Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Mastitis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mastitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20374829

  Mastitis, which mainly affects people who are breastfeeding, causes redness, swelling and pain in one or both breasts. […] Mastitis is swelling and redness, called inflammation, of breast tissue. It sometimes involves an infection. Besides causing swelling and redness, mastitis causes breast pain and warmth. An infection also can cause fever and chills. […] Milk that is trapped in the breast is the main cause of mastitis. Other causes include: […] A blocked milk duct. If a breast doesn’t empty all the way during feedings, one of the milk ducts can get clogged. Then milk backs up, leading to breast infection. […] Germs going into the breast. Germs from the skin’s surface and baby’s mouth can enter the milk ducts. This can happen through a crack in the skin of the nipple or through a milk duct opening. Germs can grow in milk that stays in a breast that isn’t emptied.

• #2

  https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-FCH-CAH-00.13

  Mastitis is an inflammatory condition of the breast, which may or may not be accompanied by infection. […] Awareness is growing that inefficient removal of milk resulting from poor breastfeeding technique is an important underlying cause, but mastitis remains synonymous with breast infection in the minds of many health professionals. […] This review aims to bring together available information on lactational mastitis and related conditions and their causes, to guide practical management, including the maintenance of breastfeeding.

• #3 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15613-mastitis

  Mastitis is a breast infection that causes your breast to become red, hard and swollen. […] Mastitis is painful inflammation in your breast tissue that can lead to a bacterial infection. […] The most common cause of mastitis is hyperlactation or an oversupply of milk. This oversupply of milk causes your milk ducts to narrow because the surrounding tissue puts pressure on the ducts. This leads to engorgement, which is when your breasts are extremely full and swollen. This is known as inflammatory mastitis. […] Inflammatory mastitis can lead to bacterial mastitis. Bacteria mastitis is when infection occurs due to inflammatory mastitis. […] Youre at higher risk for getting mastitis if you breastfeed and have an oversupply of milk. […] If at-home treatment for inflammatory mastitis doesnt help, it could progress to bacterial mastitis. Your healthcare provider will prescribe an antibiotic to treat a bacterial mastitis infection. […] If left untreated, a breast infection like mastitis can lead to a breast abscess. […] Yes, its possible to get mastitis multiple times.

• #4 Breast Infection (Mastitis): Symptoms, Causes, Treatments | Advanced Surgical Physicians

  https://www.toplinemd.com/advanced-surgical-physicians/blog/breast-infection-mastitis-symptoms-causes-treatments/

  Mastitis is a breast infection characterized by redness, hardness, and swelling. It can also lead to fever and flu-like symptoms. Mastitis can affect anyone, but it’s most common in women and individuals assigned female at birth who breastfeed (chest feed). It’s also possible, although rare, for men and individuals assigned male at birth who don’t breastfeed to develop mastitis.

• #5 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment and Prevention

  https://lactamo.com/blogs/the-circle/mastitis-causes-symptoms-treatment-and-prevention?srsltid=AfmBOopblVEwNL3OrlZqNz0OqOSlZOZnb9IoKvf07usBe9PGeQr_9-sE

  Mastitis is inflammation of the breast tissue. It is a common breastfeeding problem, with around 1 in 5 breastfeeding women in Australia and New Zealand developing it in the first six months after giving birth. […] Kate explains there are two types of mastitis infective mastitis and inflammatory mastitis. […] Infective mastitis can occur when bacteria enter the breast tissue via a cracked nipple. It needs to be treated with antibiotics. […] But we now know inflammation can cause mastitis too. Inflammatory mastitis is caused by a narrowing of the milk ducts. […] That engorgement can trigger inflammation, narrowing the milk ducts, possibly causing blockages and making it difficult for the milk to get through. […] Inflammatory mastitis can also be caused by a mamas microbiome. […] For reasons that arent yet fully understood, if a mamas microbiome is out of balance, it can cause her milk ducts to narrow, resulting in inflammatory mastitis.

• #6 Management of Mastitis in Breastfeeding Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0915/p727.html

  Mastitis occurs in approximately 10 percent of U.S. mothers who are breastfeeding, and it can lead to the cessation of breastfeeding. […] The risk of mastitis can be reduced by frequent, complete emptying of the breast and by optimizing breastfeeding technique. […] Sore nipples can precipitate mastitis. […] The differential diagnosis of sore nipples includes mechanical irritation from a poor latch or infant mouth anomalies, such as cleft palate or bacterial or yeast infection. […] As methicillin-resistant S. aureus becomes more common, it is likely to be a more common cause of mastitis, and antibiotics that are effective against this organism may become preferred. […] Mastitis is defined as inflammation of the breast. […] The incidence of mastitis varies widely across populations, likely because of variations in breastfeeding methods and support.

• #7 Management of Mastitis in Breastfeeding Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0915/p727.html

  Studies have reported the incidence to be as high as 33 percent in lactating women. […] Although mastitis can occur anytime during lactation, it is most common during the second and third weeks postpartum, with 75 to 95 percent of cases occurring before the infant is three months of age. […] Risk factors for mastitis are listed in Table 1. […] Yeast infection can increase the risk of mastitis by causing nipple fissures or milk stasis. […] Infant mouth abnormalities (e.g., cleft lip or palate) may lead to nipple trauma and increase the risk of mastitis. […] The diagnosis of mastitis is generally made clinically. […] Because the most common infecting organism is S. aureus, antibiotics that are effective against this organism should be selected empirically. […] Organisms other than S. aureus have rarely been implicated as the cause of mastitis.

• #8 Management of Mastitis in Breastfeeding Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0915/p727.html

  Studies have reported the incidence to be as high as 33 percent in lactating women. […] Although mastitis can occur anytime during lactation, it is most common during the second and third weeks postpartum, with 75 to 95 percent of cases occurring before the infant is three months of age. […] Risk factors for mastitis are listed in Table 1. […] Yeast infection can increase the risk of mastitis by causing nipple fissures or milk stasis. […] Infant mouth abnormalities (e.g., cleft lip or palate) may lead to nipple trauma and increase the risk of mastitis. […] The diagnosis of mastitis is generally made clinically. […] Because the most common infecting organism is S. aureus, antibiotics that are effective against this organism should be selected empirically. […] Organisms other than S. aureus have rarely been implicated as the cause of mastitis.

• #9 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment and Prevention

  https://lactamo.com/blogs/the-circle/mastitis-causes-symptoms-treatment-and-prevention?srsltid=AfmBOopblVEwNL3OrlZqNz0OqOSlZOZnb9IoKvf07usBe9PGeQr_9-sE

  Mastitis is inflammation of the breast tissue. It is a common breastfeeding problem, with around 1 in 5 breastfeeding women in Australia and New Zealand developing it in the first six months after giving birth. […] Kate explains there are two types of mastitis infective mastitis and inflammatory mastitis. […] Infective mastitis can occur when bacteria enter the breast tissue via a cracked nipple. It needs to be treated with antibiotics. […] But we now know inflammation can cause mastitis too. Inflammatory mastitis is caused by a narrowing of the milk ducts. […] That engorgement can trigger inflammation, narrowing the milk ducts, possibly causing blockages and making it difficult for the milk to get through. […] Inflammatory mastitis can also be caused by a mamas microbiome. […] For reasons that arent yet fully understood, if a mamas microbiome is out of balance, it can cause her milk ducts to narrow, resulting in inflammatory mastitis.

• #10 Mastitis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mastitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20374829

  Mastitis, which mainly affects people who are breastfeeding, causes redness, swelling and pain in one or both breasts. […] Mastitis is swelling and redness, called inflammation, of breast tissue. It sometimes involves an infection. Besides causing swelling and redness, mastitis causes breast pain and warmth. An infection also can cause fever and chills. […] Milk that is trapped in the breast is the main cause of mastitis. Other causes include: […] A blocked milk duct. If a breast doesn’t empty all the way during feedings, one of the milk ducts can get clogged. Then milk backs up, leading to breast infection. […] Germs going into the breast. Germs from the skin’s surface and baby’s mouth can enter the milk ducts. This can happen through a crack in the skin of the nipple or through a milk duct opening. Germs can grow in milk that stays in a breast that isn’t emptied.

• #11 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15613-mastitis

  Mastitis is a breast infection that causes your breast to become red, hard and swollen. […] Mastitis is painful inflammation in your breast tissue that can lead to a bacterial infection. […] The most common cause of mastitis is hyperlactation or an oversupply of milk. This oversupply of milk causes your milk ducts to narrow because the surrounding tissue puts pressure on the ducts. This leads to engorgement, which is when your breasts are extremely full and swollen. This is known as inflammatory mastitis. […] Inflammatory mastitis can lead to bacterial mastitis. Bacteria mastitis is when infection occurs due to inflammatory mastitis. […] Youre at higher risk for getting mastitis if you breastfeed and have an oversupply of milk. […] If at-home treatment for inflammatory mastitis doesnt help, it could progress to bacterial mastitis. Your healthcare provider will prescribe an antibiotic to treat a bacterial mastitis infection. […] If left untreated, a breast infection like mastitis can lead to a breast abscess. […] Yes, its possible to get mastitis multiple times.

• #12

  https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-FCH-CAH-00.13

  Mastitis is an inflammatory condition of the breast, which may or may not be accompanied by infection. […] Awareness is growing that inefficient removal of milk resulting from poor breastfeeding technique is an important underlying cause, but mastitis remains synonymous with breast infection in the minds of many health professionals. […] This review aims to bring together available information on lactational mastitis and related conditions and their causes, to guide practical management, including the maintenance of breastfeeding.

• #13 Breast Infection (Mastitis): Symptoms, Causes, Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/women/breast-infection

  Mastitis is an infection of breast tissue that happens most often when breastfeeding but can occur at other times as well. […] Mastitis is a common condition in women who breastfeed. As many as 1 in 10 breastfeeding women in the United States get it. The most common cause is when one or more of your milk ducts becomes clogged and the milk inside backs up. This usually happens when you produce more milk than your baby can take in at a time. When milk backs up, it clogs the milk duct and irritates the tissues around it. The clogged milk duct may make your breast swell up or become engorged. […] Mastitis can also occur when bacteria from your baby’s mouth or from your skin get into a milk duct through a crack in the nipple. The bacteria can breed in milk that’s left in the breast, causing swelling. This is called bacterial mastitis.

• #14

  https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-FCH-CAH-00.13

  Mastitis is an inflammatory condition of the breast, which may or may not be accompanied by infection. […] Awareness is growing that inefficient removal of milk resulting from poor breastfeeding technique is an important underlying cause, but mastitis remains synonymous with breast infection in the minds of many health professionals. […] This review aims to bring together available information on lactational mastitis and related conditions and their causes, to guide practical management, including the maintenance of breastfeeding.

• #15 Mastitis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mastitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20374829

  Mastitis, which mainly affects people who are breastfeeding, causes redness, swelling and pain in one or both breasts. […] Mastitis is swelling and redness, called inflammation, of breast tissue. It sometimes involves an infection. Besides causing swelling and redness, mastitis causes breast pain and warmth. An infection also can cause fever and chills. […] Milk that is trapped in the breast is the main cause of mastitis. Other causes include: […] A blocked milk duct. If a breast doesn’t empty all the way during feedings, one of the milk ducts can get clogged. Then milk backs up, leading to breast infection. […] Germs going into the breast. Germs from the skin’s surface and baby’s mouth can enter the milk ducts. This can happen through a crack in the skin of the nipple or through a milk duct opening. Germs can grow in milk that stays in a breast that isn’t emptied.

• #16 Mastitis: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnose, Treatment | MedPark Hospital

  https://www.medparkhospital.com/en-US/disease-and-treatment/mastitis

  Mastitis occurs when breast tissue becomes inflamed and leads to infection. […] The leading cause of mastitis is milk that has become trapped in the breast; other causes are as follows: […] Blocked milk ducts If the breast cant be adequately emptied, there could be blockage in the milk ducts, raising the risk of breast infection. […] Bacteria enter the breast – Bacteria from the baby’s mouth and skin can enter the milk ducts through a nipple skin crack. It can also enter through dilated milk duct. Inadequate excretion of breast milk could contribute to increased risk of bacterial infection.

• #17 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15613-mastitis

  Mastitis is a breast infection that causes your breast to become red, hard and swollen. […] Mastitis is painful inflammation in your breast tissue that can lead to a bacterial infection. […] The most common cause of mastitis is hyperlactation or an oversupply of milk. This oversupply of milk causes your milk ducts to narrow because the surrounding tissue puts pressure on the ducts. This leads to engorgement, which is when your breasts are extremely full and swollen. This is known as inflammatory mastitis. […] Inflammatory mastitis can lead to bacterial mastitis. Bacteria mastitis is when infection occurs due to inflammatory mastitis. […] Youre at higher risk for getting mastitis if you breastfeed and have an oversupply of milk. […] If at-home treatment for inflammatory mastitis doesnt help, it could progress to bacterial mastitis. Your healthcare provider will prescribe an antibiotic to treat a bacterial mastitis infection. […] If left untreated, a breast infection like mastitis can lead to a breast abscess. […] Yes, its possible to get mastitis multiple times.

• #18 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15613-mastitis

  Mastitis is a breast infection that causes your breast to become red, hard and swollen. […] Mastitis is painful inflammation in your breast tissue that can lead to a bacterial infection. […] The most common cause of mastitis is hyperlactation or an oversupply of milk. This oversupply of milk causes your milk ducts to narrow because the surrounding tissue puts pressure on the ducts. This leads to engorgement, which is when your breasts are extremely full and swollen. This is known as inflammatory mastitis. […] Inflammatory mastitis can lead to bacterial mastitis. Bacteria mastitis is when infection occurs due to inflammatory mastitis. […] Youre at higher risk for getting mastitis if you breastfeed and have an oversupply of milk. […] If at-home treatment for inflammatory mastitis doesnt help, it could progress to bacterial mastitis. Your healthcare provider will prescribe an antibiotic to treat a bacterial mastitis infection. […] If left untreated, a breast infection like mastitis can lead to a breast abscess. […] Yes, its possible to get mastitis multiple times.

• #19 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15613-mastitis

  Mastitis is a breast infection that causes your breast to become red, hard and swollen. […] Mastitis is painful inflammation in your breast tissue that can lead to a bacterial infection. […] The most common cause of mastitis is hyperlactation or an oversupply of milk. This oversupply of milk causes your milk ducts to narrow because the surrounding tissue puts pressure on the ducts. This leads to engorgement, which is when your breasts are extremely full and swollen. This is known as inflammatory mastitis. […] Inflammatory mastitis can lead to bacterial mastitis. Bacteria mastitis is when infection occurs due to inflammatory mastitis. […] Youre at higher risk for getting mastitis if you breastfeed and have an oversupply of milk. […] If at-home treatment for inflammatory mastitis doesnt help, it could progress to bacterial mastitis. Your healthcare provider will prescribe an antibiotic to treat a bacterial mastitis infection. […] If left untreated, a breast infection like mastitis can lead to a breast abscess. […] Yes, its possible to get mastitis multiple times.

• #20 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  Lactational mastitis, a common complication during breastfeeding, is often triggered by milk stasis, which occurs when milk is not effectively removed from the breast. This condition can result from factors such as nipple injury, latch difficulties, oversupply, skipped feedings, or the use of nipple shields. It manifests with inflammation, tenderness, redness, and systemic symptoms like fever and chills. […] The underlying causes of lactational mastitis are multifactorial. One potential contributor is the disruption of the breast microbiome, known as mammary dysbiosis, which may involve an imbalance of bacteria rather than a straightforward infection. […] Pathogenic bacteria (eg, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus) are more frequently isolated from women with mastitis, but these bacteria are also present in healthy milk microbiomes, making their role complex.

• #21 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  Lactational mastitis, a common complication during breastfeeding, is often triggered by milk stasis, which occurs when milk is not effectively removed from the breast. This condition can result from factors such as nipple injury, latch difficulties, oversupply, skipped feedings, or the use of nipple shields. It manifests with inflammation, tenderness, redness, and systemic symptoms like fever and chills. […] The underlying causes of lactational mastitis are multifactorial. One potential contributor is the disruption of the breast microbiome, known as mammary dysbiosis, which may involve an imbalance of bacteria rather than a straightforward infection. […] Pathogenic bacteria (eg, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus) are more frequently isolated from women with mastitis, but these bacteria are also present in healthy milk microbiomes, making their role complex.

• #22 Etiology of Mastitis: The Role of Infection and Microbiota

  https://www.nestlenutrition-institute.org/publication-series/etiology-mastitis-role-infection-and-microbiota

  A diverse microbiota may be observed in human milk. […] Dysbiosis of human milk microbiota could be related to the onset of mastitis. […] Mastitis is an inflammatory condition of the breast usually associated with lactation. […] Dysbiosis in mastitis is characterized by a proliferation of certain bacterial species, such as Staphylococcus spp., which have been identified as one of the main bacterial groups related to mastitis. […] Mastitis is also related to a loss of diversity in milk microbiota. […] The loss of Lactobacillus in milk microbiota of women suffering from mastitis was first observed in a study performed by Jimnez et al. […] They proved that a high level of Staphylococcus spp. in milk was accompanied by a decrease in Lactobacillus spp. […] Along with the changes observed in the milk microbiota, Lactobacillus administration induced a very significant improvement in the symptoms related to mastitis.

• #23 Etiology of Mastitis: The Role of Infection and Microbiota

  https://www.nestlenutrition-institute.org/publication-series/etiology-mastitis-role-infection-and-microbiota

  A diverse microbiota may be observed in human milk. […] Dysbiosis of human milk microbiota could be related to the onset of mastitis. […] Mastitis is an inflammatory condition of the breast usually associated with lactation. […] Dysbiosis in mastitis is characterized by a proliferation of certain bacterial species, such as Staphylococcus spp., which have been identified as one of the main bacterial groups related to mastitis. […] Mastitis is also related to a loss of diversity in milk microbiota. […] The loss of Lactobacillus in milk microbiota of women suffering from mastitis was first observed in a study performed by Jimnez et al. […] They proved that a high level of Staphylococcus spp. in milk was accompanied by a decrease in Lactobacillus spp. […] Along with the changes observed in the milk microbiota, Lactobacillus administration induced a very significant improvement in the symptoms related to mastitis.

• #24 Management of Mastitis in Breastfeeding Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0915/p727.html

  Studies have reported the incidence to be as high as 33 percent in lactating women. […] Although mastitis can occur anytime during lactation, it is most common during the second and third weeks postpartum, with 75 to 95 percent of cases occurring before the infant is three months of age. […] Risk factors for mastitis are listed in Table 1. […] Yeast infection can increase the risk of mastitis by causing nipple fissures or milk stasis. […] Infant mouth abnormalities (e.g., cleft lip or palate) may lead to nipple trauma and increase the risk of mastitis. […] The diagnosis of mastitis is generally made clinically. […] Because the most common infecting organism is S. aureus, antibiotics that are effective against this organism should be selected empirically. […] Organisms other than S. aureus have rarely been implicated as the cause of mastitis.

• #25 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms, and Management | Medela

  https://www.medela.com/en/breastfeeding-pumping/lactation-professionals/lactation-articles/breastfeeding/mastitis

  Mastitis is an inflammation of the breast that may be accompanied by infection. […] Causes of mastitis are linked to insufficient milk drainage, milk stasis and inflammation. Blocked ducts and engorged breasts can also lead to mastitis if they are not treated appropriately. […] Mums can be predisposed to mastitis for a number of reasons, which may include damaged nipples, especially if colonised with Staphylococcus aureus and illness or stress. Other factors that can lead to mastitis include long periods between breastfeeds or infrequent feeding, poor attachment to the breast leading to insufficient milk removal, tight clothing around the breast, over-supply of milk, rapid weaning and a white spot on the nipple. […] Different antibiotics are required if mastitis is caused by methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). If MRSA is present in the community, breast milk culturing and assay of antibiotic sensitivities may be required if the mastitis does not improve.

• #26 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  Conditions like obesity, nipple inversion, and hormonal disturbances, including hyperprolactinemia, have also been cited in studies as contributing to duct dysfunction and inflammation. […] Bacterial involvement in PDM remains controversial. […] Immune dysregulation, particularly mediated by T helper cells (Th1 and Th17), likely amplifies the inflammation in PDM. […] The management of IGM involves various approaches, including observation, antibiotics, corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and surgery. […] While IGM can be self-limiting, its prolonged course and impact on quality of life necessitate individualized treatment plans. […] Several factors have been implicated in the development of IGM, including pregnancy, lactation, hyperprolactinemia, trauma, diabetes, and hormonal contraceptive use.

• #27 Management of Mastitis in Breastfeeding Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0915/p727.html

  Studies have reported the incidence to be as high as 33 percent in lactating women. […] Although mastitis can occur anytime during lactation, it is most common during the second and third weeks postpartum, with 75 to 95 percent of cases occurring before the infant is three months of age. […] Risk factors for mastitis are listed in Table 1. […] Yeast infection can increase the risk of mastitis by causing nipple fissures or milk stasis. […] Infant mouth abnormalities (e.g., cleft lip or palate) may lead to nipple trauma and increase the risk of mastitis. […] The diagnosis of mastitis is generally made clinically. […] Because the most common infecting organism is S. aureus, antibiotics that are effective against this organism should be selected empirically. […] Organisms other than S. aureus have rarely been implicated as the cause of mastitis.

• #28 Management of Mastitis in Breastfeeding Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0915/p727.html

  Studies have reported the incidence to be as high as 33 percent in lactating women. […] Although mastitis can occur anytime during lactation, it is most common during the second and third weeks postpartum, with 75 to 95 percent of cases occurring before the infant is three months of age. […] Risk factors for mastitis are listed in Table 1. […] Yeast infection can increase the risk of mastitis by causing nipple fissures or milk stasis. […] Infant mouth abnormalities (e.g., cleft lip or palate) may lead to nipple trauma and increase the risk of mastitis. […] The diagnosis of mastitis is generally made clinically. […] Because the most common infecting organism is S. aureus, antibiotics that are effective against this organism should be selected empirically. […] Organisms other than S. aureus have rarely been implicated as the cause of mastitis.

• #29 Mastitis and Sore Breasts – Signs, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://llli.org/breastfeeding-info/mastitis/

  What breastfeeding experts used to think of as separate problems in the breast, such as mastitis, blocked ducts, milk blister “blebs,” and abscesses, are now suggested to be stages in the process of inflammation—the body’s response to a threat. […] Mastitis can occur when an area of blocked ducts continues to be compressed, or more generally, when your breasts become overly full, causing swelling and inflammation. This does not happen as the result of one delayed feeding, but rather is part of a process. […] Chronic engorgement, over pumping or trying to “empty the breasts,” all increase the risk of mastitis. Areas of the breast where ducts are compressed may create opportunities for an imbalance in types of bacteria and result in an infection. […] Mastitis can recur for different reasons. When bacteria are resistant or not sensitive to the antibiotic which was prescribed or when the antibiotics are not continued for long enough, it can recur. It can also recur when nursing is not continued on the affected side; or when the initial cause of the mastitis is not corrected.

• #30 Mastitis and Sore Breasts – Signs, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://llli.org/breastfeeding-info/mastitis/

  There is some evidence that mastitis is more common in women who have recently taken antibiotics. […] Frequent pumping to build up a supply of milk in the freezer or to try to “empty the breasts” can be another cause of dysbiosis and inflammation from increased milk supply (hyperlactation). […] Another common cause of mastitis is reducing or attempting to stop breastfeeding (weaning) suddenly or too quickly.

• #31 Mastitis – a Matter of Inflammation | La Leche League Canada – Breastfeeding Support and Information

  https://www.lllc.ca/mastitis-matter-inflammation

  Antibiotics and hyperlactation (too much milk) can disrupt that balance, resulting in inflammation and disruption of the milk microbiome (called mammary dysbiosis). […] Treating inflammatory mastitis with antibiotics can change the normal bacterial balance in the breast and actually increase the risk of developing bacterial mastitis. […] If you produce more milk than your baby needs, you are more likely to experience the inflammation that can lead to disruption of the milk microbiome (mammary dysbiosis). […] Mammary dysbiosis itself can lead to narrowing of the milk ducts and inflammation, which can lead to further disruption of the milk microbiome.

• #32 Mastitis – a Matter of Inflammation | La Leche League Canada – Breastfeeding Support and Information

  https://www.lllc.ca/mastitis-matter-inflammation

  Antibiotics and hyperlactation (too much milk) can disrupt that balance, resulting in inflammation and disruption of the milk microbiome (called mammary dysbiosis). […] Treating inflammatory mastitis with antibiotics can change the normal bacterial balance in the breast and actually increase the risk of developing bacterial mastitis. […] If you produce more milk than your baby needs, you are more likely to experience the inflammation that can lead to disruption of the milk microbiome (mammary dysbiosis). […] Mammary dysbiosis itself can lead to narrowing of the milk ducts and inflammation, which can lead to further disruption of the milk microbiome.

• #33 What are some of the causes of Mastitis? (there are more than you realise!) — Beaches Baby IBCLC Northern Beaches and North Shore Sydney

  https://www.beachesbaby.com.au/beaches-baby-blog/what-are-some-of-the-causes-of-mastitis-there-are-more-than-you-realise

  There isnt always one obvious cause of mastitis. […] There are the obvious ones, not fully draining the breast, skipping feeds or a poor latch. […] Sometimes a perfect storm of stress, trauma coming to surface, lack of sleep, poor snacking habits and a body prone to inflammation can trigger it. […] Inflammatory conditions can be triggered in large part due to stress. […] Mastitis is more common with women who become triggered by their traumas after the birth of their child. […] Sometimes a persons body is more susceptible to inflammation than others. […] Low iron levels can predispose some women to mastitis so getting your bloods checked by your GP to make sure we arent missing anything is always a good idea. […] Sub-optimal feeding, not draining the breast, positioning, latch, tongue tie, open wounds / nipple damage leading to infection, overactive supply and plugged ducts are all common causes that add to a Mastitis infection.

• #34 What are some of the causes of Mastitis? (there are more than you realise!) — Beaches Baby IBCLC Northern Beaches and North Shore Sydney

  https://www.beachesbaby.com.au/beaches-baby-blog/what-are-some-of-the-causes-of-mastitis-there-are-more-than-you-realise

  There isnt always one obvious cause of mastitis. […] There are the obvious ones, not fully draining the breast, skipping feeds or a poor latch. […] Sometimes a perfect storm of stress, trauma coming to surface, lack of sleep, poor snacking habits and a body prone to inflammation can trigger it. […] Inflammatory conditions can be triggered in large part due to stress. […] Mastitis is more common with women who become triggered by their traumas after the birth of their child. […] Sometimes a persons body is more susceptible to inflammation than others. […] Low iron levels can predispose some women to mastitis so getting your bloods checked by your GP to make sure we arent missing anything is always a good idea. […] Sub-optimal feeding, not draining the breast, positioning, latch, tongue tie, open wounds / nipple damage leading to infection, overactive supply and plugged ducts are all common causes that add to a Mastitis infection.

• #35 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  Lactational mastitis, a common complication during breastfeeding, is often triggered by milk stasis, which occurs when milk is not effectively removed from the breast. This condition can result from factors such as nipple injury, latch difficulties, oversupply, skipped feedings, or the use of nipple shields. It manifests with inflammation, tenderness, redness, and systemic symptoms like fever and chills. […] The underlying causes of lactational mastitis are multifactorial. One potential contributor is the disruption of the breast microbiome, known as mammary dysbiosis, which may involve an imbalance of bacteria rather than a straightforward infection. […] Pathogenic bacteria (eg, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus) are more frequently isolated from women with mastitis, but these bacteria are also present in healthy milk microbiomes, making their role complex.

• #36 Breast Infection (Mastitis): Symptoms, Causes, Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/women/breast-infection

  Mastitis is an infection of breast tissue that happens most often when breastfeeding but can occur at other times as well. […] Mastitis is a common condition in women who breastfeed. As many as 1 in 10 breastfeeding women in the United States get it. The most common cause is when one or more of your milk ducts becomes clogged and the milk inside backs up. This usually happens when you produce more milk than your baby can take in at a time. When milk backs up, it clogs the milk duct and irritates the tissues around it. The clogged milk duct may make your breast swell up or become engorged. […] Mastitis can also occur when bacteria from your baby’s mouth or from your skin get into a milk duct through a crack in the nipple. The bacteria can breed in milk that’s left in the breast, causing swelling. This is called bacterial mastitis.

• #37 Mastitis: Treatment, causes, and symptoms

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/163876

  Mastitis when breast-feeding usually results from a blocked or plugged duct. The blockage causes milk stasis, when the milk that is produced does not come out during feeding and remains in the breast. […] Anything that stops the milk from being properly expressed will usually result in milk stasis, and this often leads to milk duct blockages. […] Bacteria do not generally thrive in fresh human milk. However, if the milk ducts are blocked, and the milk stagnates, infection is more likely. […] Women who are not lactating, in other words, not producing milk and not breast-feeding, may develop mastitis. […] Experts believe that smoking may damage the milk ducts, making these more susceptible to infection. […] If nipple piercing is done at non-professional, unregistered piercing studios, this may increase the risk of mastitis.

• #38 Mastitis: Treatment, causes, and symptoms

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/163876

  Mastitis when breast-feeding usually results from a blocked or plugged duct. The blockage causes milk stasis, when the milk that is produced does not come out during feeding and remains in the breast. […] Anything that stops the milk from being properly expressed will usually result in milk stasis, and this often leads to milk duct blockages. […] Bacteria do not generally thrive in fresh human milk. However, if the milk ducts are blocked, and the milk stagnates, infection is more likely. […] Women who are not lactating, in other words, not producing milk and not breast-feeding, may develop mastitis. […] Experts believe that smoking may damage the milk ducts, making these more susceptible to infection. […] If nipple piercing is done at non-professional, unregistered piercing studios, this may increase the risk of mastitis.

• #39 Mastitis: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Prevention

  https://www.health.com/mastitis-7509347

  Mastitis is usually caused by a bacterial breast infection or excessive swelling of the milk ducts (tubes that carry milk from glands to the nipple). […] Lactational mastitis is caused by bacteria and ineffective milk drainage. Non-lactational mastitis causes remain unclear but might be related to a variety of factors. […] An infection can develop when bacteria enter the breast tissue through a cracked or sore nipple. This triggers an immune response in the breast tissue and causes inflammation, redness, and discomfort. […] Bacterial causes of mastitis are usually due to Staphylococcus aureus (staph). However, methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) a staph strain that is resistant to the antibiotic methicillin is becoming a more common cause. […] Mastitis can occur due to blockage in the milk ducts. The blockage causes milk stasis, meaning the milk accumulates or backs up because it cannot flow freely.

• #40 Management of Mastitis in Breastfeeding Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0915/p727.html

  Studies have reported the incidence to be as high as 33 percent in lactating women. […] Although mastitis can occur anytime during lactation, it is most common during the second and third weeks postpartum, with 75 to 95 percent of cases occurring before the infant is three months of age. […] Risk factors for mastitis are listed in Table 1. […] Yeast infection can increase the risk of mastitis by causing nipple fissures or milk stasis. […] Infant mouth abnormalities (e.g., cleft lip or palate) may lead to nipple trauma and increase the risk of mastitis. […] The diagnosis of mastitis is generally made clinically. […] Because the most common infecting organism is S. aureus, antibiotics that are effective against this organism should be selected empirically. […] Organisms other than S. aureus have rarely been implicated as the cause of mastitis.

• #41 Mastitis

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/mastitis/

  Mastitis is common in breastfeeding women as it can be caused by a build-up of milk. […] Women who are not breastfeeding can also get mastitis, as can men. This can be caused by: smoking toxins found in tobacco can damage breast tissue […] damage to the nipple, such as a piercing or skin condition such as eczema […] having a breast implant […] having a weakened immune system due to a health condition such as diabetes […] shaving or plucking hairs from around your nipples.

• #42 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Mastitis-Causes.aspx

  Mastitis is a condition that causes inflammation and pain in the breast and usually occurs when a women is breastfeeding. […] The condition is caused by a build-up of milk accumulating in the breast, which is referred to as milk stasis. […] In some cases, this milk can become infected, in which case the term infective mastitis applies. […] Mastitis can also develop in women who do not breastfeed, and this is usually caused by injury or damage to the nipple due to a piercing or wound, for example. […] Milk stasis can develop when the breast is not completely emptied of milk at the end of breastfeeding sessions. […] This can occur if the babys mouth is not properly attaching to the breast during feeding or if feeding sessions are missed or infrequent. […] Other causes of milk stasis include wearing tight-fitting clothing or seat belts and sleeping front side down.

• #43 Breast Infection (Mastitis): Symptoms, Causes, Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/women/breast-infection

  In the case of periductal mastitis, bacteria can get into your milk ducts through a cut or crack in the nipple and cause an infection. Periductal mastitis is more common in women who smoke, have diabetes, are obese, or have nipple piercings. […] The cause of granulomatous mastitis isn’t clear. It has been associated with autoimmune diseases, a reaction to childbirth, or with the use of oral contraceptives. However, there are cases of people developing this condition who don’t meet these criteria.

• #44 Breast Infection (Mastitis): Symptoms, Causes, Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/women/breast-infection

  In the case of periductal mastitis, bacteria can get into your milk ducts through a cut or crack in the nipple and cause an infection. Periductal mastitis is more common in women who smoke, have diabetes, are obese, or have nipple piercings. […] The cause of granulomatous mastitis isn’t clear. It has been associated with autoimmune diseases, a reaction to childbirth, or with the use of oral contraceptives. However, there are cases of people developing this condition who don’t meet these criteria.

• #45 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  PDM and IGM involve complex interactions of ductal obstruction, infection, and immune responses; the exact underlying etiologies of both conditions are unclear. […] While bacterial involvement is well-documented in PDM, IGM often remains sterile, highlighting differing underlying mechanisms despite overlapping features. […] Both disorders share complex origins and risk factors, although their precise mechanisms and causative factors remain incompletely understood. […] PDM, also known as plasma cell mastitis or periareolar mastitis, is characterized as a chronic inflammatory process primarily within the periareolar area that often involves nonlactational, subareolar abscesses. […] Smoking is a significant risk factor for PDM due to its harmful effects on epithelial cells and ductal tissue, which promote bacterial colonization and anaerobic growth.

• #46 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  PDM and IGM involve complex interactions of ductal obstruction, infection, and immune responses; the exact underlying etiologies of both conditions are unclear. […] While bacterial involvement is well-documented in PDM, IGM often remains sterile, highlighting differing underlying mechanisms despite overlapping features. […] Both disorders share complex origins and risk factors, although their precise mechanisms and causative factors remain incompletely understood. […] PDM, also known as plasma cell mastitis or periareolar mastitis, is characterized as a chronic inflammatory process primarily within the periareolar area that often involves nonlactational, subareolar abscesses. […] Smoking is a significant risk factor for PDM due to its harmful effects on epithelial cells and ductal tissue, which promote bacterial colonization and anaerobic growth.

• #47 Granulomatous lobular mastitis: Clinical update and case study

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2020/january-february/granulomatous-lobular-mastitis

  Granulomatous lobular mastitis (GM) is usually idiopathic. […] GM is a condition characterised by non-caseating granulomas in the breast, often with abscess formation. These may be related to a foreign body, sarcoidosis, fungal infection or tuberculosis, but the process is often unexplained. […] Hormonal factors are hypothesised to contribute because of the association with parity, current pregnancy and the oral contraceptive pill. […] GM is usually a sterile process; however, an association with Corynebacterium species has been found in some studies. […] GM is a rare chronic inflammatory breast condition. The aetiology is unknown.

• #48 Granulomatous lobular mastitis: Clinical update and case study

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2020/january-february/granulomatous-lobular-mastitis

  Granulomatous lobular mastitis (GM) is usually idiopathic. […] GM is a condition characterised by non-caseating granulomas in the breast, often with abscess formation. These may be related to a foreign body, sarcoidosis, fungal infection or tuberculosis, but the process is often unexplained. […] Hormonal factors are hypothesised to contribute because of the association with parity, current pregnancy and the oral contraceptive pill. […] GM is usually a sterile process; however, an association with Corynebacterium species has been found in some studies. […] GM is a rare chronic inflammatory breast condition. The aetiology is unknown.

• #49 Breast Infection (Mastitis): Symptoms, Causes, Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/women/breast-infection

  In the case of periductal mastitis, bacteria can get into your milk ducts through a cut or crack in the nipple and cause an infection. Periductal mastitis is more common in women who smoke, have diabetes, are obese, or have nipple piercings. […] The cause of granulomatous mastitis isn’t clear. It has been associated with autoimmune diseases, a reaction to childbirth, or with the use of oral contraceptives. However, there are cases of people developing this condition who don’t meet these criteria.

• #50 Granulomatous lobular mastitis: Clinical update and case study

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2020/january-february/granulomatous-lobular-mastitis

  Granulomatous lobular mastitis (GM) is usually idiopathic. […] GM is a condition characterised by non-caseating granulomas in the breast, often with abscess formation. These may be related to a foreign body, sarcoidosis, fungal infection or tuberculosis, but the process is often unexplained. […] Hormonal factors are hypothesised to contribute because of the association with parity, current pregnancy and the oral contraceptive pill. […] GM is usually a sterile process; however, an association with Corynebacterium species has been found in some studies. […] GM is a rare chronic inflammatory breast condition. The aetiology is unknown.

• #51 Granulomatous lobular mastitis: Clinical update and case study

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2020/january-february/granulomatous-lobular-mastitis

  Granulomatous lobular mastitis (GM) is usually idiopathic. […] GM is a condition characterised by non-caseating granulomas in the breast, often with abscess formation. These may be related to a foreign body, sarcoidosis, fungal infection or tuberculosis, but the process is often unexplained. […] Hormonal factors are hypothesised to contribute because of the association with parity, current pregnancy and the oral contraceptive pill. […] GM is usually a sterile process; however, an association with Corynebacterium species has been found in some studies. […] GM is a rare chronic inflammatory breast condition. The aetiology is unknown.

• #52 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Mastitis-Causes.aspx

  A knock or injury to the breast can also damage the milk ducts, impairing milk flow and leading to milk stasis. […] Mastitis may also occur in women who do not breastfeed. […] An injury or crack in the nipple caused by a wound or piercing can expose the breast to infection with bacteria. […] This form of mastitis is known of as periductal mastitis and usually occurs in women aged 20 to 35 years. […] A rare condition called duct ecstasia is another cause of mastitis among women who are not breastfeeding. […] This is caused by the milk ducts becoming shorter and wider as a woman ages and approaches her menopause.

• #53 Mastitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastitis

  Mastitis is inflammation of the breast or udder, usually associated with breastfeeding. Symptoms typically include local pain and redness. There is often an associated fever and general soreness. Onset is typically fairly rapid and usually occurs within the first few months of delivery. Complications can include abscess formation. […] Risk factors include poor latch, cracked nipples, and weaning. The bacteria most commonly involved are Staphylococcus and Streptococci. Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms. […] Mastitis typically develops when the milk is not properly removed from the breast. Milk stasis can lead to the milk ducts in the breasts becoming blocked, as the breast milk is not being properly and regularly expressed. […] Some women (approximately 15%) will require antibiotic treatment for infection which is usually caused by bacteria from the skin or the baby’s mouth entering the milk ducts through skin lesions of the nipple or through the opening of the nipple. Infection is usually caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Infectious pathogens commonly associated with mastitis are Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus spp. and Gram-negative bacilli such as Escherichia coli.

• #54 Mastitis – Symptoms, Causes, Treatments

  https://resources.healthgrades.com/right-care/womens-health/mastitis

  Mastitis is usually caused by an infection with the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus. […] Bacteria causing mastitis enter through a break or crack in the skin of the breast, usually on the nipple. […] Other causes can include an oversupply of breast milk or another, primary bacterial infection of the breast. […] There is no genetic risk for developing mastitis.

• #55 Mastitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastitis

  Mastitis is inflammation of the breast or udder, usually associated with breastfeeding. Symptoms typically include local pain and redness. There is often an associated fever and general soreness. Onset is typically fairly rapid and usually occurs within the first few months of delivery. Complications can include abscess formation. […] Risk factors include poor latch, cracked nipples, and weaning. The bacteria most commonly involved are Staphylococcus and Streptococci. Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms. […] Mastitis typically develops when the milk is not properly removed from the breast. Milk stasis can lead to the milk ducts in the breasts becoming blocked, as the breast milk is not being properly and regularly expressed. […] Some women (approximately 15%) will require antibiotic treatment for infection which is usually caused by bacteria from the skin or the baby’s mouth entering the milk ducts through skin lesions of the nipple or through the opening of the nipple. Infection is usually caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Infectious pathogens commonly associated with mastitis are Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus spp. and Gram-negative bacilli such as Escherichia coli.

• #56 Mastitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastitis

  Mastitis is inflammation of the breast or udder, usually associated with breastfeeding. Symptoms typically include local pain and redness. There is often an associated fever and general soreness. Onset is typically fairly rapid and usually occurs within the first few months of delivery. Complications can include abscess formation. […] Risk factors include poor latch, cracked nipples, and weaning. The bacteria most commonly involved are Staphylococcus and Streptococci. Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms. […] Mastitis typically develops when the milk is not properly removed from the breast. Milk stasis can lead to the milk ducts in the breasts becoming blocked, as the breast milk is not being properly and regularly expressed. […] Some women (approximately 15%) will require antibiotic treatment for infection which is usually caused by bacteria from the skin or the baby’s mouth entering the milk ducts through skin lesions of the nipple or through the opening of the nipple. Infection is usually caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Infectious pathogens commonly associated with mastitis are Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus spp. and Gram-negative bacilli such as Escherichia coli.

• #57 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  These factors may increase breast secretions or disrupt the immune microenvironment, contributing to local inflammation. […] Among these, pregnancy and lactation have been consistently linked to IGM, likely due to residual milk stasis that damages lobules and induces hypersensitivity or immune reactions. […] Corynebacterium species, particularly C. kroppenstedtii, are increasingly recognized as possible pathogens in IGM, although their precise role is debated, as they are part of the normal skin flora. […] However, these bacteria may incite an inflammatory response when infiltrating deeper breast tissues, as demonstrated in livestock studies. […] Other proposed mechanisms include autoimmune pathways, though direct evidence is limited.

• #58 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  These factors may increase breast secretions or disrupt the immune microenvironment, contributing to local inflammation. […] Among these, pregnancy and lactation have been consistently linked to IGM, likely due to residual milk stasis that damages lobules and induces hypersensitivity or immune reactions. […] Corynebacterium species, particularly C. kroppenstedtii, are increasingly recognized as possible pathogens in IGM, although their precise role is debated, as they are part of the normal skin flora. […] However, these bacteria may incite an inflammatory response when infiltrating deeper breast tissues, as demonstrated in livestock studies. […] Other proposed mechanisms include autoimmune pathways, though direct evidence is limited.

• #59 Mastitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastitis

  Recent research suggests that infectious pathogens play a much smaller role in the pathogenesis than was commonly assumed only a few years ago. Most detected pathogens are very common species that are natural part of the breast fauna and simple detection of their presence is not sufficient to prove a causative role.

• #60 Mastitis and Sore Breasts – Signs, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://llli.org/breastfeeding-info/mastitis/

  What breastfeeding experts used to think of as separate problems in the breast, such as mastitis, blocked ducts, milk blister “blebs,” and abscesses, are now suggested to be stages in the process of inflammation—the body’s response to a threat. […] Mastitis can occur when an area of blocked ducts continues to be compressed, or more generally, when your breasts become overly full, causing swelling and inflammation. This does not happen as the result of one delayed feeding, but rather is part of a process. […] Chronic engorgement, over pumping or trying to “empty the breasts,” all increase the risk of mastitis. Areas of the breast where ducts are compressed may create opportunities for an imbalance in types of bacteria and result in an infection. […] Mastitis can recur for different reasons. When bacteria are resistant or not sensitive to the antibiotic which was prescribed or when the antibiotics are not continued for long enough, it can recur. It can also recur when nursing is not continued on the affected side; or when the initial cause of the mastitis is not corrected.

• #61 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15613-mastitis

  Mastitis is a breast infection that causes your breast to become red, hard and swollen. […] Mastitis is painful inflammation in your breast tissue that can lead to a bacterial infection. […] The most common cause of mastitis is hyperlactation or an oversupply of milk. This oversupply of milk causes your milk ducts to narrow because the surrounding tissue puts pressure on the ducts. This leads to engorgement, which is when your breasts are extremely full and swollen. This is known as inflammatory mastitis. […] Inflammatory mastitis can lead to bacterial mastitis. Bacteria mastitis is when infection occurs due to inflammatory mastitis. […] Youre at higher risk for getting mastitis if you breastfeed and have an oversupply of milk. […] If at-home treatment for inflammatory mastitis doesnt help, it could progress to bacterial mastitis. Your healthcare provider will prescribe an antibiotic to treat a bacterial mastitis infection. […] If left untreated, a breast infection like mastitis can lead to a breast abscess. […] Yes, its possible to get mastitis multiple times.

• #62 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  PDM and IGM involve complex interactions of ductal obstruction, infection, and immune responses; the exact underlying etiologies of both conditions are unclear. […] While bacterial involvement is well-documented in PDM, IGM often remains sterile, highlighting differing underlying mechanisms despite overlapping features. […] Both disorders share complex origins and risk factors, although their precise mechanisms and causative factors remain incompletely understood. […] PDM, also known as plasma cell mastitis or periareolar mastitis, is characterized as a chronic inflammatory process primarily within the periareolar area that often involves nonlactational, subareolar abscesses. […] Smoking is a significant risk factor for PDM due to its harmful effects on epithelial cells and ductal tissue, which promote bacterial colonization and anaerobic growth.

• #63 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  PDM and IGM involve complex interactions of ductal obstruction, infection, and immune responses; the exact underlying etiologies of both conditions are unclear. […] While bacterial involvement is well-documented in PDM, IGM often remains sterile, highlighting differing underlying mechanisms despite overlapping features. […] Both disorders share complex origins and risk factors, although their precise mechanisms and causative factors remain incompletely understood. […] PDM, also known as plasma cell mastitis or periareolar mastitis, is characterized as a chronic inflammatory process primarily within the periareolar area that often involves nonlactational, subareolar abscesses. […] Smoking is a significant risk factor for PDM due to its harmful effects on epithelial cells and ductal tissue, which promote bacterial colonization and anaerobic growth.

• #64 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  PDM and IGM involve complex interactions of ductal obstruction, infection, and immune responses; the exact underlying etiologies of both conditions are unclear. […] While bacterial involvement is well-documented in PDM, IGM often remains sterile, highlighting differing underlying mechanisms despite overlapping features. […] Both disorders share complex origins and risk factors, although their precise mechanisms and causative factors remain incompletely understood. […] PDM, also known as plasma cell mastitis or periareolar mastitis, is characterized as a chronic inflammatory process primarily within the periareolar area that often involves nonlactational, subareolar abscesses. […] Smoking is a significant risk factor for PDM due to its harmful effects on epithelial cells and ductal tissue, which promote bacterial colonization and anaerobic growth.

• #65 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  Conditions like obesity, nipple inversion, and hormonal disturbances, including hyperprolactinemia, have also been cited in studies as contributing to duct dysfunction and inflammation. […] Bacterial involvement in PDM remains controversial. […] Immune dysregulation, particularly mediated by T helper cells (Th1 and Th17), likely amplifies the inflammation in PDM. […] The management of IGM involves various approaches, including observation, antibiotics, corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and surgery. […] While IGM can be self-limiting, its prolonged course and impact on quality of life necessitate individualized treatment plans. […] Several factors have been implicated in the development of IGM, including pregnancy, lactation, hyperprolactinemia, trauma, diabetes, and hormonal contraceptive use.

• #66 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  These factors may increase breast secretions or disrupt the immune microenvironment, contributing to local inflammation. […] Among these, pregnancy and lactation have been consistently linked to IGM, likely due to residual milk stasis that damages lobules and induces hypersensitivity or immune reactions. […] Corynebacterium species, particularly C. kroppenstedtii, are increasingly recognized as possible pathogens in IGM, although their precise role is debated, as they are part of the normal skin flora. […] However, these bacteria may incite an inflammatory response when infiltrating deeper breast tissues, as demonstrated in livestock studies. […] Other proposed mechanisms include autoimmune pathways, though direct evidence is limited.

• #67 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  Conditions like obesity, nipple inversion, and hormonal disturbances, including hyperprolactinemia, have also been cited in studies as contributing to duct dysfunction and inflammation. […] Bacterial involvement in PDM remains controversial. […] Immune dysregulation, particularly mediated by T helper cells (Th1 and Th17), likely amplifies the inflammation in PDM. […] The management of IGM involves various approaches, including observation, antibiotics, corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and surgery. […] While IGM can be self-limiting, its prolonged course and impact on quality of life necessitate individualized treatment plans. […] Several factors have been implicated in the development of IGM, including pregnancy, lactation, hyperprolactinemia, trauma, diabetes, and hormonal contraceptive use.

• #68 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/

  These factors may increase breast secretions or disrupt the immune microenvironment, contributing to local inflammation. […] Among these, pregnancy and lactation have been consistently linked to IGM, likely due to residual milk stasis that damages lobules and induces hypersensitivity or immune reactions. […] Corynebacterium species, particularly C. kroppenstedtii, are increasingly recognized as possible pathogens in IGM, although their precise role is debated, as they are part of the normal skin flora. […] However, these bacteria may incite an inflammatory response when infiltrating deeper breast tissues, as demonstrated in livestock studies. […] Other proposed mechanisms include autoimmune pathways, though direct evidence is limited.

• #69 Management of Mastitis in Breastfeeding Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0915/p727.html

  Mastitis occurs in approximately 10 percent of U.S. mothers who are breastfeeding, and it can lead to the cessation of breastfeeding. […] The risk of mastitis can be reduced by frequent, complete emptying of the breast and by optimizing breastfeeding technique. […] Sore nipples can precipitate mastitis. […] The differential diagnosis of sore nipples includes mechanical irritation from a poor latch or infant mouth anomalies, such as cleft palate or bacterial or yeast infection. […] As methicillin-resistant S. aureus becomes more common, it is likely to be a more common cause of mastitis, and antibiotics that are effective against this organism may become preferred. […] Mastitis is defined as inflammation of the breast. […] The incidence of mastitis varies widely across populations, likely because of variations in breastfeeding methods and support.

• #70 Mastitis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mastitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20374829

  Mastitis, which mainly affects people who are breastfeeding, causes redness, swelling and pain in one or both breasts. […] Mastitis is swelling and redness, called inflammation, of breast tissue. It sometimes involves an infection. Besides causing swelling and redness, mastitis causes breast pain and warmth. An infection also can cause fever and chills. […] Milk that is trapped in the breast is the main cause of mastitis. Other causes include: […] A blocked milk duct. If a breast doesn’t empty all the way during feedings, one of the milk ducts can get clogged. Then milk backs up, leading to breast infection. […] Germs going into the breast. Germs from the skin’s surface and baby’s mouth can enter the milk ducts. This can happen through a crack in the skin of the nipple or through a milk duct opening. Germs can grow in milk that stays in a breast that isn’t emptied.

• #71 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15613-mastitis

  Mastitis is a breast infection that causes your breast to become red, hard and swollen. […] Mastitis is painful inflammation in your breast tissue that can lead to a bacterial infection. […] The most common cause of mastitis is hyperlactation or an oversupply of milk. This oversupply of milk causes your milk ducts to narrow because the surrounding tissue puts pressure on the ducts. This leads to engorgement, which is when your breasts are extremely full and swollen. This is known as inflammatory mastitis. […] Inflammatory mastitis can lead to bacterial mastitis. Bacteria mastitis is when infection occurs due to inflammatory mastitis. […] Youre at higher risk for getting mastitis if you breastfeed and have an oversupply of milk. […] If at-home treatment for inflammatory mastitis doesnt help, it could progress to bacterial mastitis. Your healthcare provider will prescribe an antibiotic to treat a bacterial mastitis infection. […] If left untreated, a breast infection like mastitis can lead to a breast abscess. […] Yes, its possible to get mastitis multiple times.

• #72 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment | Pampers

  https://www.pampers.co.uk/newborn-baby/feeding/article/mastitis

  If the mastitis doesnt start clearing up within 24 hours with the home remedies described below, your doctor may prescribe antibiotics that are safe for your baby too, should you be breastfeeding your little one. […] If the symptoms of mastitis dont start easing up within 24 hours, or if theres any other reason to suspect a bacterial infection in your breast, your doctor will likely prescribe a course of antibiotics. […] If mastitis keeps coming back it might be related to your breastfeeding technique for example, your baby might not be latching properly. […] If the mastitis is caused by a bacterial infection, you may be prescribed antibiotics.

• #73 Management of Mastitis in Breastfeeding Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0915/p727.html

  Studies have reported the incidence to be as high as 33 percent in lactating women. […] Although mastitis can occur anytime during lactation, it is most common during the second and third weeks postpartum, with 75 to 95 percent of cases occurring before the infant is three months of age. […] Risk factors for mastitis are listed in Table 1. […] Yeast infection can increase the risk of mastitis by causing nipple fissures or milk stasis. […] Infant mouth abnormalities (e.g., cleft lip or palate) may lead to nipple trauma and increase the risk of mastitis. […] The diagnosis of mastitis is generally made clinically. […] Because the most common infecting organism is S. aureus, antibiotics that are effective against this organism should be selected empirically. […] Organisms other than S. aureus have rarely been implicated as the cause of mastitis.

• #74 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms, and Management | Medela

  https://www.medela.com/en/breastfeeding-pumping/lactation-professionals/lactation-articles/breastfeeding/mastitis

  Mastitis is an inflammation of the breast that may be accompanied by infection. […] Causes of mastitis are linked to insufficient milk drainage, milk stasis and inflammation. Blocked ducts and engorged breasts can also lead to mastitis if they are not treated appropriately. […] Mums can be predisposed to mastitis for a number of reasons, which may include damaged nipples, especially if colonised with Staphylococcus aureus and illness or stress. Other factors that can lead to mastitis include long periods between breastfeeds or infrequent feeding, poor attachment to the breast leading to insufficient milk removal, tight clothing around the breast, over-supply of milk, rapid weaning and a white spot on the nipple. […] Different antibiotics are required if mastitis is caused by methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). If MRSA is present in the community, breast milk culturing and assay of antibiotic sensitivities may be required if the mastitis does not improve.

• #75 Mastitis and Sore Breasts – Signs, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://llli.org/breastfeeding-info/mastitis/

  What breastfeeding experts used to think of as separate problems in the breast, such as mastitis, blocked ducts, milk blister “blebs,” and abscesses, are now suggested to be stages in the process of inflammation—the body’s response to a threat. […] Mastitis can occur when an area of blocked ducts continues to be compressed, or more generally, when your breasts become overly full, causing swelling and inflammation. This does not happen as the result of one delayed feeding, but rather is part of a process. […] Chronic engorgement, over pumping or trying to “empty the breasts,” all increase the risk of mastitis. Areas of the breast where ducts are compressed may create opportunities for an imbalance in types of bacteria and result in an infection. […] Mastitis can recur for different reasons. When bacteria are resistant or not sensitive to the antibiotic which was prescribed or when the antibiotics are not continued for long enough, it can recur. It can also recur when nursing is not continued on the affected side; or when the initial cause of the mastitis is not corrected.

• #76 Management of Mastitis in Breastfeeding Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0915/p727.html

  Mastitis occurs in approximately 10 percent of U.S. mothers who are breastfeeding, and it can lead to the cessation of breastfeeding. […] The risk of mastitis can be reduced by frequent, complete emptying of the breast and by optimizing breastfeeding technique. […] Sore nipples can precipitate mastitis. […] The differential diagnosis of sore nipples includes mechanical irritation from a poor latch or infant mouth anomalies, such as cleft palate or bacterial or yeast infection. […] As methicillin-resistant S. aureus becomes more common, it is likely to be a more common cause of mastitis, and antibiotics that are effective against this organism may become preferred. […] Mastitis is defined as inflammation of the breast. […] The incidence of mastitis varies widely across populations, likely because of variations in breastfeeding methods and support.

• #77 Mastitis and Sore Breasts – Signs, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://llli.org/breastfeeding-info/mastitis/

  What breastfeeding experts used to think of as separate problems in the breast, such as mastitis, blocked ducts, milk blister “blebs,” and abscesses, are now suggested to be stages in the process of inflammation—the body’s response to a threat. […] Mastitis can occur when an area of blocked ducts continues to be compressed, or more generally, when your breasts become overly full, causing swelling and inflammation. This does not happen as the result of one delayed feeding, but rather is part of a process. […] Chronic engorgement, over pumping or trying to “empty the breasts,” all increase the risk of mastitis. Areas of the breast where ducts are compressed may create opportunities for an imbalance in types of bacteria and result in an infection. […] Mastitis can recur for different reasons. When bacteria are resistant or not sensitive to the antibiotic which was prescribed or when the antibiotics are not continued for long enough, it can recur. It can also recur when nursing is not continued on the affected side; or when the initial cause of the mastitis is not corrected.

• #78 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms, and Management | Medela

  https://www.medela.com/en/breastfeeding-pumping/lactation-professionals/lactation-articles/breastfeeding/mastitis

  Mastitis is an inflammation of the breast that may be accompanied by infection. […] Causes of mastitis are linked to insufficient milk drainage, milk stasis and inflammation. Blocked ducts and engorged breasts can also lead to mastitis if they are not treated appropriately. […] Mums can be predisposed to mastitis for a number of reasons, which may include damaged nipples, especially if colonised with Staphylococcus aureus and illness or stress. Other factors that can lead to mastitis include long periods between breastfeeds or infrequent feeding, poor attachment to the breast leading to insufficient milk removal, tight clothing around the breast, over-supply of milk, rapid weaning and a white spot on the nipple. […] Different antibiotics are required if mastitis is caused by methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). If MRSA is present in the community, breast milk culturing and assay of antibiotic sensitivities may be required if the mastitis does not improve.

• #79 Etiology of Mastitis: The Role of Infection and Microbiota

  https://www.nestlenutrition-institute.org/publication-series/etiology-mastitis-role-infection-and-microbiota

  Different studies have demonstrated the capability of certain probiotic strains to balance the microbiota of human milk by reducing the load of bacterial groups related to mastitis and thus improving the associated symptomatology. […] The Lactobacillus strain with more scientific evidence in the field of human mastitis is L. fermentum CECT5716. […] Two different trials conducted in women suffering from mastitis showed a significant improvement in mastitis condition by decreasing the Staphylococcus spp. load in breast milk. […] These results prove that probiotic treatment is an effective strategy to control the proliferation of Staphylococcus in breast milk, helping to prevent the development of mastitis.

• #80 Etiology of Mastitis: The Role of Infection and Microbiota

  https://www.nestlenutrition-institute.org/publication-series/etiology-mastitis-role-infection-and-microbiota

  Different studies have demonstrated the capability of certain probiotic strains to balance the microbiota of human milk by reducing the load of bacterial groups related to mastitis and thus improving the associated symptomatology. […] The Lactobacillus strain with more scientific evidence in the field of human mastitis is L. fermentum CECT5716. […] Two different trials conducted in women suffering from mastitis showed a significant improvement in mastitis condition by decreasing the Staphylococcus spp. load in breast milk. […] These results prove that probiotic treatment is an effective strategy to control the proliferation of Staphylococcus in breast milk, helping to prevent the development of mastitis.

• #81

  https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-FCH-CAH-00.13

  Mastitis is an inflammatory condition of the breast, which may or may not be accompanied by infection. […] Awareness is growing that inefficient removal of milk resulting from poor breastfeeding technique is an important underlying cause, but mastitis remains synonymous with breast infection in the minds of many health professionals. […] This review aims to bring together available information on lactational mastitis and related conditions and their causes, to guide practical management, including the maintenance of breastfeeding.

• #82 Mastitis and Sore Breasts – Signs, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://llli.org/breastfeeding-info/mastitis/

  What breastfeeding experts used to think of as separate problems in the breast, such as mastitis, blocked ducts, milk blister “blebs,” and abscesses, are now suggested to be stages in the process of inflammation—the body’s response to a threat. […] Mastitis can occur when an area of blocked ducts continues to be compressed, or more generally, when your breasts become overly full, causing swelling and inflammation. This does not happen as the result of one delayed feeding, but rather is part of a process. […] Chronic engorgement, over pumping or trying to “empty the breasts,” all increase the risk of mastitis. Areas of the breast where ducts are compressed may create opportunities for an imbalance in types of bacteria and result in an infection. […] Mastitis can recur for different reasons. When bacteria are resistant or not sensitive to the antibiotic which was prescribed or when the antibiotics are not continued for long enough, it can recur. It can also recur when nursing is not continued on the affected side; or when the initial cause of the mastitis is not corrected.

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