Rak szyjki macicy
Etiologia i przyczyny

Rak szyjki macicy jest nowotworem złośliwym, którego etiologia w niemal 100% przypadków wiąże się z przewlekłym zakażeniem wysokoonkogennymi typami wirusa brodawczaka ludzkiego (HPV), zwłaszcza typami 16 i 18, odpowiedzialnymi za około 70% zachorowań. Proces onkogenezy obejmuje integrację genomu HPV z DNA komórek gospodarza, prowadząc do ekspresji białek E6 i E7, które inaktywują supresory nowotworowe p53 i Rb, co skutkuje niekontrolowanym podziałem komórkowym i transformacją nowotworową. Przebieg choroby jest zwykle powolny, z okresem latencji od 10 do 20 lat, podczas którego rozwijają się zmiany przednowotworowe (CIN). Czynniki ryzyka nasilające progresję zakażenia HPV do raka obejmują palenie tytoniu (dwukrotnie zwiększone ryzyko), immunosupresję (np. zakażenie HIV zwiększające ryzyko 6-krotnie), wieloletnie stosowanie doustnych środków antykoncepcyjnych (>5 lat), wielokrotne ciąże (≥3 porody), wczesny wiek inicjacji seksualnej oraz współistniejące infekcje przenoszone drogą płciową, takie jak chlamydia czy opryszczka.

  1. Etiologia raka szyjki macicy
    1. Zakażenie HPV jako główna przyczyna
    2. Mechanizm rozwoju raka szyjki macicy
  2. Czynniki ryzyka raka szyjki macicy
    1. Palenie tytoniu
    2. Zaburzenia odporności
    3. Czynniki związane z zachowaniami seksualnymi
    4. Współistnienie innych chorób przenoszonych drogą płciową
    5. Wieloletnie stosowanie doustnych środków antykoncepcyjnych
    6. Wielokrotne ciąże
    7. Ekspozycja na dietylostilbestrol
    8. Inne czynniki ryzyka
  3. Możliwości zapobiegania rakowi szyjki macicy
    1. Szczepienia przeciwko HPV
    2. Regularne badania przesiewowe
    3. Zdrowy styl życia
  4. Podsumowanie etiologii raka szyjki macicy
    1. Kolejne rozdziały

Etiologia raka szyjki macicy

Rak szyjki macicy to nowotwór złośliwy rozwijający się w obrębie szyjki macicy, który powstaje, gdy zdrowe komórki ulegają zmianom w swoim DNA. Te zmiany informują komórki, aby mnożyły się szybko i kontynuowały życie, gdy zdrowe komórki normalnie obumierałyby. W rezultacie dochodzi do nadmiernego namnażania się komórek, które mogą formować guz. Komórki te mogą naciekać i niszczyć zdrowe tkanki, a z czasem odrywać się i rozprzestrzeniać do innych części ciała.1

Zakażenie HPV jako główna przyczyna

Przewlekłe zakażenie określonymi typami wirusa brodawczaka ludzkiego (HPV – Human Papillomavirus) jest główną przyczyną praktycznie wszystkich przypadków raka szyjki macicy.1 HPV to powszechna infekcja przenoszona drogą płciową. Na całym świecie istnieje ponad 100 różnych typów HPV, z czego około 15 typów uznawanych jest za wysokiego ryzyka onkogennego.12 Długotrwałe zakażenie wirusem HPV wysokiego ryzyka może prowadzić do zmian śródnabłonkowych, które z czasem mogą przekształcić się w raka szyjki macicy.1

HPV typy 16 i 18 są odpowiedzialne za około 70% wszystkich przypadków raka szyjki macicy na świecie.12 Pozostałe przypadki są powodowane przez inne typy HPV wysokiego ryzyka, takie jak HPV-31, HPV-33, HPV-45, HPV-52 i HPV-58.1 Badania wykazały, że HPV-16 jest odpowiedzialny za około 50-55% wszystkich przypadków, a HPV-18 za około 15-20% przypadków raka szyjki macicy.1

Należy zaznaczyć, że większość osób zakażonych HPV nigdy nie rozwinie raka szyjki macicy. U większości osób wirus zanika samoistnie, a infekcja ustępuje bez konsekwencji.1 Jednakże u niewielkiego odsetka kobiet wirus przetrwa przez lata, co może przyczynić się do procesu transformacji nowotworowej komórek szyjki macicy.1

Mechanizm rozwoju raka szyjki macicy

Rak szyjki macicy rozwija się zazwyczaj powoli, a proces od zakażenia HPV do powstania raka może trwać od 10 do 20 lat.1 Przed rozwojem raka, komórki szyjki macicy przechodzą zmiany przednowotworowe, nazywane dysplazją lub śródnabłonkową neoplazją szyjki macicy (CIN – Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia).12

Mechanizm onkogenezy obejmuje integrację materiału genetycznego wirusa HPV z DNA komórek gospodarza.1 Dwa białka wirusa HPV, E6 i E7, są głównymi czynnikami przyczyniającymi się do rozwoju raka szyjki macicy.1 Białka te zaburzają naturalny cykl komórkowy, prowadząc do akumulacji uszkodzeń genetycznych i niekontrolowanego podziału komórkowego.1 Białko E6 prowadzi do degradacji białka supresorowego p53, natomiast białko E7 oddziałuje z innym białkiem supresorowym nowotworów, hamując jego aktywność.1 Te zmiany zwiększają prawdopodobieństwo transformacji nowotworowej komórek.1

Czynniki ryzyka raka szyjki macicy

Chociaż infekcja HPV jest główną przyczyną raka szyjki macicy, istnieje szereg czynników, które zwiększają ryzyko rozwoju tego nowotworu u osób zakażonych HPV wysokiego ryzyka.1

Palenie tytoniu

Kobiety palące tytoń mają około dwukrotnie wyższe ryzyko rozwoju raka szyjki macicy w porównaniu z niepalącymi.2″>12 Chemiczne związki zawarte w dymie papierosowym uszkadzają komórki szyjki macicy i mogą ułatwiać rozwój nowotworu. Dodatkowo, u osób palących zakażenia HPV utrzymują się dłużej i mają mniejszą szansę na samoistne ustąpienie.1 Ryzyko wzrasta wraz z intensywnością palenia oraz ekspozycją na dym papierosowy.1 Palenie bierne również zwiększa ryzyko zachorowania na raka szyjki macicy.1

Zaburzenia odporności

Osoby z osłabionym układem odpornościowym mają zwiększone ryzyko rozwoju raka szyjki macicy.1 Dotyczy to szczególnie kobiet zakażonych wirusem HIV, które mają 6-krotnie wyższe ryzyko zachorowania w porównaniu z populacją ogólną.1 Szacuje się, że około 5% wszystkich przypadków raka szyjki macicy jest związanych z zakażeniem HIV.1 Ryzyko wzrasta również u osób po przeszczepach narządów oraz stosujących leki immunosupresyjne.1 Osłabiony układ odpornościowy obniża zdolność organizmu do zwalczania infekcji HPV, co prowadzi do dłuższego utrzymywania się wirusa i zwiększonego ryzyka rozwoju zmian nowotworowych.1

Czynniki związane z zachowaniami seksualnymi

Ryzyko zakażenia HPV, a w konsekwencji raka szyjki macicy, wzrasta wraz z liczbą partnerów seksualnych.1 Im większa liczba partnerów danej kobiety, oraz im większa liczba partnerów jej partnera, tym większe ryzyko zakażenia HPV.1 Wczesny wiek rozpoczęcia aktywności seksualnej również zwiększa ryzyko zakażenia HPV i rozwoju raka szyjki macicy.12 Jest to związane z większą podatnością niedojrzałego nabłonka szyjki macicy na infekcję HPV w okresie dojrzewania.1

Współistnienie innych chorób przenoszonych drogą płciową

Inne infekcje przenoszone drogą płciową zwiększają ryzyko zakażenia HPV oraz rozwoju raka szyjki macicy.1 Do takich infekcji należą m.in. opryszczka, chlamydia, rzeżączka, kiła oraz HIV/AIDS.1 Kobiety, które mają lub miały zakażenie chlamydią, mogą mieć zwiększone ryzyko zachorowania na raka szyjki macicy.1 Bakterie chlamydia mogą ułatwiać rozwój i przetrwanie HPV w nabłonku szyjki macicy.1

Wieloletnie stosowanie doustnych środków antykoncepcyjnych

Długotrwałe (ponad 5 lat) stosowanie doustnych środków antykoncepcyjnych wiąże się z niewielkim wzrostem ryzyka rozwoju raka szyjki macicy u kobiet zakażonych HPV.12 Ryzyko to zmniejsza się po zaprzestaniu przyjmowania pigułek antykoncepcyjnych.1 Dokładny mechanizm tej zależności nie jest w pełni poznany.1 Doustne środki antykoncepcyjne zawierające kombinację estrogenu i progesteronu zostały sklasyfikowane jako kancerogenne dla ludzi, a badania wskazują, że istnieją wystarczające dowody na ich związek z rakiem szyjki macicy, niezależnie od zakażenia HPV.1

Wielokrotne ciąże

Kobiety, które urodziły trzy lub więcej dzieci, mają zwiększone ryzyko rozwoju raka szyjki macicy.12 Może to być związane ze zmianami hormonalnymi w czasie ciąży, które obniżają odporność, a także z mikrourazami szyjki macicy podczas porodów, co zwiększa podatność na infekcję HPV.12 Wczesny wiek pierwszej ciąży (przed 17 rokiem życia) również zwiększa ryzyko rozwoju raka szyjki macicy.1

Ekspozycja na dietylostilbestrol

Ekspozycja na dietylostilbestrol (DES) w łonie matki jest niezależnym czynnikiem ryzyka rozwoju rzadkiego typu raka szyjki macicy zwanego gruczolakorakiem jasnokomórkowym.12 DES to syntetyczny estrogen, który był przepisywany kobietom w ciąży w latach 1940-1971 w celu zapobiegania poronieniom.1 Córki kobiet, które przyjmowały DES podczas ciąży, mają zwiększone ryzyko zachorowania na ten typ nowotworu.1

Inne czynniki ryzyka

Do dodatkowych czynników ryzyka raka szyjki macicy należą:

  • Otyłość – może utrudniać badania przesiewowe, prowadząc do niższego wykrywania stanów przedrakowych i wyższego ryzyka rozwoju raka.1
  • Predyspozycje genetyczne – kobiety, których matka lub siostra chorowały na raka szyjki macicy, mają wyższe ryzyko zachorowania.12
  • Dieta uboga w owoce i warzywa – może zwiększać ryzyko raka szyjki macicy ze względu na brak niezbędnych składników odżywczych i antyoksydantów.12
  • Niski status socjoekonomiczny – jest związany z ograniczonym dostępem do badań przesiewowych.1
  • Wcześniejsze napromienianie miednicy – może zwiększać ryzyko rozwoju raka szyjki macicy.1

Możliwości zapobiegania rakowi szyjki macicy

Rak szyjki macicy jest chorobą, której w dużej mierze można zapobiegać.1 Kluczowe strategie profilaktyki obejmują:

Szczepienia przeciwko HPV

Od 2006 roku dostępne są szczepionki przeciwko HPV, które mogą zapobiegać zakażeniom typami wirusa odpowiedzialnymi za większość przypadków raka szyjki macicy.1 Szczepionki te są najbardziej skuteczne, gdy zostają podane przed ekspozycją na HPV, dlatego najlepiej zaszczepić się przed rozpoczęciem aktywności seksualnej.1 Eksperci medyczni zalecają szczepienie dzieci w wieku 9-12 lat.1 Dostępne szczepionki chronią przed typami HPV odpowiedzialnymi za nawet 90% wszystkich przypadków raka szyjki macicy.1

Regularne badania przesiewowe

Regularne badania przesiewowe w kierunku raka szyjki macicy umożliwiają wczesne wykrycie zmian przedrakowych i ich leczenie, zanim przekształcą się w raka.1 Dostępne są dwa typy badań przesiewowych:

  • Cytologia (test Papanicolaou) – wykrywa nieprawidłowe komórki, które mogą być leczone przed rozwojem raka.1
  • Test na obecność HPV – wykrywa infekcje wysokiego ryzyka HPV, które mogą prowadzić do raka.1

Zdrowy styl życia

Pewne modyfikacje stylu życia mogą zmniejszyć ryzyko zachorowania na raka szyjki macicy:

  • Unikanie palenia tytoniu i ekspozycji na dym tytoniowy.1
  • Praktykowanie bezpiecznego seksu, w tym używanie prezerwatyw, które mogą zmniejszyć (choć nie eliminują całkowicie) ryzyko zakażenia HPV.1
  • Ograniczenie liczby partnerów seksualnych.1
  • Dieta bogata w owoce i warzywa.1

Należy podkreślić, że rak szyjki macicy jest chorobą wysoce uleczalną, jeśli zostanie wykryty we wczesnym stadium.1 Prawie wszystkie przypadki raka szyjki macicy można by zapobiec dzięki szczepieniom przeciwko HPV, regularnym badaniom przesiewowym i odpowiedniemu leczeniu w razie potrzeby.1

Podsumowanie etiologii raka szyjki macicy

Rak szyjki macicy jest w niemal wszystkich przypadkach spowodowany przewlekłym zakażeniem wirusem brodawczaka ludzkiego (HPV) wysokiego ryzyka onkogennego.1 Typy HPV 16 i 18 są odpowiedzialne za około 70% przypadków tego nowotworu na świecie.1 Proces transformacji nowotworowej obejmuje integrację materiału genetycznego wirusa z DNA komórek gospodarza, co prowadzi do zaburzenia cyklu komórkowego i niekontrolowanego namnażania się komórek.1

Chociaż zakażenie HPV jest główną przyczyną raka szyjki macicy, do innych ważnych czynników ryzyka należą: palenie tytoniu, osłabienie układu odpornościowego, wieloletnie stosowanie doustnych środków antykoncepcyjnych, wielokrotne ciąże, wczesny wiek rozpoczęcia aktywności seksualnej, duża liczba partnerów seksualnych oraz współistnienie innych infekcji przenoszonych drogą płciową.1

Rak szyjki macicy jest chorobą, której w dużej mierze można zapobiegać dzięki szczepieniom przeciwko HPV, regularnym badaniom przesiewowym oraz zdrowemu stylowi życia.1 Wczesne wykrycie i leczenie stanów przedrakowych może zapobiec rozwojowi inwazyjnego raka szyjki macicy.1

Kolejne rozdziały

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Wybierz kolejny rozdział z menu poniżej, aby otworzyć nową podstronę kompedium wiedzy i uzyskać szczegółowe informację o leku, substancji lub chorobie.

  1. 11.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Cervical cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cervical-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20352501
    Cervical cancer begins when healthy cells in the cervix develop changes in their DNA. A cell’s DNA contains the instructions that tell a cell what to do. The changes tell the cells to multiply quickly. The cells continue living when healthy cells would die as part of their natural life cycle. This causes too many cells. The cells might form a mass called a tumor. The cells can invade and destroy healthy body tissue. In time, the cells can break away and spread to other parts of the body. […] Various strains of the human papillomavirus, also called HPV, play a role in causing most cervical cancers. HPV is a common infection that’s passed through sexual contact. When exposed to HPV, the body’s immune system typically prevents the virus from doing harm. In a small percentage of people, however, the virus survives for years. This contributes to the process that causes some cervical cells to become cancer cells.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer Causes, Risk Factors, and Prevention – NCI
    https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/causes-risk-prevention
    Long-lasting (persistent) infection with high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV) causes virtually all cervical cancers. Two high-risk types, HPV 16 and HPV 18, cause 70% of cervical cancers worldwide. […] When a high-risk HPV infection lasts for years, it can lead to changes in the cervical cells, resulting in a precancerous lesion. If the precancerous lesion is not found and removed, it may eventually develop into cervical cancer. […] Some risk factors make it more likely for a person who has a high-risk HPV infection of the cervix to develop cervical cancer. These risk factors include: Having a weakened immune system. This can lower the body’s ability to fight an HPV infection. HPV infections are more likely to be persistent and progress to cancer in people who are immunocompromised than in people who are not immunocompromised.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/12216-cervical-cancer
    Cervical cancer is cancer that begins on the surface of your cervix. It happens when the cells on your cervix start to change to precancerous cells. HPV (human papillomavirus) infection causes almost all cases of cervical cancer. HPV is a virus that spreads through sexual contact. […] Most cervical cancers are caused by HPV, a sexually transmitted infection. HPV spreads through sexual contact (anal, oral or vaginal) and can lead to cancer. Most people will get HPV at some point in their lives and not realize it because their bodies fight off the infection. But if your body doesn’t fight off the infection, it can cause the cells of your cervix to change to cancerous cells. […] There are more than 100 kinds of HPV, and about a dozen of them have been shown to lead to cancer. Early detection of these HPV strains is key in preventing cervical cancer. The HPV vaccine can help prevent HPV infection by protecting you against the HPV that causes up to 90% of all cervical cancers.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431093/
    Cervical cancer, the fourth most common cancer among women worldwide, is caused almost entirely by human papillomavirus (HPV). High-risk types of HPV can lead to cervical intraepithelial lesions which, over time, can progress to cervical cancer. […] Cervical cancer is a largely preventable disease. Primary prevention and screening are the most effective modalities for decreasing the healthcare burden and mortality attributable to cervical cancer. Since 2006, HPV vaccination has been available to prevent cervical cancer. […] Current literature reports that HPV is found in most sexually active people at some point during their lifetime. There are more than 130 types of known HPV, with 20 HPV types identified as cancer-related. HPV exposure rates are only known in women since men are not screened outside of research protocols. HPV types 16 and 18 are the most common HPV types identified in invasive cervical cancer.
  • #1 What causes cervical cancer? | MD Anderson Cancer Center
    https://www.mdanderson.org/cancerwise/what-causes-cervical-cancer–6-questions–answered.h00-159543690.html
    About 10,000 people are diagnosed with cervical cancer each year. The vast majority of cases are due to the human papillomavirus (HPV). […] The Centers for Disease Control estimates that more than 90% of all cervical cancer cases are caused directly by HPV. […] Approximately half of all cervical cancers are caused by HPV-16. Another 20% are caused by HPV-18. Other strains associated with a higher risk of developing cervical cancer are: HPV-31, HPV-33, HPV-45, HPV-52, HPV-58. […] Smoking and being chronically immunocompromised can increase your risk of developing cervical cancer. […] Chronic immunosuppression, such as from HIV/AIDS or other disorders of the immune system, is also associated with a higher risk of developing cervical cancer. […] Cervical dysplasia is when cervical cells look abnormal under a microscope. It’s considered a precursor to cancer, or a pre-cancer, and can be caused by HPV. […] Yes. First, if you’re eligible for an HPV vaccine, get one. […] Those are the three biggest steps you can take to reduce your risk of cervical cancer.
  • #1 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/Cervical-Cancer-Causes.aspx
    Cervical cancer starts with a change in the cellular DNA. A change in the DNAs structure is known as a mutation. Once mutation occurs the cell repairing mechanism either repairs the damage or kills of the abnormal cell. In rare cases this cell may proliferate and create more abnormal cells. This gives rise to cancer. […] There is one most important cause of cervical cancer infection with Human Papilloma virus (HPV). Almost all cases of cervical cancer occur in women who have been previously infected with the HPV. […] Two types of HPV are known to have the highest risk of causing cervical cancer. These include HPV16 – which accounts for around 50-55% of all cases and HPV18 – which accounts for around 15-20% of all cases. […] These viruses contain genetic material that can be passed into the cells of the cervix. This then causes changes in the DNA of the cells of the cervix. These cells thus reproduce uncontrollably, leading to the growth of a cancerous tumour.
  • #1 Cervical cancer | NHS inform
    https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/cancer/cancer-types-in-adults/cervical-cancer/
    The fact that HPV infection is very common but cervical cancer is relatively uncommon suggests that only a very small proportion of women are vulnerable to the effects of an HPV infection. There appear to be additional risk factors that affect a woman’s chance of developing cervical cancer. These include: smoking women who smoke are twice as likely to develop cervical cancer than women who don’t; this may be caused by the harmful effects of chemicals found in tobacco on the cells of the cervix. […] Cancer of the cervix usually takes many years to develop. Before it does, the cells in the cervix often show changes known as cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) or, less commonly, cervical glandular intraepithelial neoplasia (CGIN). […] The progression from becoming infected with HPV to developing CIN or CGIN and then developing cervical cancer is very slow, often taking 10 to 20 years.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer | HPV | Human Papillomavirus | MedlinePlus
    https://medlineplus.gov/cervicalcancer.html
    Cervical cancer usually develops slowly. Before cervical cells become cancer, they start to look abnormal. These cells are called „precancers.” If they aren’t destroyed or removed, they may become cancer cells that grow out of control and spread to other parts of your body. […] Almost all cervical cancers are caused by a long-lasting infection with a virus called human papillomavirus (HPV). There are many types of HPV. The types that cause cancer are called „high-risk HPV.” High-risk HPV is very common. It can be passed from one person to another through close skin-to-skin touching, usually during vaginal, anal, or oral sex. Most people who are infected have no symptoms and don’t know they have it. […] If you’re infected with high-risk HPV, usually your immune system will get rid of it within a year or two. But if your immune system can’t control the infection, it may last for many years. Over time, HPV can turn normal cervical cells into abnormal cells. Without treatment, these cells may keep changing until they become cervical cancer.
  • #1 How does HPV cause cervical cancer?verifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverified
    https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/how-does-hpv-cause-cervical-cancer
    The human papillomavirus (HPV) is the main cause of cervical cancer worldwide, killing hundreds of thousands of people every year. Here’s how the virus triggers cancer. […] HPV can cause cancers such as cervical cancer. […] When HPV hasn’t been cleared by the immune system, it infects the skin cells in the cervix, causing them to become abnormal: a process called cervical dysplasia. […] So how does HPV cause cancer? It starts by disrupting the way healthy cells function. […] HPV does this by integrating its genetic code, or genome, into the genome of cervical cells. […] Two HPV proteins, E6 and E7, are the main drivers of cervical cancer development. […] This means that when the body decides to destroy the invasive HPV protein, it takes this crucial tumour suppressing protein with it, making it far more likely that cancer can develop. […] Meanwhile, HPV’s E7 protein interacts with a different tumour-suppressing protein to inhibit its activity, again increasing the chances of cells becoming cancerous.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer Causes – Klarity Health Library
    https://my.klarity.health/cervical-cancer-causes/
    HPV can progress into cancer through infection and viral integration with the DNA of the host cell. Persistent HR-HPV leads to a disrupted cell cycle, accumulation of genetic damage, and uncontrolled cell division. This causes normal cells to develop into abnormal cancerous cells. In cervical cancer, certain strains are attributed to causing cervical dysplasia and lesions. These include HR-HPV types 16 and 18. […] The primary cause of cervical cancer is sexually transmitted HPV infection, attributed to 99.7% of cervical cancer cases. […] HPV progresses into cancer by viral integration of cells, leading to the accumulation of genetic damage and uncontrolled cell division. This causes normal cells in the cervix to develop into cancerous cells. […] Additional factors that can cause cervical cancer include having a weakened immune system, smoking, using oral contraceptives and high-parity.
  • #1 Cervical cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cervical-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20352501
    Most cervical cancers are caused by HPV. HPV is a common virus that’s passed through sexual contact. For most people, the virus never causes problems. It usually goes away on its own. For some, though, the virus can cause changes in the cells that may lead to cancer. […] Risk factors for cervical cancer include: Smoking increases the risk of cervical cancer. When HPV infections happen in people who smoke, the infections tend to last longer and are less likely to go away. HPV causes most cervical cancers. […] The greater your number of sexual partners, and the greater your partner’s number of sexual partners, the greater your chance of getting HPV. […] Having sex at an early age increases your risk of HPV. […] Having other sexually transmitted infections, also called STIs, increases the risk of HPV, which can lead to cervical cancer. Other STIs that increase the risk include herpes, chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis and HIV/AIDS.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer Causes, Risk Factors, and Prevention – PDQ Cancer Information Summaries – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK65901/
    Smoking or breathing in secondhand smoke. People who smoke or breathe in secondhand smoke have an increased risk of developing cervical cancer. The risk increases the more a person smokes or is exposed to secondhand smoke. […] Reproductive factors. Both the use of oral contraceptives (birth control pills) and giving birth to many children are associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer. The reasons for these associations are not well understood. […] Obesity. Cervical cancer screening may be more difficult in those with obesity, leading to lower detection of precancers and a higher risk of cancer. […] Being exposed to a drug called diethylstilbestrol (DES) in the womb is an independent risk factor for a type of cervical cancer called clear cell adenocarcinoma. […] Cervical cancer is highly preventable and highly curable if caught early. Nearly all cervical cancers could be prevented by HPV vaccination, routine cervical cancer screening, and appropriate follow-up treatment when needed.
  • #1
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cervical-cancer
    Cervical cancer is caused by persistent infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). […] Persistent HPV infection of the cervix (the lower part of the uterus or womb, which opens into the vagina also called the birth canal) if left untreated, causes 95% of cervical cancers. […] Women living with HIV are 6 times more likely to develop cervical cancer compared to the general population, and an estimated 5% of all cervical cancer cases are attributable to HIV. […] Risk factors for cancer progression include the grade of oncogenicity of the HPV type, immune status, the presence of other sexually transmitted infections, number of births, young age at first pregnancy, hormonal contraceptive use, and smoking.
  • #1 What is Cervical Cancer? Symptoms, Risk Factors & Treatments | MD Anderson Cancer Center
    https://www.mdanderson.org/cancer-types/cervical-cancer.html
    Risk factors include: Age: The risk of cervical cancer increases with age. […] Smoking: Cigarette smoke contains chemicals that damage the body’s cells. […] Sexual behavior: HPV is spread by sexual contact and is the cause of almost all cases of cervical cancer. […] Diethylstilbestrol (DES) exposure before birth: This drug was used between 1940 and 1971 to help prevent miscarriages. […] Lack of regular Pap tests […] Having a sexually transmitted disease (STD), including chlamydia […] HIV infection […] Weakened immune system […] Having an organ transplant […] Taking steroids.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer: Causes, & Symptoms | SPARSH Hospital
    https://www.sparshhospital.com/blog/cervical-cancer/
    Early sexual activity: Engaging in sexual activity at a young age increases the chances of being exposed to HPV, as the cervix is more susceptible to infection during adolescence. […] Family history: A genetic predisposition may elevate the risk, as having a close relative with cervical cancer could point to inherited vulnerabilities or shared environmental factors. […] The primary cause is persistent infection with high-risk HPV strains. Other contributing factors include smoking, a weakened immune system, multiple pregnancies, and early sexual activity, all of which increase susceptibility to the disease.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer Symptoms, Screening, Treatment, Survival Rate, Causes
    https://www.medicinenet.com/cervical_cancer/article.htm
    As described previously, cervical cancers are caused by infection with one of the high-risk HPV types. However, since not all people who are infected with HPV will develop cancer, it is likely that other factors also play a role in the development of cervical cancer. […] Certain risk factors have been identified that increase a woman’s risk of developing cervical cancer: Tobacco smoking, HIV infection, Immune system suppression, Past or current Chlamydia infection, Overweight, Long-term use of oral contraceptives (although the risk returns to normal when the contraceptive pills are discontinued), Having three or more full-term pregnancies, Having a first full-term pregnancy before age 17, Poverty, Family history of cervical cancer.
  • #1 What are the risk factors for cervical cancer? | Cancer Australia
    https://www.canceraustralia.gov.au/cancer-types/cervical-cancer/what-are-risk-factors-cervical-cancer
    People who have past or current chlamydia infection may have a higher risk of cervical cancer. This is because the chlamydia bacteria may help HPV grow and survive in the cervix. […] Chemicals in tobacco may damage the cells of the cervix and make cancer more likely to develop. […] Cervical cancer is more common among people who don’t have regular Cervical Screening Tests. […] Using oral contraceptive pills (also called birth control pills, or the ‘pill’) for 5 or more years may increase the risk of cervical cancer in people who also have HPV infection. […] Studies suggest that giving birth to 3 or more children may slightly increase the risk of cervical cancer for people who have HPV infection. […] DES may increase the risk of a rare form of cervical cancer (and some other cancers of the reproductive system) in daughters who were exposed to this drug before they were born.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer: Symptoms and Causes
    https://www.artfertilityclinics.com/in/en/art-blog/cervical-cancer-symtoms-causes
    Long-term use (five years or more) of oral contraceptives has been linked to an increased risk of cervical cancer. The risk declines after stopping the pill. […] Women who have had three or more full-term pregnancies have an increased risk of developing cervical cancer. It may be due to hormonal changes and immune system suppression during pregnancy. […] Starting sexual activity at a young age increases the risk of HPV infection, which in turn raises the risk of cervical cancer. The more partners one has, the greater the risk of HPV infection. […] Other STIs, such as chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis, and HIV, can increase the risk of cervical cancer. These infections may weaken the immune system, making it harder for the body to fight HPV.
  • #1 Causes | Cervical Cancer | Early Detection Policy | Cancer Council
    https://www.cancer.org.au/about-us/policy-and-advocacy/early-detection/cervical-cancer/causes
    Australian data has shown that around 70% of squamous cell carcinomas and about 77% of adenocarcinomas are caused by high-risk HPV types 16 and 18. HPV 16 accounts for about 55-60% of cervical cancers; HPV 18 accounts for a further 15-20% of cervical cancers. […] The four major steps in cervical cancer development are HPV infection/acquisition, viral persistence (versus clearance), progression to cervical precancer and invasion. […] Pre-cancerous lesions (CIN3) occur when oncogenic HPV is not cleared, infects immature cells and prevents maturation and differentiation, resulting in the replication of immature cells and the accrual of genetic changes that can lead to cervical cancer. […] Tobacco smoking, number of pregnancies and immunosuppression are established co-factors of HPV in cervical cancer. Current cigarette smoking is associated with a significantly increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma, but not of adenocarcinoma. Another co-factor that increases the risk of progression to cervical cancer in women who have a persistent high-risk HPV infection is early age at first full-term pregnancy. Combined oestrogen-progestogen oral contraceptives have been classified as carcinogenic to humans and there is sufficient evidence that it causes cervical cancer, independent of HPV.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer Causes, Risk Factors, and Prevention – NCI
    https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/causes-risk-prevention
    People who smoke or breathe in secondhand smoke have an increased risk of developing cervical cancer. The risk increases the more a person smokes or is exposed to secondhand smoke. […] Both the use of oral contraceptives (birth control pills) and giving birth to many children are associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer. […] Being exposed to a drug called diethylstilbestrol (DES) in the womb is an independent risk factor for a type of cervical cancer called clear cell adenocarcinoma. […] Cervical cancer is highly preventable and highly curable if caught early. Nearly all cervical cancers could be prevented by HPV vaccination, routine cervical cancer screening, and appropriate follow-up treatment when needed.
  • #1 Cervical cancer | The Royal Women’s Hospital
    https://www.thewomens.org.au/health-information/womens-cancers-pre-cancers/cervical-cancer
    Cervical cancer is almost always caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV). HPV is very common and 80 per cent of women will have it at some point in their lives. Almost always 95 per cent of the time your immune system clears it naturally. But if your body doesnt clear it, some types of HPV can lead to cervical cancer. […] It is not usually possible to say what causes cancer in a particular woman but known risk factors are: you have had the higher risk genital human papilloma virus (HPV), you have been a regular smoker, you do not have regular cervical tests (these can find pre-cancerous abnormalities), you are over 35, you have used the contraceptive pill (the Pill) for more than five years (a small increase in risk), you have had cervical cancer in the past, a family history of cervical cancer (a first degree relative such as a sister or mother), you have had five or more children, your mother was given the synthetic hormone diethylstilbestrol (DES), when she was pregnant with you (it was used in the 1950s to prevent miscarriage).
  • #1 Cervical cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cervical-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20352501
    You may be more likely to develop cervical cancer if your immune system is weakened by another health condition and you have HPV. […] If your parent took a medicine called diethylstilbestrol, also known as DES, while pregnant, your risk of cervical cancer might be increased. This medicine was used in the 1950s to prevent miscarriage. It’s linked to a type of cervical cancer called clear cell adenocarcinoma.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer Causes, Risk Factors and Prevention
    https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/cervical-cancer/risk-factors
    Women exposed to DES while in the womb have a higher risk of developing a rare type of cancer called vaginal or cervical clear-cell adenocarcinoma. […] Having a first-degree relativea mother or sisterwith cervical cancer puts women at a higher risk than someone with no family history of the disease.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer Causes, Risk Factors and Prevention
    https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/cervical-cancer/risk-factors
    Certain factors related to sexual activity may increase the risk of developing cervical cancer, including becoming sexually active before age 18 and having multiple sexual partners. […] Women who have immune system deficiencies may be more at risk of developing an HPV infection and cervical cancer. […] Smoking cigarettes gives women twice the risk of developing cervical cancer compared with nonsmokers. […] The risk of developing cervical cancer is higher among women who have given birth to three or more children. […] Theres growing evidence that not eating enough vegetables and fruits may increase the risk for cervical cancer, among other health issues. […] Taking oral contraceptives for five or more years gives women a higher risk of developing cervical cancer compared with women who have never taken birth control pills.
  • #1 Cervical cancer: Symptoms, causes, stages, and treatment
    https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/159821
    Birth control pills: Long-term use of some common contraceptive pills slightly raises a woman’s risk. […] Other sexually transmitted diseases (STD): Chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis increase the risk of developing cervical cancer. […] Socio-economic status: Rates appear to be higher in areas where income are low.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer Causes: What You Need to Know – Apollo Proton
    https://www.apollohospitals.com/health-library/cervical-cancer-causes/
    Several other factors can increase the risk of developing cervical cancer, such as a weakened immune system, smoking, long-term use of hormonal contraceptives, family history, exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES), previous radiation therapy to the pelvic area, and history of other types of cancer. […] While these risk factors can contribute to the development of cervical cancer, it is crucial to remember that HPV infection is the underlying cause in nearly all cases.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer | HPV | Human Papillomavirus | MedlinePlus
    https://medlineplus.gov/cervicalcancer.html
    Almost all cervical cancer can be prevented by: HPV vaccination. HPV vaccines provide the most protection if you get them before you’re exposed to HPV. So, it’s best to get vaccinated before you become sexually active. Medical experts recommend vaccinating children between ages 9 and 12. […] Routine cervical cancer screening. Two types of screening tests may be part of your routine health checkup. Both tests use a sample of cervical cells that your provider collects with a swab: A Pap smear checks for abnormal cells so they can be treated before they become cancer. An HPV test checks for high-risk HPV infections that can cause cancer.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer Causes: Understanding the Risk Factors
    https://www.medicoverhospitals.in/articles/cervical-cancer-causes
    Having many pregnancies is a risk factor for cervical cancer. […] Long-term use of oral contraceptives (birth control pills) has been linked to an increased risk of cervical cancer. […] Cervical cancer is caused by a persistent infection with high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV). […] HPV infection can lead to cervical cancer when the virus integrates its DNA into the cervical cells, causing them to become abnormal and potentially cancerous. […] Primary risk factors for cervical cancer include: HPV infection (especially high-risk types), multiple sexual partners, early sexual activity, smoking, a weakened immune system, a family history of cervical cancer. […] Cervical cancer can be prevented by HPV vaccination before exposure to the virus, regular Pap smears to detect precancerous changes early, practicing safe sex, limiting sexual partners, and avoiding smoking. […] Smoking increases the risk of cervical cancer by weakening the immune system’s ability to fight HPV infections.
  • #1 What is Cervical Cancer: Symptoms, Causes, and Types | Max Hospital
    https://www.maxhealthcare.in/blogs/what-is-cervical-cancer
    Women who smoke are about twice as likely as non-smokers to develop cervical cancer. […] Women with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or those taking immunosuppressive drugs, are at a higher risk because their bodies are less able to fight off HPV infections. […] Long-term use of oral contraceptives can slightly increase the risk of developing cervical cancer. […] Women who have had three or more full-term pregnancies have an increased risk of cervical cancer, possibly due to hormonal changes and increased exposure to HPV. […] A family history of cervical cancer can indicate a genetic predisposition to the disease. […] Women whose mothers took DES (a hormone given between 1940 and 1971 to prevent miscarriage) have an increased risk of developing a rare type of cervical adenocarcinoma. […] Diets low in fruits and vegetables may increase the risk of cervical cancer due to a lack of essential nutrients and antioxidants that help protect against cancer.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer Causes, Risk Factors, and Prevention: Prevention – Patient Information [NCI] | Kaiser Permanente
    https://healthy.kaiserpermanente.org/health-wellness/health-encyclopedia/he.cervical-cancer-causes-risk-factors-and-prevention-prevention-patient-information-nci.ncicdr0000062817
    Being exposed to a drug called diethylstilbestrol (DES) in the womb is an independent risk factor for a type of cervical cancer called clear cell adenocarcinoma. […] Cervical cancer is highly preventable and highly curable if caught early. Nearly all cervical cancers could be prevented by HPV vaccination, routine cervical cancer screening, and appropriate follow-up treatment when needed.
  • #1 Cervical cancer – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_cancer
    Cervical cancer typically develops from precancerous changes called cervical intraepithelial neoplasia over 10 to 20 years. […] Virtually all cervical cancer cases (99%) are linked to genital human papillomavirus infection (HPV); most who have had HPV infections, however, do not develop cervical cancer. […] HPV types 16 and 18 are the cause of 75% of cervical cancer cases globally, while 31 and 45 are the causes of another 10%. […] Infection with some types of HPV is the greatest risk factor for cervical cancer, followed by smoking. […] Not all of the causes of cervical cancer are known, however, and several other contributing factors have been implicated. […] Cigarette smoking, both active and passive, increases the risk of cervical cancer. […] Long-term use of oral contraceptives is associated with increased risk of cervical cancer in women who have had HPV. […] Having many pregnancies is associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer.
  • #1 Cervical Cancer Causes, Risk Factors, and Prevention: Prevention – Patient Information [NCI] | The Children’s Hospital at Montefiore
    https://www.cham.org/health-library/article?id=ncicdr0000062817
    People who smoke or breathe in secondhand smoke have an increased risk of developing cervical cancer. The risk increases the more a person smokes or is exposed to secondhand smoke. […] Both the use of oral contraceptives (birth control pills) and giving birth to many children are associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer. […] Being exposed to a drug called diethylstilbestrol (DES) in the womb is an independent risk factor for a type of cervical cancer called clear cell adenocarcinoma. […] Cervical cancer is highly preventable and highly curable if caught early. Nearly all cervical cancers could be prevented by HPV vaccination, routine cervical cancer screening, and appropriate follow-up treatment when needed.
  • #2 Cervical Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431093/
    Cervical cancer, the fourth most common cancer among women worldwide, is caused almost entirely by human papillomavirus (HPV). High-risk types of HPV can lead to cervical intraepithelial lesions which, over time, can progress to cervical cancer. […] Cervical cancer is a largely preventable disease. Primary prevention and screening are the most effective modalities for decreasing the healthcare burden and mortality attributable to cervical cancer. Since 2006, HPV vaccination has been available to prevent cervical cancer. […] Current literature reports that HPV is found in most sexually active people at some point during their lifetime. There are more than 130 types of known HPV, with 20 HPV types identified as cancer-related. HPV exposure rates are only known in women since men are not screened outside of research protocols. HPV types 16 and 18 are the most common HPV types identified in invasive cervical cancer.
  • #2 Cervical Cancer: Causes, Symptoms, Prevention & Treatment
    https://www.healthline.com/health/cervical-cancer
    Most cervical cancer cases are caused by the sexually transmitted human papillomavirus (HPV). This is the same virus that causes genital warts. […] The two types that most commonly cause cancer are HPV-16 and HPV-18. […] Being infected with a cancer-causing strain of HPV doesnt mean youll get cervical cancer. Your immune system eliminates the vast majority of HPV infections, often within 2 years. […] HPV infection causes most cervical cancer cases. The infection is preventable with the vaccines Gardasil and Cervarix.
  • #2 Cervical cancer causes
    https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/cervical-cancer/causes/
    Almost all cases of cervical cancer (9 in 10) are caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV). […] HPV is not the only cause of cervical cancer. You can get cervical cancer if you have never had sex. […] HPV can cause cells in the cervix to change. […] These abnormal cell changes can develop into cervical cancer over time. Abnormal cells are often called pre-cancerous cells. […] If you have HPV there are some things that put you at higher risk of developing cervical cancer.
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    #2 Cervical Cancer Causes, Risk Factors, and Prevention – NCI
    https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/causes-risk-prevention
  • https://www.artfertilityclinics.com/in/en/art-blog/cervical-cancer-symtoms-causes
    Long-term use (five years or more) of oral contraceptives has been linked to an increased risk of cervical cancer. The risk declines after stopping the pill. […] Women who have had three or more full-term pregnancies have an increased risk of developing cervical cancer. It may be due to hormonal changes and immune system suppression during pregnancy. […] Starting sexual activity at a young age increases the risk of HPV infection, which in turn raises the risk of cervical cancer. The more partners one has, the greater the risk of HPV infection. […] Other STIs, such as chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis, and HIV, can increase the risk of cervical cancer. These infections may weaken the immune system, making it harder for the body to fight HPV.
  • https://ajphi.org/ajphi/article/view/42
    Smoking: It has been found that women who smoke are about twice as likely to get cervical cancer than those who do not smoke. […] Multiple Pregnancy: Three or more full-term pregnancy is considered to have an increased risk of developing cervical cancer. […] Women with weakened immune systems, infection with other sexually transmitted diseases, low socio-economic status, long-term use of contraceptive pills, and exposure to diethylstilbesterol use in utero have also been linked to the increased risk of cervical cancer. […] HPV vaccination prevents against cervical cancer and can significantly reduce the risk.
  • https://www.maxhealthcare.in/blogs/what-is-cervical-cancer
    Women who smoke are about twice as likely as non-smokers to develop cervical cancer. […] Women with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or those taking immunosuppressive drugs, are at a higher risk because their bodies are less able to fight off HPV infections. […] Long-term use of oral contraceptives can slightly increase the risk of developing cervical cancer. […] Women who have had three or more full-term pregnancies have an increased risk of cervical cancer, possibly due to hormonal changes and increased exposure to HPV. […] A family history of cervical cancer can indicate a genetic predisposition to the disease. […] Women whose mothers took DES (a hormone given between 1940 and 1971 to prevent miscarriage) have an increased risk of developing a rare type of cervical adenocarcinoma. […] Diets low in fruits and vegetables may increase the risk of cervical cancer due to a lack of essential nutrients and antioxidants that help protect against cancer.
  • https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK65901/
    Smoking or breathing in secondhand smoke. People who smoke or breathe in secondhand smoke have an increased risk of developing cervical cancer. The risk increases the more a person smokes or is exposed to secondhand smoke. […] Reproductive factors. Both the use of oral contraceptives (birth control pills) and giving birth to many children are associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer. The reasons for these associations are not well understood. […] Obesity. Cervical cancer screening may be more difficult in those with obesity, leading to lower detection of precancers and a higher risk of cancer. […] Being exposed to a drug called diethylstilbestrol (DES) in the womb is an independent risk factor for a type of cervical cancer called clear cell adenocarcinoma. […] Cervical cancer is highly preventable and highly curable if caught early. Nearly all cervical cancers could be prevented by HPV vaccination, routine cervical cancer screening, and appropriate follow-up treatment when needed.
  • https://www.medicinenet.com/cervical_cancer/article.htm
    Cervical cancer is caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV). Cervical cancer is caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV). […] Most cervical cancers are caused by longstanding infection with one of the human papillomaviruses (HPVs). HPV infection is very common, and most people with HPV infection do not develop cancer. There are over 100 types of HPVs, and only certain types have been linked to cancers. Other HPV types cause benign warts on the skin or genitals. The so-called „high risk” HPV types have been shown to cause cancers of the cervix as well as cancers of the penis in men. […] There is no known genetic cause of cervical cancer. However, it may run in some families. Women with a mother or sister who had the disease have a higher risk of developing it themselves. It is currently not understood if this familial tendency is caused by an inherited condition that makes some women more vulnerable to HPV infection than others. Alternatively, the increased incidence in some families may be related to the likelihood that family members may share one or more of the other non-genetic risk factors described previously.

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