screening may detect pre-invasive disease. Cytology testing, DNA testing for high-risk HPV subtypes, or co-testing with cytology and HPV testing are used for routine screening. […] Staging using International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics criteria is based on clinical assessment. Where available, imaging (ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography [PET], PET/computed tomography [CT], CT) are used to evaluate the local extent of disease and to screen for metastases, which may guide treatment planning. […] Key diagnostic factors include presence of risk factors, abnormal vaginal bleeding, postcoital bleeding, pelvic or back pain, dyspareunia, cervical mass, and cervical bleeding. […] 1st investigations to order include vaginal or speculum examination, colposcopy, biopsy, and human papillomavirus (HPV) testing. […] Emerging tests include p16 and Ki67 biomarker expression.

• #58 Cervical Cancer Screening and Diagnosis – Medical Clinical Policy Bulletins | Aetna

  https://www.aetna.com/cpb/medical/data/400_499/0443.html

  Aetna considers diagnostic Pap smears experimental, investigational, or unproven for all other indications because its effectiveness for indications other than the ones listed above has not been established. […] Automated cervical cancer slide interpretation systems (e.g., FocalPoint Slide Profiler (formerly AutoPap), PAPNET) is considered a medically necessary adjunct to cervical cancer screening. […] p16/Ki-67 dual staining is considered medically necessary for women with a positive HPV screening test. […] Testing for high-risk strains of HPV DNA using Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved techniques (e.g., Hybrid Capture II, cobas HPV PCR, Aptima HPV assay) is considered medically necessary for women with any of the following indications: assessment of women with atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASCUS).

• #59 Cervical Cancer Diagnostic Market | 5.74% CAGR | Trends

  https://www.towardshealthcare.com/insights/cervical-cancer-diagnostic-market-sizing

  The rising prevalence of cervical cancer necessitates regular screening of cervical cancer for early detection. Technological advancements favor the latest innovations in diagnostic techniques. Additionally, favorable government policies or initiatives to increase awareness about cervical cancer diagnosis boost the market. […] Cervical cancer is a major concern for women as it is the fourth most common cancer type globally. […] Hence, the increasing incidences of cases demand early diagnosis and screening, boosting the cervical cancer diagnostic market. […] The cervical cancer diagnostic market faces formidable challenges, including a lack of awareness among women for early screening of the disease. […] The rising incidences of cervical cancer and favorable government initiatives to eliminate cervical cancer cases urge novel innovations for the diagnosis and treatment of the disease.

• #60 Cervical Cancer Diagnostic Market | 5.74% CAGR | Trends

  https://www.towardshealthcare.com/insights/cervical-cancer-diagnostic-market-sizing

  The Pap smear test dominated the cervical cancer diagnostic market in 2023. […] By test type, the HPV test segment is estimated to show the fastest growth in the market over the forecast period. […] By age group, the 20-40 years segment held a dominant presence in the cervical cancer diagnostic market in 2023. […] By end-user, the diagnostic center segment led the global cervical cancer diagnostic market in 2023 and is projected to expand rapidly in the market in the coming years. […] North America held the largest share of 49.8% in the cervical cancer diagnostic market in 2023. […] The rising incidences of cervical cancer demand early diagnosis of the disease.

• #61 Cervical Cancer Detection Techniques: A Chronological Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10217496/

  Cervical cancer is known as a major health problem globally, with high mortality as well as incidence rates. Over the years, there have been significant advancements in cervical cancer detection techniques, leading to improved accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity. This article provides a chronological review of cervical cancer detection techniques, from the traditional Pap smear test to the latest computer-aided detection (CAD) systems. The traditional method for cervical cancer screening is the Pap smear test. It consists of examining cervical cells under a microscope for abnormalities. However, this method is subjective and may miss precancerous lesions, leading to false negatives and a delayed diagnosis. Therefore, a growing interest has been in shown developing CAD methods to enhance cervical cancer screening. However, the effectiveness and reliability of CAD systems are still being evaluated. A systematic review of the literature was performed using the Scopus database to identify relevant studies on cervical cancer detection techniques published between 1996 and 2022. The results of the review showed that CAD technology for cervical cancer detection has come a long way since it was introduced in the 1990s. Early CAD systems utilized image processing and pattern recognition techniques to analyze digital images of cervical cells, with limited success due to low sensitivity and specificity. In the early 2000s, machine learning (ML) algorithms were introduced to the CAD field for cervical cancer detection, allowing for more accurate and automated analysis of digital images of cervical cells. ML-based CAD systems have shown promise in several studies, with improved sensitivity and specificity reported compared to traditional screening methods. In summary, this chronological review of cervical cancer detection techniques highlights the significant advancements made in this field over the past few decades. ML-based CAD systems have shown promise for improving the accuracy and sensitivity of cervical cancer detection. The Hybrid Intelligent System for Cervical Cancer Diagnosis (HISCCD) and the Automated Cervical Screening System (ACSS) are two of the most promising CAD systems. Still, deeper validation and research are required before being broadly accepted. Continued innovation and collaboration in this field may help enhance cervical cancer detection as well as ultimately reduce the diseases burden on women worldwide.

• #62 Cervical Cancer Detection Techniques: A Chronological Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10217496/

  Cervical cancer affects the female reproductive system and is strongly associated with HPV infection, obesity, smoking, and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Manual Pap tests (Papanicolaou tests) are widely used for the early detection of cancer, but they are costly, stagnant, and highly dependent on the pathologists expertise. Several computer aided diagnostic (CAD) systems were developed to automatically detect cervical cancer. Developing automatic prediction models to identify vulnerable patients can improve the efficacy of screening programs and eliminate inconsistencies and subjectivity resulting from cytopathologists lack of expertise. […] Cervical cancer detection has evolved significantly over the years, with several different techniques now available. The Pap smear test remains the most frequently employed method. Still, newer techniques such as visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) and HPV testing, as well as Lugols iodine, are becoming more widely used. Early detection is the key to successful treatment and improved outcomes, and women should undergo regular cervical cancer screening according to recommended guidelines.

• #63 Cervical Cancer Detection Techniques: A Chronological Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10217496/

  Cervical cancer is a prominent health problem globally, with high mortality as well as incidence rates, particularly in developing countries. Early detection is critical for the successful treatment and management of cervical cancer. The traditional method for cervical cancer screening is the Pap smear test, which involves the examination of cervical cells under a microscope for abnormalities. HPV is a very common sexually transmitted infection, with estimates estimating that up to 80% of sexually active women will become infected with HPV at some point in their lives. However, the majority of these infections will clear up on their own without causing any long-term health problems. There are many different types of HPV, and some types are more likely to cause cancer than others. However, this method is subjective and may miss precancerous lesions, leading to false negatives and a delayed diagnosis. Therefore, there has been further interest in establishing CAD methods to improve cervical cancer screening. CAD technology for cervical cancer detection has been extensively examined over the past few decades. Between 1996 and 2022, significant advancements have been made in this field, leading to improved accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity of CAD methods. Early CAD systems utilized image processing and pattern recognition techniques to analyze digital images of cervical cells with the aim of identifying abnormal cells and lesions. However, these early systems had limited success due to low sensitivity and specificity.

• #64 Cervical Cancer Detection Techniques: A Chronological Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10217496/

  In the early 2000s, ML algorithms were introduced to the field of CAD for cervical cancer detection. ML algorithms can analyze large datasets and learn from them to identify patterns and make predictions. This allowed for more accurate and automated analysis of digital images of cervical cells. ML-based CAD systems have shown promise in several studies, with improved sensitivity and specificity reported compared to traditional screening methods. Among the most promising CAD systems for cervical cancer detection is the Hybrid Intelligent System for Cervical Cancer Diagnosis (HISCCD), which was developed in 2012. HISCCD is a combination of ML algorithms and rule-based systems that analyze digital images of cervical cells to detect abnormal cells and lesions. Several studies have reported improved sensitivity and specificity of HISCCD compared to traditional screening methods. Another promising CAD system is the Automated Cervical Screening System (ACSS), which was introduced in 2016. ACSS uses an ML-based algorithm to analyze digital images of cervical cells and identify abnormal cells and lesions. In a study comparing ACSS to the Pap smear test, ACSS showed higher specificity and sensitivity for detecting high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. In addition to these systems, there have been several other CAD systems developed over the years, each with its own strengths and limitations. One of the major challenges with CAD systems for cervical cancer detection is the lack of standardized protocols and data sharing, which limits their widespread adoption and validation.

• #65 Artificial intelligence enables precision diagnosis of cervical cytology grades and cervical cancer | Nature Communications

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-48705-3

  Cervical cancer is a significant global health issue, its prevalence and prognosis highlighting the importance of early screening for effective prevention. This research aimed to create and validate an artificial intelligence cervical cancer screening (AICCS) system for grading cervical cytology. The AICCS system was trained and validated using various datasets, including retrospective, prospective, and randomized observational trial data, involving a total of 16,056 participants. It utilized two artificial intelligence (AI) models: one for detecting cells at the patch-level and another for classifying whole-slide image (WSIs). The AICCS consistently showed high accuracy in predicting cytology grades across different datasets. In the prospective assessment, it achieved an area under curve (AUC) of 0.947, a sensitivity of 0.946, a specificity of 0.890, and an accuracy of 0.892. […] Thus, AICCS holds promise as an additional tool for accurate and efficient cervical cancer screening.

• #66 Artificial intelligence enables precision diagnosis of cervical cytology grades and cervical cancer | Nature Communications

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-48705-3

  The objective of this study was to create an artificial intelligence cervical cancer screening (AICCS) system to aid in diagnosing cervical cytology grades and cervical cancer by analyzing whole-slide images (WSIs) of cervical cytology. The system underwent validation using multicenter, retrospective, and prospective population-based datasets, along with a randomized observational trial. […] The AICCS system achieved high performance in identifying abnormal cell grades in both internal and two external validation datasets. Specifically, the AICCS system maintained sensitivity, accuracy, specificity, and AUC values above 0.800 in all internal and external validation datasets. […] To assess the effectiveness of AICCS as a tool aiding cytopathologists in daily clinical practice, we evaluated the diagnostic performance using various approaches, including AICCS alone, cytopathologists, and AICCS-assisted cytopathologists, based on the prospective validation dataset from SYSMH. […] Compared to cytopathologists working without assistance, those aided by AICCS showed significant improvements in AUC (from 0.948 to 0.993; P=0.0006), sensitivity (from 0.909 to 0.991; P=0.024), specificity (from 0.987 to 0.996; P=0.002), and accuracy (from 0.984 to 0.995; P<0.001).

• #67 Artificial intelligence enables precision diagnosis of cervical cytology grades and cervical cancer | Nature Communications

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-48705-3

  The objective of this study was to create an artificial intelligence cervical cancer screening (AICCS) system to aid in diagnosing cervical cytology grades and cervical cancer by analyzing whole-slide images (WSIs) of cervical cytology. The system underwent validation using multicenter, retrospective, and prospective population-based datasets, along with a randomized observational trial. […] The AICCS system achieved high performance in identifying abnormal cell grades in both internal and two external validation datasets. Specifically, the AICCS system maintained sensitivity, accuracy, specificity, and AUC values above 0.800 in all internal and external validation datasets. […] To assess the effectiveness of AICCS as a tool aiding cytopathologists in daily clinical practice, we evaluated the diagnostic performance using various approaches, including AICCS alone, cytopathologists, and AICCS-assisted cytopathologists, based on the prospective validation dataset from SYSMH. […] Compared to cytopathologists working without assistance, those aided by AICCS showed significant improvements in AUC (from 0.948 to 0.993; P=0.0006), sensitivity (from 0.909 to 0.991; P=0.024), specificity (from 0.987 to 0.996; P=0.002), and accuracy (from 0.984 to 0.995; P<0.001).

• #68 Artificial intelligence enables precision diagnosis of cervical cytology grades and cervical cancer | Nature Communications

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-48705-3

  In conclusion, our study highlights showcase the potential of AI-assisted cervical cytology screening, with our proposed AICCS system demonstrating remarkable diagnostic accuracy and the capability to assist health-care professionals. This technology holds the potential to significantly enhance cervical cancer detection and clinical practice, thereby paving the way for improved health-care services and deployment in medical institutions.

• #69 Cervical cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cervical-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352506

  Small cervical cancers that haven’t grown beyond the cervix are typically treated with surgery. […] A Pap test can detect cancer cells in the cervix. It also can detect cells that have changes that increase the risk of cervical cancer. These are sometimes called precancerous cells. […] Discuss your cervical cancer screening options with your health care team.

• #70 Cervical Cancer Diagnosis – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/diagnosis

  If you have symptoms or screening test results that suggest the possibility of cervical cancer, your doctor will do follow-up tests to find out if it is due to cancer or some other cause. […] They may recommend diagnostic tests to find out if you have cervical cancer, and if so, whether it has spread to another part of the body. […] The following procedures are used to diagnose cervical cancer: […] Colposcopy is a procedure in which the health care provider inserts a speculum to gently open the vagina and view the cervix. […] A biopsy is a procedure in which a sample of tissue is removed from the cervix so that a pathologist can view it under a microscope to check for signs of cancer. […] If you are diagnosed with cervical cancer, you will be referred to a gynecologic oncologist.

• #71 Cervical Cancer Tests | How to Test For Cervical Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/cervical-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging/how-diagnosed.html

  Finding cervical cancer often starts with an abnormal HPV (human papillomavirus) or Pap test result. This will lead to further tests which can diagnose cervical cancer or pre-cancer. The Pap test and HPV test are screening tests, not diagnostic tests. They cannot tell for certain if you have cervical cancer. An abnormal Pap test or HPV test result may mean more testing is needed to see if a cancer or a pre-cancer is present. […] Your primary doctor or gynecologist often can do the tests needed to diagnose pre-cancers and cancers. […] If you have certain symptoms that could mean cancer, if your Pap test result shows abnormal cells, or if your HPV test is positive, you will most likely need to have a procedure called a colposcopy. […] A biopsy is the best way to tell for certain if an abnormal area is a pre-cancer, an invasive cancer, or neither.

• #72 Cervical Cancer Tests | How to Test For Cervical Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/cervical-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging/how-diagnosed.html

  Several types of biopsies can be used to diagnose cervical pre-cancers and cancers. […] If a biopsy shows that cancer cells are present, your doctor may order certain tests to see if and how far the cancer has spread. […] These tests can show if and where the cancer has spread, which will help you and your doctor decide on a treatment plan.

• #73 Cervical Cancer Diagnostic Tests | Society of Gynecologic Oncology

  https://www.sgo.org/patient-resources/cervical-cancer/cervical-cancer-diagnostic-tests/

  The first step is to confirm the diagnosis of cervical cancer and to establish the stage of your cancer. The diagnosis of cervical cancer requires a biopsy from the cervix for the pathologist to review under the microscope. This biopsy might be done in the office or in the operating room. Your doctor will review which option is best for you. The stage of cervical cancer is a standardized way to describe the extent of the cancer in the body and to establish whether the cancer has spread outside the cervix elsewhere in the body. The stage of a cervical cancer is based on a thorough pelvic and rectal exam in addition to some radiologic studies and possibly other diagnostic tests. Your gynecologic oncologist will recommend treatment based on the stage of the cancer, your overall health status, and, if appropriate, your desires about preserving fertility.

• #74 Cervical cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cervical-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352506

  Pap smear screenings begin at age 21 and continue, varying by age, every three to five years. […] Having an abnormal Pap smear is very common, so don’t feel alone. It just means that additional tests are needed to prove that cervical cancer isn’t present. Most people with abnormal Pap smear do not end up having a diagnosis of cervical cancer. […] Certainly, we aim to detect cervical cancer as early as possible. Early stage cervical cancer has much improved overall survival and reduced recurrence. […] During a cone biopsy, also called conization, a doctor surgically removes a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix. Typically, the cone-shaped piece includes tissue from both the upper and lower parts of the cervix. […] If you might have cervical cancer, testing is likely to start with a thorough exam of your cervix. A special magnifying instrument, called a colposcope, is used to check for signs of cancer.

• #75

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cervical-cancer

  Cervical cancer can be cured if diagnosed at an early stage and treated promptly. […] Cervical cancer can be cured if diagnosed and treated at an early stage of disease. Recognizing symptoms and seeking medical advice to address any concerns is a critical step. Women should see a healthcare professional if they notice: unusual bleeding between periods, after menopause, or after sexual intercourse; increased or foul-smelling vaginal discharge; symptoms like persistent pain in the back, legs, or pelvis; weight loss, fatigue and loss of appetite; vaginal discomfort; swelling in the legs. […] Clinical evaluations and tests to confirm a diagnosis are important and will generally be followed by referral for treatment services, which can include surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy as well as palliative care to provide supportive care and pain management. […] Management pathways for invasive cancer care are important tools to ensure that a patient is referred promptly and supported as they navigate the steps to diagnosis and treatment decisions.

• #76 Cervical Cancer Screening – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/screening

  Most health care providers will tell you what to expect at each step of the exam, so you will be at ease. […] Cervical cancer screening saves lives. Very few people screened for cervical cancer at routine intervals develop cervical cancer. Screening can detect cervical changes early, lowering a person’s chance of dying from cervical cancer. […] Potential risks of harm from cervical cancer screening include: Unnecessary follow-up tests and treatment, False-positive test results, False-negative test results.

• #77 Cervical cancer | Causes, Symptoms & Treatments | Cancer Council

  https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer/cervical-cancer

  The Pap smear test has changed to the new Cervical Screening Test. […] The incidence and mortality rates due to cervical cancer have halved in Australia since the introduction of the National Cervical Screening Program in 1991. […] As of 1 December 2017, the Pap smear test has been replaced with the new Cervical Screening Test. […] Self-collection is done in a private space (e.g. a bathroom) in a health clinic. […] Self-collection is only available to people who do not have any signs or symptoms of cancer. […] Having the HPV vaccine does not mean that you should not have regular Cervical Cancer Screening Tests. […] Cervical cancer can be effectively treated when it is found early. […] Most women with early cervical cancer will be cured.

• #78 Cervical cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cervical-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20352501

  Cervical cancer might cause signs and symptoms, such as: Vaginal bleeding after intercourse, between periods or after menopause, Menstrual bleeding that is heavier and lasts longer than usual, Watery, bloody vaginal discharge that may be heavy and have a foul odor, Pelvic pain or pain during intercourse. […] Pap tests can detect precancerous conditions of the cervix. These conditions can be monitored or treated in order to prevent cervical cancer. Most medical organizations suggest beginning routine Pap tests at age 21 and repeating them every few years.

• #79 Cervical cancer | Causes, Symptoms & Treatments | Cancer Council

  https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer/cervical-cancer

  The Pap smear test has changed to the new Cervical Screening Test. […] The incidence and mortality rates due to cervical cancer have halved in Australia since the introduction of the National Cervical Screening Program in 1991. […] As of 1 December 2017, the Pap smear test has been replaced with the new Cervical Screening Test. […] Self-collection is done in a private space (e.g. a bathroom) in a health clinic. […] Self-collection is only available to people who do not have any signs or symptoms of cancer. […] Having the HPV vaccine does not mean that you should not have regular Cervical Cancer Screening Tests. […] Cervical cancer can be effectively treated when it is found early. […] Most women with early cervical cancer will be cured.

• #80 Cervical Cancer Screening – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/screening

  Most health care providers will tell you what to expect at each step of the exam, so you will be at ease. […] Cervical cancer screening saves lives. Very few people screened for cervical cancer at routine intervals develop cervical cancer. Screening can detect cervical changes early, lowering a person’s chance of dying from cervical cancer. […] Potential risks of harm from cervical cancer screening include: Unnecessary follow-up tests and treatment, False-positive test results, False-negative test results.

• #81

  https://www.roche.com/solutions/focus-areas/oncology/cervical-cancer

  Cervical cancer is one of the most preventable cancers today, thanks to vaccination, screening and early treatment. […] Unfortunately, the lack of awareness and access to advanced diagnostic solutions is a crippling issue in the fight against cervical cancer. […] We recognise the importance of advanced screenings and reliable diagnostic tests in cervical cancer prevention, especially knowing the critical role played by HPV a preventable infection for which a vaccine exists in the progression of the disease. […] Our latest developments in the field of biomarker technology helps identify women most at risk of developing cervical cancer and single out those who may need access to early intervention and treatment options from those who may not. […] The elimination of cervical cancer can be achieved through the powerful integration of diagnostics, pharmaceuticals, data and the evolution of personalised healthcare.

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