Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Germ Cell Tumor: Causes & Symptoms

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23505-germ-cell-tumor

  A germ cell tumor is a benign (noncancerous) or malignant (cancerous) mass that forms from germ cells. Germ cell tumors can affect anyone, but theyre most common in children, teens and young adults. […] Germ cell tumors may be malignant (cancerous) or benign (noncancerous). Both types of tumors can grow larger, but only cancerous germ cell tumors can spread to other parts of your body. […] Researchers arent sure what causes germ cells to develop this way. […] You may be more likely to get a germ cell tumor if you have a family history of germ cell tumors or a history of certain conditions. […] Normal germ cells form in a developing human embryo. These cells eventually travel to the embryos ovaries or testicles, becoming egg cells or sperm cells. In contrast, germ cell tumors consist of cells that dont develop into fully formed eggs or sperm. The germ cells divide abnormally and become a tumor in your ovaries or testicles instead. In the case of extragonadal tumors, the germ cells travel to odd places in your body like your chest, brain, belly, low back and tailbone to form tumors.

• #1 Germ cell tumors – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/germ-cell-tumors/symptoms-causes/syc-20352493

  Germ cell tumors are growths of cells that form from reproductive cells called germ cells. […] It’s not clear what causes germ cell tumors. Germ cell tumors form in the cells that turn into eggs in the ovaries and into sperm in the testicles. Germ cell tumors happen when germ cells develop changes in their DNA. A cell’s DNA holds the instructions that tell the cell what to do. In healthy cells, the DNA tells the cells to grow and multiply at a set rate. The DNA also tells the cells to die at a set time. […] In tumor cells, the DNA changes give different instructions. The changes tell the tumor cells to grow and multiply quickly. Tumor cells can keep living when healthy cells would die. This causes too many cells. The tumor cells can form a mass that can grow and press on nearby tissue or organs. […] Sometimes the DNA changes turn germ cells into cancer cells. Cancer cells can invade and destroy healthy body tissue. Cancer cells sometimes break away and spread to other parts of the body.

• #1 Etiology and early pathogenesis of malignant testicular germ cell tumors: towards possibilities for preinvasive diagnosis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4430936/

  Malignant testicular germ cell tumors (TGCT) are the most frequent cancers in Caucasian males (2040 years) with an 70% increasing incidence the last 20 years, probably due to combined action of (epi)genetic and (micro)environmental factors. […] It is expected that TGCT have carcinoma in situ (CIS) as their common precursor, originating from an embryonic germ cell blocked in its maturation process. […] Since 2009, several genome wide association studies (GWAS) have been published, reporting on single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with significant associations in or near the genes KITLG, SPRY4, BAK1, DMRT1, TERT, ATF7IP, HPGDS, MAD1L1, RFWD3, TEX14, and PPM1E, likely to be related to TGCT development. […] Prenatal, perinatal, and postnatal environmental factors also influence the onset of CIS.

• #1 Germ Cell Tumors: Causes & Treatment

  https://www.medicoverhospitals.in/diseases/germ-cell-tumor/

  The etiology of germ cell tumors is multifactorial. Genetic predisposition plays a significant role. Mutations in specific genes, such as KIT and BRAF, have been implicated in the development of these tumors. […] Environmental factors also contribute to the risk. Exposure to certain chemicals and radiation may increase susceptibility. Additionally, prenatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES), a synthetic estrogen, has been linked to an elevated risk of developing germ cell tumors. […] Caused by abnormal development of reproductive cells, often occurring in the ovaries or testes.

• #1 Germ cell tumors | Children’s Wisconsin

  https://childrenswi.org/medical-care/macc-fund-center/conditions/oncology/germ-cell-tumors

  The cause of germ cell tumors is not completely understood. A number of inherited defects have also been associated with an increased risk of developing germ cell tumors including the central nervous system and genitourinary tract malformations and major malformations of the lower spine. Specifically, males with cryptorchidism (failure of the testes to descend into the scrotal sac) have an increased risk to develop testicular germ cell tumors. Cryptorchidism can occur alone, however, and is also present in some genetic syndromes. […] In addition, cells from testicular germ cell tumors can have structural chromosome abnormalities involving chromosome #12, which may explain the uncontrolled cell growth and tumor formation. […] Some genetic syndromes caused by extra or missing sex chromosomes can cause incomplete or abnormal development of the reproductive system.

• #1 Germ Cell Tumors (GCTs) in Children | University Hospitals

  https://www.uhhospitals.org/health-information/health-and-wellness-library/article/diseases-and-conditions—pediatrics/germ-cell-tumors-in-children

  Germ cell tumors (GCTs) are made up of these underdeveloped cells. […] The cause of germ cell tumors isn’t fully known. Some gene defects passed on from parents to children (inherited mutations) may increase the risk for germ cell tumors. Some genetic syndromes, like Turner syndrome, androgen insensitivity syndrome, and Klinefelter’s syndrome, are linked to a higher risk for these tumors. GCTs are also linked to abnormal development of the male and female reproductive systems. Boys born with undescended testicles (called cryptorchidism) are at higher risk for germ cell tumors in the testicles.

• #1 Germ cell tumor – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_cell_tumor

  A germ cell tumor (GCT) is a neoplasm derived from primordial germ cells. Germ-cell tumors can be cancerous or benign. Germ cell tumors typically originate from the gonads (ovary and testis), but can arise in other areas of the body. Extragonadal GCTs are thought to result from abnormal migration of germ cell precursors during development of the embryo. […] Extragonadal GCTs were thought initially to be isolated metastases from an undetected primary tumor in a gonad, but many germ cell tumors are now known to be congenital and originate outside the gonads. The most notable of these is sacrococcygeal teratoma, the single most common tumor diagnosed in babies at birth. […] Males with Klinefelter syndrome have a 50 times greater risk of GSTs. In these persons, GSTs usually contain nonseminomatous elements, present at an earlier age, and seldom are gonadal in location.

• #1 Germ Cell Tumors | Causes | Types | Symptoms | Diagnosis | Treatment

  https://www.icliniq.com/articles/cancer/germ-cell-tumors

  Family History – Any history of other family members affected by a germ cell tumor. […] Boys with undescended testes (cryptorchidism), girls with missing X (sex) chromosome (Turner syndrome), males with single X and Y chromosomes with resistance to male hormones (androgens), also known as androgen insensitivity syndrome, male born with an extra X chromosome, Caucasians, family history, testicular tumor history, HIV, orchitis (inflammation of the testes), testicular microlithiasis, etc., are the risk factors of developing germ cell tumors.

• #1 Germ Cell Tumors (GCTs) in Children | Phoenix Children’s Hospital

  https://phoenixchildrens.org/specialties-conditions/germ-cell-tumors-gcts-children

  The cause of germ cell tumors isn’t fully known. Some gene defects passed on from parents to children (inherited mutations) may increase the risk for germ cell tumors. Some genetic syndromes, like Turner syndrome, androgen insensitivity syndrome, and Klinefelter’s syndrome, are linked to a higher risk for these tumors. […] GCTs are also linked to abnormal development of the male and female reproductive systems. Boys born with undescended testicles (called cryptorchidism) are at higher risk for germ cell tumors in the testicles.

• #1 Etiologic factors in testicular germ cell tumors

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3000220/

  A number of pre-existing medical conditions have been associated with the development of TGCT. These conditions include prior diagnosis of TGCT in the contralateral testicle, cryptorchidism, impaired spermatogenesis, inguinal hernia, hydrocele, disorders of sex development, prior testicular biopsy, atopy, and testicular atrophy. […] Cryptorchidism, or undescended testis, is the antecedent medical condition most closely associated with TGCT. […] Evidence in support of a common etiology is that 10-25% of men with unilateral cryptorchidism develop TGCT in the contralateral gonad. […] The risk of germ cell tumors, as noted by the Consensus Group, is somewhat difficult to estimate, but appears to be highest in testis-specific protein Y encoded positive gonadal dysgenesis and in partial androgen insensitivity syndrome with intra-abdominal gonads. […] The overall pattern of increasing incidence only among specific ethnic and/or racial groups argues that there has either been an ethnic-specific change in a risk factor or that there has been a global change in a risk factor that only affects genetically susceptible men.

• #1 To Be or Not to Be a Germ Cell: The Extragonadal Germ Cell Tumor Paradigm

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/22/11/5982

  In the human embryo, the genetic program that orchestrates germ cell specification involves the activation of epigenetic and transcriptional mechanisms that make the germline a unique cell population continuously poised between germness and pluripotency. […] Germ cell tumors, neoplasias originating from fetal or neonatal germ cells, maintain such dichotomy and can adopt either pluripotent features (embryonal carcinomas) or germness features (seminomas) with a wide range of phenotypes in between these histotypes. […] The most widely accepted theory suggests that these tumors arise from PGCs, the embryonic precursors of adult gametes, misplaced during their migration to gonads. […] Genetic conditions such as Klinefelter syndrome (KS), Marfan syndrome or Down syndrome, as well as somatic mutations of genes involved in PGC proliferation have been shown to associate with EGCTs, which can appear either in childhood or in the post-puberal age.

• #1 Germ Cell Tumors (GCTs) in Children | Valley Children’s Healthcare

  https://www.valleychildrens.org/services/cancer-and-blood-disorders-center/conditions-we-treat/germ-cell-tumors

  The cause of germ cell tumors isn’t fully known. Some gene defects passed on from parents to children (inherited mutations) may increase the risk for germ cell tumors. Some genetic syndromes, like Turner syndrome, androgen insensitivity syndrome, and Klinefelter’s syndrome, are linked to a higher risk for these tumors. GCTs are also linked to abnormal development of the male and female reproductive systems. Boys born with undescended testicles (called cryptorchidism) are at higher risk for germ cell tumors in the testicles.

• #1 Germ Cell Tumors (for Parents) | Nemours KidsHealth

  https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/germ-cell.html

  Germ cells that grow in an unusual way can become a tumor. […] The cause of most germ cell tumors isn’t always known. Doctors do know that some medical conditions can make children more likely to develop them. These include: birth defects that involve the central nervous system, genitals, urinary tract, and spine […] genetic conditions that cause missing or extra sex chromosomes. […] Boys with undescended testicles (testes that stay up inside the pelvis) also seem to be at a higher risk for a germ cell tumor.

• #1 Origins and molecular biology of testicular germ cell tumors | Modern Pathology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/3800309

  Testicular germ cell tumors can be divided into three groups (infantile/prepubertal, adolescent/young adult and spermatocytic seminoma), each with its own constellation of clinical histology, molecular and clinical features. […] Several factors have been associated with their pathogenesis, including cryptorchidism, elevated estrogens in utero and gonadal dysgenesis. […] The most widely accepted risk factor for TGCT is cryptorchidism, approximately 10% of the cases having this association. […] Much stronger associations with the development of TGCT exist with factors such as exposure to high levels of maternal estrogen during pregnancy, neonatal jaundice and low and high birth weights. […] The relative importance of susceptibility genes vs environmental factors in the etiology of TGCT is a source of great debate among investigators.

• #1 Germ Cell Tumors: Symptoms & Causes | Baptist Cancer Center

  https://www.baptistcancercenter.com/Cancers-We-Treat/Germ-Cell-Tumors

  Germ cell tumors form inside the reproductive cells. […] Doctors dont yet fully understand the cause of germ cell tumors. Several inherited defects have been associated with an increased risk for the disease, including: Central nervous system malformations, Genitourinary tract malformations, Lower spine malformations, Males with undescended testes (cryptorchidism), Extra or missing sex chromosomes. […] The exact cause is not known.

• #1 Germ Cell Tumors: Are They Cancerous? | Causes, Symptoms

  https://www.oncologistindia.com/what-do-we-treat/cancer-in-general/germ-cell-tumors

  The cause of germ cell tumor is not completely understood. Experts say that germ cell tumor is caused when there is an abnormal migration of germ cells during the embryogenesis and it is also caused due to some inherited defects, which includes: […] Failure of testes to descend into the scrotal sac (cryptorchidism) […] Missing sex hormones […] Incomplete or abnormal development of reproductive system […] Central nervous system and genitourinary tract malformations […] Major malformations of the lower spine.

• #1 Etiologic factors in testicular germ cell tumors

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3000220/

  Globally, testicular cancer incidence is highest among men of northern European ancestry and lowest among men of Asian and African descent. […] An accumulating body of evidence suggests, however, that testicular cancer arises in fetal life. Perinatal factors, including exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals, have been suggested to be related to risk. […] The hypothesis that TGCT is initiated in very early life has spurred a great deal of interest in perinatal factors such as birth weight, gestational age, maternal age, maternal smoking, maternal parity, birth order and sibship size. […] The possible role of endocrine disrupting chemicals as risk factors has also been postulated. […] The estrogen hypothesis of TGCT was formally introduced in 1993. A complementary hypothesis has suggested that high maternal estrogen levels may not be as culpable as low maternal testosterone levels.

• #1 Testicular cancer – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testicular_cancer

  Risk factors include an undescended testis, family history of the disease, and previous history of testicular cancer. […] More than 95% are germ cell tumors which are divided into seminomas and non-seminomas. […] A major risk factor for the development of testis cancer is cryptorchidism (undescended testicles). It is generally believed that the presence of a tumor contributes to cryptorchidism; when cryptorchidism occurs in conjunction with a tumor then the tumor tends to be large. Other risk factors include inguinal hernias, Klinefelter syndrome, and mumps orchitis. […] Higher rates of testicular cancer in Western nations have been linked to the use of cannabis. […] Germ cell tumors of the testis are the most common cancer in young men between the ages of 15 and 35 years.

• #1

  https://braintumourresearch.org/pages/types-of-brain-tumours-germ-cell-tumour-gct?srsltid=AfmBOoo9UolXUbIdHkBCVj2sGuko7XxUfnh_o_l6CkIC7CDmO8eN04VI

  Germ cell tumours are thought to develop from primordial germ cells. These are a type of stem cell in an embryo that has begun to form into either sperm or eggs, and will develop further after the child has been born and then reached puberty. […] Germ cells tumours tend to occur in the midline location. The most common site for CNS germ cell tumours is the pineal region, followed by the pituitary gland region, although they can arise in other areas of the central nervous system such as ventricles, basal ganglia and thalamus. […] For reasons yet to be established, they are much more common (up to 15% of brain tumours) among the East Asian population (highest reported in Japan). […] Patients who have raised tumour markers in the CSF and/or tumours in more than one area of the brain and spinal cord are considered to be metastatic positive (M+). Unfortunately, this means that the tumour has spread (metastasised) and the disease is therefore more difficult to treat.

• #1 Nonseminomatous Germ Cell Tumors: Symptoms, Treatment, Outlook

  https://www.healthline.com/health/cancer/nonseminomatous-germ-cell-tumor

  Doctors and researchers dont know what exactly causes NSGCTs. In general, cancer happens due to changes in the DNA of cells that cause them to grow uncontrollably. […] But some things are known to increase a persons risk of testicular cancer. These include having: a personal or family history of testicular cancer, an undescended testicle or testicles, called cryptorchidism, germ neoplasia in situ, a type of precancer in the testicles, HIV. […] In the United States, the risk of testicular cancer is also four to five times higher in white people than in Black or Asian people. People living in the United States and Europe are also at a higher risk. The reasons for these differences arent known.

• #1 Testicular Cancer: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/279007-overview

  Primary testicular tumors are the most common solid malignant tumor in men 20 to 35 years of age in the United States. For unknown reasons, the incidence of this cancer principally, testicular seminomas increased during the last century. […] Germ cell cancers account for more than 90% of all testicular cancers. […] The cause of testicular cancer is not known. The characteristic genetic change found is an isochromosome of the short arm of chromosome 12 [i(12p)], which is often seen in sporadic cancers. This suggests that genes in this region are important in the development of germ cell tumors. […] That genetic factors have a role in the development of testicular cancer is shown by the fact that the risk for the disease is higher in first-degree relatives of cancer patients than in the general population.

• #1 What Is Testicular Cancer? | Types of Testicular Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/testicular-cancer/about/what-is-testicular-cancer.html

  This type of tumor increases blood levels of HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin). […] Testicular germ cell cancers can start as a non-invasive form of the disease called carcinoma in situ (CIS) or intratubular germ cell neoplasia. In testicular CIS, the cells look abnormal under the microscope, but they have not yet spread outside the walls of the seminiferous tubules (where sperm cells are formed). Carcinoma in situ doesn’t always progress to invasive cancer.

• #1 Testicular Cancer: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/279007-overview

  Two models of testicular carcinoma in situ have been proposed. […] Malignant transformation of germ cells is the result of a multistep process of genetic changes. One of the earliest events is the increased copy number of 12p, either as 1 or more copies of i(12p) or as tandem duplications of chromosome arm 12p. This abnormality is found in occult carcinoma in situ lesions as well as more advanced disease. […] Epidemiologic observations have suggested that environmental factors are instrumental in determining risk for testicular cancers. However, epidemiologic evidence does not consistently support any specific risk factor.

• #1 Origins and molecular biology of testicular germ cell tumors | Modern Pathology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/3800309

  Some reports have suggested that specific occupations are associated with an increased risk but the data are conflicting and poorly controlled for confounding factors. […] Infertility has been associated with an increased risk of TGCT with intratubular germ cell neoplasia, unclassified type (IGCNU) being identified in 12% of cases. […] Patients with various intersex syndromes are at increased risk for the development of TGCT. […] Gonadal dysgenesis in patients who carry a Y chromosome is a significant risk factor for germ cell tumor development. […] If this is true, it suggests that a specific genetic mutation may not be required to initiate the process of tumor development, but rather environmental factors are sufficient as initiating events. […] The initiating genetic events that lead to IGCNU and subsequent invasive GCT have yet to be agreed upon.

• #1 Ovarian Germ Cell Tumors: What are They, Types & Symptoms

  https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/ovarian-cancer/types/ovarian-germ-cell-tumors

  Germ cell tumors make up about 2 to 3 percent of all ovarian cancers, according to the American Cancer Society (ACS). […] The exact cause of ovarian germ cell tumors is unknown, but certain inherited birth defects or genetic conditions (chromosomal abnormalities or gene mutations) may increase the risk of developing the disease.

• #1 Treatment of malignant germ cell tumors of the ovary – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/treatment-of-malignant-germ-cell-tumors-of-the-ovary

  Ovarian germ cell tumors (OGCTs) are derived from primordial germ cells of the ovary. They may be benign or malignant. Malignant germ cell cancers of the ovary include dysgerminomas and nondysgerminomas, which include immature teratomas, embryonal cell carcinoma, yolk sac tumors, primary ovarian (nongestational) choriocarcinomas, polyembryoma, and mixed germ cell tumors. […] In general, the treatment principles for all types of malignant OGCTs are similar to those that guide the management of the more common epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC), with some exceptions: […] Many OGCTs produce tumor products (alpha fetoprotein [AFP], human chorionic gonadotropin [hCG], lactate dehydrogenase [LDH]) that can be measured in the serum. The presence of these markers provides a highly sensitive and specific indicator of the presence of certain histologic components. Testing for serum tumor markers prior to definitive treatment can provide a diagnostic clue to the presence of an OGCT.

• #1 Germ cell tumors | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/germ-cell-tumours?lang=us

  Germ cell tumors arise from ectopic pluripotent stem cells that failed to migrate from yolk endoderm to the gonad. […] Because they arise from primitive cells, they have variable neoplastic potential and variable degrees of differentiation into a variety of tissues. […] There is also a low incidence of malignant transformation of somatic cells (i.e. non germ cell) within these tumors e.g. carcinoma, sarcoma, leukemia.

• #1 Extragonadal Germ Cell Tumors Treatment – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/extragonadal-germ-cell/patient/extragonadal-treatment-pdq

  Extragonadal germ cell tumors form from developing sperm or egg cells that travel from the gonads to other parts of the body. […] Age and sex can affect the risk of extragonadal germ cell tumors. […] Risk factors for malignant extragonadal germ cell tumors include: being male, being age 20 or older, having Klinefelter syndrome. […] Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options. […] The prognosis and treatment options depend on: whether the tumor is nonseminoma or seminoma, the size of the tumor and where it is in the body, the blood levels of AFP, beta-hCG, and LDH, whether the tumor has spread to other parts of the body, the way the tumor responds to initial treatment, whether the tumor has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).

• #1 Possible Causes of Testicular Germ Cell Tumor and its Association with Male Infertility

  https://scholarsjunction.msstate.edu/td/3575/

  Testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs) are thought to arise during early embryogenesis due to the arrest of germ cell differentiation at primordial germ cells (PGCs) or gonocytes. […] The central hypothesis of this work is that OS induces germ line genomic instability leading to testicular germ cell tumors. […] On the other hand, male infertility is a representation of testicular dysgenesis syndrome, which carries a risk for TGCTs development. The mechanisms underlying both TGCTs and male infertility are thought to be overlapping to some extent.

• #1 To Be or Not to Be a Germ Cell: The Extragonadal Germ Cell Tumor Paradigm

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/22/11/5982

  Most of the germ cell tumors with the exception of teratoma and yolk sac tumors are believed to originate from precursor cells termed carcinoma in situ (CIS) or more specifically germ cell neoplasia in situ (GCNIS), representing transformed PGCs or gonocytes. […] On the basis of the evidence reported here, we postulate that up-or down-regulation of transcription factors, in particular of TFAP2C and PRDM1, in misplaced PGCs, resulting from or causing altered epigenetics germline program, might be among the major causes for GCT formation.

• #1 Germ cell Cancer: Causes, Risk Factors, Treatment, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/cancer/germ-cell-cancer

  Germ cell cancer can develop in children and adults. Researchers dont know exactly what causes germ cell cancers to form, but they have identified some risk factors. […] Its not clear why extragonadal cancers develop, but its thought to do with how germ cells develop before birth. […] Researchers dont know exactly why germ cell cancers form, but they have identified some conditions that seem to increase the odds of developing them. […] People assigned male at birth are at a higher risk of developing germ cell tumors overall. However, in children, those assigned female at birth develop germ cell tumors about 25% more often. […] Testicular germ cell tumors most often occur before the age of 4 or in adolescence to young adulthood. Other risk factors for testicular germ cell tumors include small testicular volume, family history, and infertility. […] Ovarian germ cell tumors most commonly occur in adolescent girls or young women.

• #1

  https://braintumourresearch.org/pages/types-of-brain-tumours-germ-cell-tumour-gct?srsltid=AfmBOoo9UolXUbIdHkBCVj2sGuko7XxUfnh_o_l6CkIC7CDmO8eN04VI

  The prognosis for an intracranial germ cell tumour varies. This is largely dependent on: Type and position of the tumour, Type and level of tumour markers, Whether or not it has spread (metastasised) by the time it has been diagnosed, Whether or not it is newly diagnosed or has recurred after treatment. […] 80%-90% of patients with germinomas can be cured by radiotherapy alone, whilst some also require chemotherapy. Non-germinomatous germ cell tumours have a 40%-85% cure rate, depending to some extent on how far they have spread by the time they are diagnosed. […] The first line of treatment for certain germ cell tumours, particularly teratomas, may be surgery. This will depend on the location of the tumour and the related risk of side effects.

• #1 Etiology and early pathogenesis of malignant testicular germ cell tumors: towards possibilities for preinvasive diagnosis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4430936/

  Key aspects of the etiology of TGCT were discovered in the past few years. Since 2009, a several GWAS have found SNPs with significant associations in or near the genes KITLG, SPRY4, BAK1, DMRT1, TERT, ATF7IP, HPGDS, MAD1L1, RFWD3, TEX14, and PPM1E. […] These genetic and environmental factors play an essential role in the pathogenesis of TGCT but are individually insufficient to identify men at high risk for TGCT.

• #1 Etiology and early pathogenesis of malignant testicular germ cell tumors: towards possibilities for preinvasive diagnosis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4430936/

  The origin of TGCT probably starts at early embryogenesis, and is hypothesized to be part of the Testicular Dysgenesis Syndrome (TDS). […] This impaired testicular development means that some early PGC/gonocytes are blocked in their process of differentiation, and as such, these germ cells retain their early (embryonic) marker profile. […] The current hypothesis is that all patients with this abnormality will develop an invasive TGCT, due to the fact that in the male Caucasian population, the incidence of CIS similar is to the lifetime risk of developing a TGCT. […] Current evidence for the etiology of TGCT included genetic and environmental factors as mentioned above, but at this time, these factors separately are insufficient to make a risk assessment for TGCT on an individual level. Probably the combined action of (epi)genetic factors and (micro)environmental factors will lead to the development of TGCT, named as the genvironmental hypothesis.

• #1 Childhood Germ Cell Tumors | Dana-Farber Cancer Institute

  https://www.dana-farber.org/cancer-care/types/childhood-germ-cell-tumors

  Germ cell tumors are tissue masses formed by immature cells that usually become mature eggs or sperm. They can be benign (noncancerous) or malignant (cancerous). […] Doctors do not understand the cause of most germ cell tumors. Scientists know that they can be associated with several other inherited defects of the ovaries or testes. For example, patients with Klinefelter syndrome have an increased risk of developing extragonadal germ cell tumors. […] It’s critical to understand that germ cell tumors most often occur with no known cause. There’s nothing that you could have done or avoided doing that would have prevented the tumor from developing. […] Various research studies are underway to help build our understanding of how treatment types and dosages can be modified according to the tumor subtype, stage, location on the body, and the child’s age and gender to provide the best possible outcome.

• #2 Germ cell tumors – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/germ-cell-tumors/symptoms-causes/syc-20352493

  Germ cell tumors are growths of cells that form from reproductive cells called germ cells. […] It’s not clear what causes germ cell tumors. Germ cell tumors form in the cells that turn into eggs in the ovaries and into sperm in the testicles. Germ cell tumors happen when germ cells develop changes in their DNA. A cell’s DNA holds the instructions that tell the cell what to do. In healthy cells, the DNA tells the cells to grow and multiply at a set rate. The DNA also tells the cells to die at a set time. […] In tumor cells, the DNA changes give different instructions. The changes tell the tumor cells to grow and multiply quickly. Tumor cells can keep living when healthy cells would die. This causes too many cells. The tumor cells can form a mass that can grow and press on nearby tissue or organs. […] Sometimes the DNA changes turn germ cells into cancer cells. Cancer cells can invade and destroy healthy body tissue. Cancer cells sometimes break away and spread to other parts of the body.

• #2 Mayo Clinic Health Library – Germ cell tumors | Swiss Medical Network

  https://www.swissmedical.net/en/healtcare-library/con-20167636

  It’s not clear what causes germ cell tumors. Germ cell tumors form in the cells that turn into eggs in the ovaries and into sperm in the testicles. Germ cell tumors happen when germ cells develop changes in their DNA. A cell’s DNA holds the instructions that tell the cell what to do. In healthy cells, the DNA tells the cells to grow and multiply at a set rate. The DNA also tells the cells to die at a set time. […] In tumor cells, the DNA changes give different instructions. The changes tell the tumor cells to grow and multiply quickly. Tumor cells can keep living when healthy cells would die. This causes too many cells. The tumor cells can form a mass that can grow and press on nearby tissue or organs. […] Sometimes the DNA changes turn germ cells into cancer cells. Cancer cells can invade and destroy healthy body tissue. Cancer cells sometimes break away and spread to other parts of the body.

• #2 Etiology and early pathogenesis of malignant testicular germ cell tumors: towards possibilities for preinvasive diagnosis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4430936/

  Key aspects of the etiology of TGCT were discovered in the past few years. Since 2009, a several GWAS have found SNPs with significant associations in or near the genes KITLG, SPRY4, BAK1, DMRT1, TERT, ATF7IP, HPGDS, MAD1L1, RFWD3, TEX14, and PPM1E. […] These genetic and environmental factors play an essential role in the pathogenesis of TGCT but are individually insufficient to identify men at high risk for TGCT.

• #2 Germ Cell Tumor – Creative Diagnostics

  https://www.creative-diagnostics.com/resources/germ-cell-tumor.htm

  Germ cell tumors are malignant (cancerous) or nonmalignant (benign, noncancerous) tumors that are comprised mostly of germ cells. […] The cause of germ cell tumors isn’t completely understood. A number of inherited defects have also been associated with an increased risk of developing germ cell tumors including the central nervous system and genitourinary tract malformations and major malformations of the lower spine. Males with cryptorchidism (failure of the testes to descend into the scrotal sac) have an increased risk to develop testicular germ cell tumors. […] Mutations in signaling pathways, such as signal transduction systems, are the basic triggering mechanisms in different types of cancers. […] GDNF signaling pathway is closely related to the pathogenesis of testicular germ cell tumors.

• #2 Testicular Cancer: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/279007-overview

  Primary testicular tumors are the most common solid malignant tumor in men 20 to 35 years of age in the United States. For unknown reasons, the incidence of this cancer principally, testicular seminomas increased during the last century. […] Germ cell cancers account for more than 90% of all testicular cancers. […] The cause of testicular cancer is not known. The characteristic genetic change found is an isochromosome of the short arm of chromosome 12 [i(12p)], which is often seen in sporadic cancers. This suggests that genes in this region are important in the development of germ cell tumors. […] That genetic factors have a role in the development of testicular cancer is shown by the fact that the risk for the disease is higher in first-degree relatives of cancer patients than in the general population.

• #2 Germ Cell Tumors (GCTs) in Children | Valley Children’s Healthcare

  https://www.valleychildrens.org/services/cancer-and-blood-disorders-center/conditions-we-treat/germ-cell-tumors

  The cause of germ cell tumors isn’t fully known. Some gene defects passed on from parents to children (inherited mutations) may increase the risk for germ cell tumors. Some genetic syndromes, like Turner syndrome, androgen insensitivity syndrome, and Klinefelter’s syndrome, are linked to a higher risk for these tumors. GCTs are also linked to abnormal development of the male and female reproductive systems. Boys born with undescended testicles (called cryptorchidism) are at higher risk for germ cell tumors in the testicles.

• #2 To Be or Not to Be a Germ Cell: The Extragonadal Germ Cell Tumor Paradigm

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/22/11/5982

  In the human embryo, the genetic program that orchestrates germ cell specification involves the activation of epigenetic and transcriptional mechanisms that make the germline a unique cell population continuously poised between germness and pluripotency. […] Germ cell tumors, neoplasias originating from fetal or neonatal germ cells, maintain such dichotomy and can adopt either pluripotent features (embryonal carcinomas) or germness features (seminomas) with a wide range of phenotypes in between these histotypes. […] The most widely accepted theory suggests that these tumors arise from PGCs, the embryonic precursors of adult gametes, misplaced during their migration to gonads. […] Genetic conditions such as Klinefelter syndrome (KS), Marfan syndrome or Down syndrome, as well as somatic mutations of genes involved in PGC proliferation have been shown to associate with EGCTs, which can appear either in childhood or in the post-puberal age.

• #2 Pediatric Teratomas and Other Germ Cell Tumors: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/939938-overview

  Differences (disorders) of sex development (DSDs) have also been associated with development of GCTs. […] Turner syndrome is similarly a risk factor for gonadoblastoma. […] Klinefelter syndrome has been linked with an increased risk of extragonadal malignant GCTs. […] The highest risk seems to be among patients who carry some Y-chromosome genes in ectopic locations where they may not be normally regulated.

• #2 What are Childhood Germ Cell Tumors? – Pediatric Hematology/Oncology – Golisano Children’s Hospital – University of Rochester Medical Center

  https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/childrens-hospital/hemonc/germ-cell.aspx

  Germ cell tumors are malignant (cancerous) or nonmalignant (benign, noncancerous) tumors that are comprised mostly of germ cells. […] The cause of germ cell tumors isn’t completely understood. A number of inherited defects have also been associated with an increased risk for developing germ cell tumors including the central nervous system and genitourinary tract malformations and major malformations of the lower spine. Specifically, males with cryptorchidism (failure of the testes to descend into the scrotal sac) have an increased risk to develop testicular germ cell tumors. […] Some genetic syndromes caused by extra or missing sex chromosomes can cause incomplete or abnormal development of the reproductive system.

• #2 What Are Germ Cell Tumors? How Do They Happen?

  https://www.webmd.com/cancer/germ-cell-tumors

  Changes in the genes of a germ cell can cause it to grow out of control, which leads to a tumor. Doctors arent sure what triggers that change. […] You may be more likely to get a germ cell tumor if you have: An undescended testicle (one or both testicles havent dropped into the scrotum), Birth defects in your central nervous system, genitals, lower spine, or urinary tract, Genetic conditions like Klinefelter syndrome or Turner syndrome, where you have an extra or missing sex chromosome, Other family members who had germ cell tumors.

• #2 Etiologic factors in testicular germ cell tumors

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3000220/

  A number of pre-existing medical conditions have been associated with the development of TGCT. These conditions include prior diagnosis of TGCT in the contralateral testicle, cryptorchidism, impaired spermatogenesis, inguinal hernia, hydrocele, disorders of sex development, prior testicular biopsy, atopy, and testicular atrophy. […] Cryptorchidism, or undescended testis, is the antecedent medical condition most closely associated with TGCT. […] Evidence in support of a common etiology is that 10-25% of men with unilateral cryptorchidism develop TGCT in the contralateral gonad. […] The risk of germ cell tumors, as noted by the Consensus Group, is somewhat difficult to estimate, but appears to be highest in testis-specific protein Y encoded positive gonadal dysgenesis and in partial androgen insensitivity syndrome with intra-abdominal gonads. […] The overall pattern of increasing incidence only among specific ethnic and/or racial groups argues that there has either been an ethnic-specific change in a risk factor or that there has been a global change in a risk factor that only affects genetically susceptible men.

• #2 Etiology and early pathogenesis of malignant testicular germ cell tumors: towards possibilities for preinvasive diagnosis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4430936/

  The origin of TGCT probably starts at early embryogenesis, and is hypothesized to be part of the Testicular Dysgenesis Syndrome (TDS). […] This impaired testicular development means that some early PGC/gonocytes are blocked in their process of differentiation, and as such, these germ cells retain their early (embryonic) marker profile. […] The current hypothesis is that all patients with this abnormality will develop an invasive TGCT, due to the fact that in the male Caucasian population, the incidence of CIS similar is to the lifetime risk of developing a TGCT. […] Current evidence for the etiology of TGCT included genetic and environmental factors as mentioned above, but at this time, these factors separately are insufficient to make a risk assessment for TGCT on an individual level. Probably the combined action of (epi)genetic factors and (micro)environmental factors will lead to the development of TGCT, named as the genvironmental hypothesis.

• #2 Germ Cell Tumors: Causes & Treatment

  https://www.medicoverhospitals.in/diseases/germ-cell-tumor/

  The etiology of germ cell tumors is multifactorial. Genetic predisposition plays a significant role. Mutations in specific genes, such as KIT and BRAF, have been implicated in the development of these tumors. […] Environmental factors also contribute to the risk. Exposure to certain chemicals and radiation may increase susceptibility. Additionally, prenatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES), a synthetic estrogen, has been linked to an elevated risk of developing germ cell tumors. […] Caused by abnormal development of reproductive cells, often occurring in the ovaries or testes.

• #2 Testicular cancer – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testicular_cancer

  Risk factors include an undescended testis, family history of the disease, and previous history of testicular cancer. […] More than 95% are germ cell tumors which are divided into seminomas and non-seminomas. […] A major risk factor for the development of testis cancer is cryptorchidism (undescended testicles). It is generally believed that the presence of a tumor contributes to cryptorchidism; when cryptorchidism occurs in conjunction with a tumor then the tumor tends to be large. Other risk factors include inguinal hernias, Klinefelter syndrome, and mumps orchitis. […] Higher rates of testicular cancer in Western nations have been linked to the use of cannabis. […] Germ cell tumors of the testis are the most common cancer in young men between the ages of 15 and 35 years.

• #2 What Is Testicular Cancer? | Types of Testicular Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/testicular-cancer/about/what-is-testicular-cancer.html

  More than 90% of cancers of the testicle start in cells known as germ cells. These are the cells that make sperm. The main types of germ cell tumors (GCTs) in the testicles are seminomas and non-seminomas. […] Some seminomas can increase blood levels of a protein called human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG). HCG can be checked with a simple blood test and is considered a tumor marker for certain types of testicular cancer. It can be used for diagnosis and to check how the patient is responding to treatment. […] Embryonal carcinoma can increase blood levels of a tumor marker protein called alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), as well as human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG). […] This type of tumor almost always increases blood levels of AFP (alpha-fetoprotein). […] This is the most common form of testicular cancer in children (especially in infants), but pure yolk sac carcinomas (tumors that do not have other types of non-seminoma cells in them) are rare in adults.

• #2 Origins and molecular biology of testicular germ cell tumors | Modern Pathology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/3800309

  A second and more widely accepted hypothesis is promulgated by Skakkebaek and others. This model suggests that fetal gonocytes (primordial germ cells) may undergo abnormal cell division (polyploidization) due to mostly environmental factors in utero and give rise to IGCNU. […] The presence of i(12p) in IGCNU is a matter of controversy with most investigators suggesting it is not present. […] The consistent gain of genetic material from chromosome 12 is crucial for the development of an invasive GCT resulting in efforts to identify the specific genes involved. […] Genetic studies on spermatocytic seminoma are few; it appears that the most common chromosomal abnormality is gains in chromosome 9.

• #2 Possible Causes of Testicular Germ Cell Tumor and its Association with Male Infertility

  https://scholarsjunction.msstate.edu/td/3575/

  Testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs) are thought to arise during early embryogenesis due to the arrest of germ cell differentiation at primordial germ cells (PGCs) or gonocytes. […] The central hypothesis of this work is that OS induces germ line genomic instability leading to testicular germ cell tumors. […] On the other hand, male infertility is a representation of testicular dysgenesis syndrome, which carries a risk for TGCTs development. The mechanisms underlying both TGCTs and male infertility are thought to be overlapping to some extent.

• #2 Ovarian Germ Cell Tumors: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/ovarian-cancer/ovarian-germ-cell-tumors

  Ovarian germ cell tumors are usually found in teen girls or young women. Less often, women who are in their 60s can get this tumor. […] Doctors don’t know exactly why some women get ovarian germ cell tumors. Some birth defects that affect the nervous system, genitals, and urinary tract can make a woman more likely to develop this type of tumor. Certain genetic conditions that cause extra or missing sex chromosomes can also raise your risk.

• #2 Germ cell tumor – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_cell_tumor

  A germ cell tumor (GCT) is a neoplasm derived from primordial germ cells. Germ-cell tumors can be cancerous or benign. Germ cell tumors typically originate from the gonads (ovary and testis), but can arise in other areas of the body. Extragonadal GCTs are thought to result from abnormal migration of germ cell precursors during development of the embryo. […] Extragonadal GCTs were thought initially to be isolated metastases from an undetected primary tumor in a gonad, but many germ cell tumors are now known to be congenital and originate outside the gonads. The most notable of these is sacrococcygeal teratoma, the single most common tumor diagnosed in babies at birth. […] Males with Klinefelter syndrome have a 50 times greater risk of GSTs. In these persons, GSTs usually contain nonseminomatous elements, present at an earlier age, and seldom are gonadal in location.

• #2 What Is Malignant Germ Cell Tumor?

  https://www.icliniq.com/articles/cancer/malignant-germ-cell-tumor

  Malignant germ cell tumors are the cancerous growths of neoplastic cells that form from the reproductive germ cells. […] Mutations in the genes of a germ cell can cause uncontrolled growth of the tumor cells which leads to a tumor. The risk factors that can cause the cells to grow out of control include: Undescended one or both testicles that did not drop into the scrotum. […] Germ cell tumors that are extragonadal were earlier considered to be isolated metastases from a primary gonadal site. However, it is now substantiated that these tumors have an extragonadal origin. […] Some scientists believe that this sporadic distribution occurs as a result of germ cell migration abnormally during embryogenesis. Other scientists suggest an extensive distribution of germ cells to various sites during the normal process of embryogenesis, with these cells transferring genetic information at somatic sites (head, neck, shoulders, and abdomen).

• #2 Extragonadal Germ Cell Tumors | Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center

  https://vicc.org/cancer-info/adult-extragonadal-germ-cell-tumors

  Extragonadal germ cell tumors form from developing sperm or egg cells that travel from the gonads to other parts of the body. […] Age and gender can affect the risk of extragonadal germ cell tumors. […] Risk factors for malignant extragonadal germ cell tumors include the following: Being male. Being age 20 or older. Having Klinefelter syndrome. […] Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options. […] The prognosis and treatment options depend on the following: Whether the tumor is nonseminoma or seminoma. The size of the tumor and where it is in the body. The blood levels of AFP, beta-hCG, and LDH. Whether the tumor has spread to other parts of the body. The way the tumor responds to initial treatment. Whether the tumor has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).

• #2 To Be or Not to Be a Germ Cell: The Extragonadal Germ Cell Tumor Paradigm

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/22/11/5982

  Most of the germ cell tumors with the exception of teratoma and yolk sac tumors are believed to originate from precursor cells termed carcinoma in situ (CIS) or more specifically germ cell neoplasia in situ (GCNIS), representing transformed PGCs or gonocytes. […] On the basis of the evidence reported here, we postulate that up-or down-regulation of transcription factors, in particular of TFAP2C and PRDM1, in misplaced PGCs, resulting from or causing altered epigenetics germline program, might be among the major causes for GCT formation.

• #2 Extragonadal Germ Cell Tumors Treatment – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/extragonadal-germ-cell/patient/extragonadal-treatment-pdq

  Extragonadal germ cell tumors form from developing sperm or egg cells that travel from the gonads to other parts of the body. […] Age and sex can affect the risk of extragonadal germ cell tumors. […] Risk factors for malignant extragonadal germ cell tumors include: being male, being age 20 or older, having Klinefelter syndrome. […] Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options. […] The prognosis and treatment options depend on: whether the tumor is nonseminoma or seminoma, the size of the tumor and where it is in the body, the blood levels of AFP, beta-hCG, and LDH, whether the tumor has spread to other parts of the body, the way the tumor responds to initial treatment, whether the tumor has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).

• #2 Testicular Cancer (Germ Cell Tumors) | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/testicular-germ-cell-tumors

  About 95 out of every 100 testicular cancers start in germ cells. These are cells in the testicles that make sperm. […] Testicular cancer is not linked to any habits, activities, or lifestyles. […] But there are 2 important risk factors that can raise your chance of getting the disease. […] An undescended testicle. Testicles descend (drop down) from the abdomen to the scrotum before you’re born. If you were born with a testicle that did not descend, you have a greater risk of testicular cancer. […] You already had testicular cancer. If you had cancer in 1 of your testicles, you’re more likely to get cancer in the other one. However, the lifetime risk of this happening is low (1% to 2%). Out of every 100 people who had testicular cancer, only 1 or 2 will get it again.

• #2 Germ cell tumors | Children’s Wisconsin

  https://childrenswi.org/medical-care/macc-fund-center/conditions/oncology/germ-cell-tumors

  The cause of germ cell tumors is not completely understood. A number of inherited defects have also been associated with an increased risk of developing germ cell tumors including the central nervous system and genitourinary tract malformations and major malformations of the lower spine. Specifically, males with cryptorchidism (failure of the testes to descend into the scrotal sac) have an increased risk to develop testicular germ cell tumors. Cryptorchidism can occur alone, however, and is also present in some genetic syndromes. […] In addition, cells from testicular germ cell tumors can have structural chromosome abnormalities involving chromosome #12, which may explain the uncontrolled cell growth and tumor formation. […] Some genetic syndromes caused by extra or missing sex chromosomes can cause incomplete or abnormal development of the reproductive system.

• #2 Germ Cell Tumors – Seattle Children’s

  https://www.seattlechildrens.org/conditions/germ-cell-tumors/

  Germ cells are the cells that make sperm and eggs. They are part of the reproductive system. If germ cells start to grow out of control, they can form germ cell tumors. Doctors do not know what causes this. […] The stage of a cancerous tumor means how far it has spread and what body parts it affects. The risk level depends on how hard the tumor is to treat and the chance that it will come back after treatment. Knowing the germ cell tumors stage and risk level helps your doctor plan the right treatment. […] Germ cell tumors are grouped by risk: low, standard and high. […] If the germ cell tumor is cancerous, treatment may include anticancer medicine (chemotherapy). […] Doctors rarely use radiation for germ cell tumors except for tumors in the brain.

• #3 Germ cell tumor – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_cell_tumor

  A germ cell tumor (GCT) is a neoplasm derived from primordial germ cells. Germ-cell tumors can be cancerous or benign. Germ cell tumors typically originate from the gonads (ovary and testis), but can arise in other areas of the body. Extragonadal GCTs are thought to result from abnormal migration of germ cell precursors during development of the embryo. […] Extragonadal GCTs were thought initially to be isolated metastases from an undetected primary tumor in a gonad, but many germ cell tumors are now known to be congenital and originate outside the gonads. The most notable of these is sacrococcygeal teratoma, the single most common tumor diagnosed in babies at birth. […] Males with Klinefelter syndrome have a 50 times greater risk of GSTs. In these persons, GSTs usually contain nonseminomatous elements, present at an earlier age, and seldom are gonadal in location.

• #3

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00185667

  The etiology of germ-cell tumors is largely unknown. A history of undescended testis is the major known risk factor. […] Epidemiology studies have established the importance of (unknown) environmental factors probably operating very early in life. However, there are large differences in incidence in different populations and races. Familial cases and patients with bilateral cancer have been described, and the incidence is greatly increased in individuals with certain malformations of the urogenital system. The latter observations point to a genetic component in the disease’s etiology. In most germ-cell tumors an isochromosome of the short arm of chromosome 12, i(12p), can be demonstrated. This highly characteristic cytogenetic aberration can be diagnostic of germ-cell tumors and may have prognostic importance. This article summarizes the current knowledge about and ongoing research on genes involved in the development of germ-cell tumors.

• #3 What are germ cell tumours? | Cancer Research UK

  https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/germ-cell-tumours

  Germ cell tumours develop in germ cells. These are the cells in the body that develop into sperm and eggs. […] Germ cell tumours can sometimes be left behind in other parts of the body from when you developed in the womb. So these tumours can develop anywhere in your body where there are germ cells. […] Cancers that develop from germ cells in other parts of the body are rare. The medical name for germ cell tumours that develop outside of the ovaries or testicles is extragonadal germ cell tumour (EGGCT). […] The mediastinum is the area between the lungs, which contains the heart. It is the most common place for extragonadal tumours in adults. […] Pineal region tumours are rare brain tumours. The pineal gland is in the middle of the brain, just behind the brain stem. The most common type of pineal region tumour is a type of germ cell tumour called germinoma.

• #3

  https://braintumourresearch.org/pages/types-of-brain-tumours-germ-cell-tumour-gct?srsltid=AfmBOoo9UolXUbIdHkBCVj2sGuko7XxUfnh_o_l6CkIC7CDmO8eN04VI

  The prognosis for an intracranial germ cell tumour varies. This is largely dependent on: Type and position of the tumour, Type and level of tumour markers, Whether or not it has spread (metastasised) by the time it has been diagnosed, Whether or not it is newly diagnosed or has recurred after treatment. […] 80%-90% of patients with germinomas can be cured by radiotherapy alone, whilst some also require chemotherapy. Non-germinomatous germ cell tumours have a 40%-85% cure rate, depending to some extent on how far they have spread by the time they are diagnosed. […] The first line of treatment for certain germ cell tumours, particularly teratomas, may be surgery. This will depend on the location of the tumour and the related risk of side effects.

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