Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Mastitis – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mastitis/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20374834

  Your healthcare professional does a physical exam and asks about your symptoms and medical history. You might have a breast ultrasound. Your healthcare professional might take out, called aspirate, some of the fluid in your breast. A culture of this fluid can help find the best antibiotic for you. […] A rare form of breast cancer, called inflammatory breast cancer, also can cause redness and swelling that might be confused with mastitis. Your healthcare professional may suggest a mammogram or an ultrasound or both. […] If your symptoms don’t go away after you take a full course of antibiotics, you may need a biopsy to make sure you don’t have breast cancer. Be sure to follow up with your healthcare professional after you’ve taken all the antibiotics. […] You may be sent to an obstetrician-gynecologist. For problems related to breastfeeding, you may be referred to a lactation consultant.

• #2 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15613-mastitis

  Mastitis is a breast infection that causes your breast to become red, hard and swollen. You can also get a fever or have flu-like symptoms. […] Mastitis is painful inflammation in your breast tissue that can lead to a bacterial infection. […] Mastitis affects up to 10% of women in the United States. It may affect up to 30% of breastfeeding women worldwide. Its most common in the first three months of breastfeeding. […] Your healthcare provider will do a physical exam and check your symptoms to make a diagnosis. If you arent breastfeeding, you may get a mammogram or breast ultrasound to rule out breast cancer or a different breast condition. […] Treatment for mastitis involves reducing inflammation and pain and preventing an infection from occurring. […] If at-home treatment for inflammatory mastitis doesnt help, it could progress to bacterial mastitis. Your healthcare provider will prescribe an antibiotic to treat a bacterial mastitis infection.

• #3 Management of Mastitis in Breastfeeding Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0915/p727.html

  Mastitis occurs in approximately 10 percent of U.S. mothers who are breastfeeding, and it can lead to the cessation of breastfeeding. […] The diagnosis of mastitis is usually clinical, with patients presenting with focal tenderness in one breast accompanied by fever and malaise. […] Mastitis is defined as inflammation of the breast. […] The diagnosis of mastitis is generally made clinically. Patients typically present with localized, unilateral breast tenderness and erythema, accompanied by a fever of 101F (38.5 C), malaise, fatigue, body aches, and headache. […] Culture is rarely used to confirm bacterial infection of the milk because positive cultures can result from normal bacterial colonization, and negative cultures do not rule out mastitis. […] The diagnosis of mastitis is usually clinical, with patients presenting with focal tenderness in one breast accompanied by fever and malaise.

• #4 Lactational Mastitis – Diagnosis and Treatment : Emergency Care BC

  https://emergencycarebc.ca/clinical_resource/clinical-summary/lactational-mastitis-diagnosis-and-treatment/

  Lactational Mastitis – Diagnosis and Treatment […] Mastitis is a clinical diagnosis – laboratory tests and imaging are generally not needed, unless an abscess is suspected which can be assessed by ultrasound. […] Breast milk culture may be useful to guide antibiotic selection IF severe infection, hospital acquired, or unresponsive to initial empiric antibiotics. […] In patients with suspected abscess, ultrasound may be a useful tool to help characterize mass, obtain sample for gram stain & culture and some symptom relief.

• #5 Breast Infection: A Review of Diagnosis and Management Practices

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6092150/

  Treatment regimens generally include antibiotics; and for breast abscesses – percutaneous drainage and/or surgical ID. […] The clinical diagnosis of mastitis or breast abscess is usually made based on the clinical presentation and by an individuals history with a breast abscess tending to present with pain and/or a lump. […] Ultrasound is a useful diagnostic tool in the initial workup; an abscess would be seen as a hypoechoic lesion. […] Fine needle aspiration can be used to drain a breast abscess for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. […] A biopsy may be warranted for all other cases, such as a suspected abscess, atypical presentation, uncertain diagnosis, or a potential complication. […] For routine cases of mastitis, a biopsy is not usually indicated. […] It is paramount that breast infection is diagnosed and treated early to prevent complications.

• #6 Mastitis – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mastitis/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20374834

  Will my mastitis clear on its own or do I need treatment? […] What are the chances that the infection will come back? How do I lower my risk of it coming back? […] Your healthcare professional might ask you: Are your symptoms in one or both breasts? How bad is your pain? How do you breastfeed? Have you had mastitis before?

• #7 Mastitis | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/mastitis?lang=us

  Mastitis (rare plural: mastitides) refers to inflammation of the breast parenchyma, of which there are a number of subtypes: […] acute mastitis […] puerperal mastitis usually occurs from infection with Staphylococcus spp. during lactation […] non-puerperal mastitis: not related to lactation and usually occurs in older women […] plasma cell mastitis (mammary duct ectasia): uncommon subareolar inflammation without associated bacterial infection […] granulomatous mastitis: rare; usually occurs due to tuberculosis or sarcoidosis. […] Clinically, the breast will be indurated, red and painful. Nipple retraction may also be evident. Nodal enlargement is common. The patient may often have systemic symptoms such as fever or leukocytosis. […] On mammography, bacterial (puerperal or non-puerperal) mastitis usually features ill-defined regions of increased density and skin thickening.

• #8 Mastitis Part 4 – Detecting and Treating Clinical Mastitis

  https://www.nadis.org.uk/disease-a-z/cattle/mastitis/mastitis-part-4-detecting-and-treating-clinical-mastitis/

  Mastitis management should be focussed on preventing disease, but if disease does occur then it needs to be promptly identified and treated. […] Stripping milk from a cow and examining it, prior to milking, is still the best method for detecting most early cases of clinical mastitis. This is because changes in the milk are often the first sign of mastitis. […] Visual examination and palpation of the udder prior to putting on the clusters should be part of all milking routines. Mastitis causes udder swelling, reddening, hardness, heat and pain which can often be detected even with a fairly cursory examination. […] The problem with relying on udder examination as the first line of mastitis detection is that udder changes are detectable fairly late in the process, so by the time disease is detected considerable losses have occurred.

• #9 Mastitis diagnostics and performance monitoring: a practical approach | Irish Veterinary Journal | Full Text

  https://irishvetjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2046-0481-62-s4-s34

  In this paper a review is given of frequently used mastitis diagnostic methods in modern dairy practice. […] Monitoring udder health performance is impossible without reliable and affordable diagnostic methods. […] The most frequently used diagnostic methods are somatic cell counting (SCC) and bacteriological culturing (BC) of milk. […] Mastitis diagnosis starts with visual observation. […] It is generally known that large differences exist between farms in clinical mastitis diagnosis. […] For a good clinical diagnosis, it is essential to be able to see abnormalities, for which you need sufficient light (at least 250 lux) underneath the udder, where teat cups are attached. […] If there is any detectable change in quarter and/or any observable abnormality in the milk, the quarter is defined as having clinical mastitis.

• #10 Mastitis diagnostics and performance monitoring: a practical approach | Irish Veterinary Journal | Full Text

  https://irishvetjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2046-0481-62-s4-s34

  Abnormal milk, even the smallest clot is a signal that something is wrong within that quarter. […] SCCs have been known to be an important indicator of intramammary infections (IMI) for years. […] An easy, cheap, and quick cow-side test to estimate SCC on farm is the California Mastitis Test (CMT). […] Although the CMT has been proven to be valuable for over 40 years, results obtained from fresh cows are difficult to interpret and CMT should not be used to detect pathogens in milk from cows earlier than four days postcalving. […] Bacteriological culturing can be executed at herd, as well as cow and quarter level, each with its own specific goal. […] Bacteriological culturing is most often used as a diagnostic tool to solve mastitis problems. […] To judge IMI at the cow level, composite milk samples have been used for a long time.

• #11 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Mastitis-Diagnosis.aspx

  A diagnosis of mastitis is based on the patients symptoms and a breast examination. A sample of the patients breast milk may also be taken and sent for analysis. […] Mastitis can often mimic breast cancer and careful examination of any symptoms is therefore required to ensure that no cancer is present in the breast. If a physician is unsure whether a lump or hardness in the breast tissue is caused by mastitis, an ultrasound scan may be performed to ensure the mass is actually a tumor. […] Sometimes, the accumulated milk can become infected with bacteria and lead to infective mastitis. A sample of the breast milk may then need to be cultured to determine which bacteria is causing infection. The correct antibiotic that is specific to the bacteria can then be prescribed to treat the infection.

• #12 Breast Infection (Mastitis): Symptoms, Causes, Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/women/breast-infection

  Mastitis Diagnosis […] The diagnosis of mastitis and a breast abscess can usually be made based on a physical exam. […] If it’s unclear whether a mass is due to a fluid-filled abscess or to a solid mass such as a tumor, you may get a test such as an ultrasound. An ultrasound may also tell whether you have simple mastitis, or an abscess deep in the breast. This noninvasive test allows your doctor to see the abscess by placing an ultrasound probe over your breast to get an image. If an abscess is confirmed, aspiration or surgical drainage, and IV antibiotics, are often required. […] A nurse or lab tech may take a sample (culture) either of breast milk or of material from an abscess through a syringe, to find out the type of organism causing the infection. This information can help your doctor decide what kind of antibiotic to use. […] Non-breastfeeding women with mastitis, or those who do not respond to treatment, may have a mammogram or breast biopsy. This is a precaution because a rare type of breast cancer can produce symptoms of mastitis.

• #13 Mastitis | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/mastitis?lang=us

  On ultrasound, ill-defined areas of altered echotexture with hyperechogenicity representing infiltrated and inflamed fat lobules, hypoechoic areas in the glandular parenchyma, and associated mild skin thickening are seen. Inflammatory axillary lymph nodes may also be encountered. Occasionally, abscess formation may be visible. […] It is important to consider inflammatory breast cancer as a potential differential.

• #14 Case: Mastitis – Radiology | UCLA Health

  https://www.uclahealth.org/departments/radiology/education/breast-imaging-teaching-resources/cases/case-mastitis

  Mastitis is defined as inflammation of the breast with or without infection. It is a relatively common condition typically affecting reproductive age women. Mastitis can be sub-categorized into lactational (puerperal) mastitis and non-lactational (non-puerperal) mastitis. […] Diagnosis of lactational mastitis is based on clinical grounds, however ultrasound can be useful in differentiating between mastitis (ill-defined hypoechoic region) and a breast abscess (hypoechoic to anechoic mass with internal debris and surrounding vascularity) if there is a poor clinical response to antibiotics. […] Non-lactational mastitis is much less common than lactational mastitis and includes diagnoses such as periductal mastitis and idiopathic granulomatous mastitis. […] Clinical symptoms include a subareolar mass with or without associated pain, erythema, nipple discharge, and/or nipple inversion.

• #15 Mastitis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastitis

  Mastitis is inflammation of the breast or udder, usually associated with breastfeeding. Symptoms typically include local pain and redness. Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms. Ultrasound may be useful for detecting a potential abscess. The diagnosis of mastitis and breast abscess can usually be made based on a physical examination. The doctor will also take into account the signs and symptoms of the condition. However, if the doctor is not sure whether the mass is an abscess or a tumor, a breast ultrasound may be performed. In cases of infectious mastitis, cultures may be needed in order to determine what type of organism is causing the infection. Cultures are helpful in deciding the specific type of antibiotics that will be used in curing the disease. […] Mammograms or breast biopsies are normally performed on women who do not respond to treatment or on non-breastfeeding women. This type of tests is sometimes ordered to exclude the possibility of a rare type of breast cancer which causes symptoms similar to those of mastitis.

• #16 Breast Infection: A Review of Diagnosis and Management Practices

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6092150/

  Indications for immediate admission/referral can be found in Box 2. […] If symptoms are severe, prolonged or there are signs of systemic disease; patients should be treated with antibiotics in accordance with culture results and sensitivities. […] Breast abscesses rarely resolve with antibiotics alone. Abscesses generally require drainage in conjunction with antibiotics. […] Surgical intervention is required for mature fluctuant abscesses. […] Purulent material should be sent for microbiology studies and cytological examination. […] If the abscess is 5 cm in diameter and there is no associated cellulitis, antibiotics may not be required providing drainage is successful. […] In lactating mothers milk stasis is often a risk factor for the development of mastitis and subsequent breast abscesses.

• #17 Mastitis – Gynecology and Obstetrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/postpartum-care-and-associated-disorders/mastitis

  Mastitis is painful inflammation of the breast, usually accompanied by infection. […] Diagnosis of mastitis is by history and physical examination. Mastitis must be differentiated from breast engorgement without inflammation or infection. […] Breast abscesses are diagnosed by ultrasound and are treated mainly with drainage via needle aspiration or surgical incision. Antibiotics aimed at S. aureus are often used. […] It is not clear whether antibiotics aimed at methicillin-resistant S. aureus are necessary for treatment of mastitis or breast abscess. In rare situations when there is no abscess and the patient is not improving with antibiotics, milk culture can be done.

• #18 Management of Mastitis in Breastfeeding Women | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0915/p727.html

  Treatment of mastitis begins with improving breastfeeding technique. […] Because the mother and infant are usually colonized with the same organisms at the time mastitis develops, breastfeeding can continue during an episode of mastitis without worry of the bacterial infection being transmitted to the infant. […] Vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) from mother to infant is more likely in the presence of mastitis. […] In addition to draining breast milk as thoroughly as possible, antibiotics are often necessary to treat mastitis. […] One of the most common complications of mastitis is the cessation of breastfeeding. […] Because inflammatory breast cancer can resemble mastitis, this condition should be considered when the presentation is atypical or when the response to treatment is not as expected.

• #19 Breast Mastitis | Mastitis Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer/non-cancerous-breast-conditions/mastitis.html

  Mastitis can often be diagnosed based on symptoms and the results of a breast exam. It usually affects only one breast. […] If you’ve been diagnosed with mastitis and antibiotic treatment doesn’t help within a week or so, you might need a skin biopsy to be sure it’s not cancer.

• #20 Mastitis Part 4 – Detecting and Treating Clinical Mastitis

  https://www.nadis.org.uk/disease-a-z/cattle/mastitis/mastitis-part-4-detecting-and-treating-clinical-mastitis/

  Mastitis may result in changes in the milk, udder and cow or any combination. […] Foremilking is the best method of early mastitis detection – clots, flecks, and changes in colour or consistency can be seen when milk is stripped on a dark surface. […] Observation and palpation of the udder is essential but tends to detect only later or more severe mastitis cases. […] Mastitis can be treated by intramammary or systemic antibiotics or a combination of both. […] Intramammary drugs tend to be best for single quarter mild mastitis, while systemic treatment is better for more severe cases or multiple quarter infection. […] Apparent treatment failure is usually due to insufficient antibiotics being given for too short a period of time. However, not all cows will respond to treatment. Identify these cows before wasting money on antibiotics.

• #21 MASTITIS DIAGNOSIS by ADIL RASOOL PARAY | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/AdilRasoolParay/mastitis-diagnosis-by-adil-rasool-paray

  Somatic cell count (SCC): WBCs + Sloughed epithelial cells Factors affecting SCC: Age: old Young (Heifer) Seasonal incidence: Summer Winter Afternoon Morning Frequency of lactation: frequency SCC Period of post-calving and Late stage of pregnancy: SCC (Physiologically) Hygienic Measures: Hygienic Measures SCC Permissible limit: less than 200,000 cells/ml milk Methods of SC Counting A. Direct Method: Direct Microscopic Counting Direct Somatic Cell Counter B. Indirect Method: Using Chemical Reaction: […] The diagnosis of clinical mastitis is not difficult if a careful clinical examination of the udder is carried out as part of the complete examination of a cow with systemic clinical findings. The diagnosis of mastitis depends largely upon the detection of clinical abnormalities of the udder and gross abnormalities of the milk or the use of an indirect test like the CMT to detect subclinical mastitis. Other mammary abnormalities that must be differentiated from clinical mastitis include periparturient edema, rupture of the suspensory ligament, cancerous growths, hematoma, etc. These are not accompanied by abnormalities of the milk unless there is hemorrhage into the udder.

• #22

  https://www.archbreastcancer.com/index.php/abc/article/view/595

  Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis (IGM) is a rare benign inflammatory breast condition, mostly affecting women of reproductive age within a few years of pregnancy. […] Therefore, histological findings are one of the most essential bases of diagnosis. […] The diagnosis of IGM depends on clinical, radiologic, and pathologic findings. […] An irregular hypoechoic mass with varying degrees of posterior phenomena is the most common sonographic finding. […] Histologically, IGM is characterized by a non-caseating lobulocentric granulomatous inflammation; composed of tight aggregates of epithelioid histiocytes with or without multinucleated giant cells. […] The diagnosis of IGM relies heavily on histopathological features. […] The diagnosis of IGM is based on the triad of clinical presentation, radiologic findings, and histopathologic changes along with the exclusion of specific causes of granulomatous mastitis. […] The diagnosis of IGM depends on clinical, radiologic, and pathologic findings. Other etiologies of granulomatous inflammation including infectious agents should be excluded by further laboratory investigations including the culture and molecular studies of the specimen for microbial agents.

• #23 Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis – Bede – Annals of Breast Surgery

  https://abs.amegroups.org/article/view/6455/html

  Idiopathic granulomatous mastitis (IGM) is diagnosed through the exclusion of all other common pathogens and diseases as well as distinct histological findings of non-caseating granulomas and multinucleated giant cells upon core needle biopsy. […] Clinicians diagnose IGM when all other differential diagnoses are excluded, and specific pathologic findings on core needle biopsy are present. […] IGM is confirmed with specific histopathological findings obtained from a core needle biopsy of the abscess wall. The hallmark pathological finding of IGM is the presence of multinucleated giant cells, plasma cells, polymorphonuclear leukocytes, lymphocytes, and occasionally sterile microabscesses. […] A core needle biopsy is preferred over an excisional biopsy or fine-needle aspiration (FNA) because it completely characterizes the lesion, is less disfiguring and rules out malignancy. […] An essential component of this challenging disease is recognizing the complex presentation to avoid unnecessary surgical interventions and excessive antibiotics.

• #24 Granulomatous lobular mastitis: Clinical update and case study

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2020/january-february/granulomatous-lobular-mastitis

  Granulomatous lobular mastitis (GM) is a rare chronic benign inflammatory breast condition. It can present a diagnostic challenge and mimic inflammatory carcinoma. […] Triple assessment is needed to confirm diagnosis. […] The diagnosis of GM is made by core biopsy histopathology or fine-needle aspiration cytology. […] The diagnosis can be made on percutaneous biopsy (core or fine-needle biopsy). […] Management options include conservative/supportive care, oral prednisone or methotrexate, or surgical excision. At present, there is no universally accepted management strategy for GM; therefore, treatment will depend on the symptoms, extent of disease and patient preferences. […] The options for management are: conservative/supportive care, medication (prednisone and/or methotrexate), surgery. […] The diagnosis of GM was made. […] The diagnosis can be made on percutaneous biopsy (core or fine-needle biopsy). […] The diagnosis of GM is made by core biopsy histopathology or fine-needle aspiration cytology.

• #25 Nonlactational mastitis in adults – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/nonlactational-mastitis-in-adults

  Mastitis refers to inflammation of the breast tissue that may or may not be accompanied by infection. Mastitis does not necessarily occur during lactation, is not always accompanied by microbial infection, and may not resolve with antibiotics. Forms of nonlactational mastitis include periductal mastitis and idiopathic granulomatous mastitis. […] Periductal mastitis is an inflammatory condition of the subareolar ducts; the cause is unknown. Periductal mastitis primarily affects young women but can occur in men as well. […] The majority of patients with periductal mastitis are smokers. It has been postulated that smoking is associated with damage of the subareolar ducts, with tissue necrosis and subsequent infection. […] Periductal mastitis is also associated with squamous metaplasia, which is likely a consequence of ongoing inflammation. It has been suggested that squamous metaplasia may lead to partial duct obstruction with subsequent dilatation and secondary inflammation and infection. However, as normal ducts are blocked by keratin, it is the author’s view that duct obstruction, duct dilatation, and squamous metaplasia are not precursors of periductal inflammation or relevant etiologic factors.

• #26 Case: Mastitis – Radiology | UCLA Health

  https://www.uclahealth.org/departments/radiology/education/breast-imaging-teaching-resources/cases/case-mastitis

  Granulomatous mastitis usually presents as a unilateral firm breast mass, with or without skin thickening and ulceration, nipple retraction, and adenopathy. […] In the workup of this condition, other causes of granulomatous disease should be excluded, including sarcoidosis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, tuberculosis, and fungal infection. […] The initial treatment of lactational mastitis is symptomatic, with NSAIDs or acetaminophen for pain control, heat applied to the breast to facilitate milk drainage, and cold packs after emptying.

• #27 Mastitis diagnostics and performance monitoring: a practical approach | Irish Veterinary Journal | Full Text

  https://irishvetjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2046-0481-62-S4-S34

  In this paper a review is given of frequently used mastitis diagnostic methods in modern dairy practice. […] Monitoring udder health performance is impossible without reliable and affordable diagnostic methods. […] The most frequently used diagnostic methods are somatic cell counting (SCC) and bacteriological culturing (BC) of milk. […] Mastitis diagnosis starts with visual observation. […] It is generally known that large differences exist between farms in clinical mastitis diagnosis. […] For a good clinical diagnosis, it is essential to be able to see abnormalities, for which you need sufficient light (at least 250 lux) underneath the udder, where teat cups are attached. […] If there is any detectable change in quarter and/or any observable abnormality in the milk, the quarter is defined as having clinical mastitis.

• #28 Mastitis: What It Is, Current Diagnostics, and the Potential of Metabolomics to Identify New Predictive Biomarkers

  https://www.mdpi.com/2624-862X/3/4/50

  Mastitis is a multifactorial inflammatory disease of the mammary gland. This intramammary infections (IMI) is most commonly caused by bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus spp. and often times by fungi too. Mastitis is seen in dairy herds between the dry-off and early lactation period. […] The goals of this review are to present and discuss current and recent breakthroughs in mastitis diagnostic methods, as well as to introduce research on biomarker discovery and its possible application in dairy farms. […] The inflammatory response seen in a cow’s udder can indicate the presence of mastitis, whereas the identification of the bacterial pathogen causing the disease confirms the intramammary infection. […] Subclinical diseases present a significant problem for monitoring the health of dairy herds. SCM cases are quite common in many conventional dairy farms. Two of the most routinely used methods to identify SCM cows are the California Mastitis Test (CMT) and Somatic Cell Count (SCC) test.

• #29 Mastitis diagnostics and performance monitoring: a practical approach | Irish Veterinary Journal | Full Text

  https://irishvetjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/2046-0481-62-S4-S34

  Abnormal milk, even the smallest clot is a signal that something is wrong within that quarter. […] SCCs have been known to be an important indicator of intramammary infections (IMI) for years. […] An easy, cheap, and quick cow-side test to estimate SCC on farm is the California Mastitis Test (CMT). […] Although the CMT has been proven to be valuable for over 40 years, results obtained from fresh cows are difficult to interpret and CMT should not be used to detect pathogens in milk from cows earlier than four days postcalving. […] Bacteriological culturing can be executed at herd, as well as cow and quarter level, each with its own specific goal. […] Bacteriological culturing is most often used as a diagnostic tool to solve mastitis problems. […] To judge IMI at the cow level, composite milk samples have been used for a long time.

• #30 PCR Testing for Mastitis Diagnosis and Management

  https://www.thermofisher.com/blog/behindthebench/pcr-testing-mastitis-diagnosis-management/

  Michele Kaufmann, customer solutions advisor at CentralStar Cooperative, explained the value of PCR testing for mastitis management in a webinar offered by Thermo Fisher Scientific. […] A high SCC may indicate a cow has an infection like mastitis, which can affect milk quality. However, an SCC does not provide specific information about the organism that is causing the infection. PCR data allow dairy producers to identify the causative agents of mastitis. […] In 2014, we chose mastitis PCR—the ability to detect the DNA of various mastitis-causing pathogens in a preserved DHI sample or in the treated animal. PCR is a game changer for mastitis management compared to traditional methods. […] CentralStar customers continue to recognize the benefits of PCR as a diagnostic tool. […] CentralStar offers a range of testing options, so customers of PCR testing for mastitis can screen for individual pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and Mycoplasma bovis.

• #31 Diagnostic methods of subclinical mastitis in bovine milk: an overview

  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0304-28472022000310077

  Wisconsin Mastitis Test (WMT): This test can be used to sample milk from individual cows and milk from cooling tanks. It is characterized by the estimation of somatic cell content. The procedure uses a reagent very similar to that of the CMT, the difference is that the results are measured quantitatively depending on the viscosity, not qualitatively. […] Whiteside test: Similar to the California test, this test is based on the increase of leukocytes, where a gelling reaction occurs when mixing mastitic milk with a 4% NaOH solution. […] Alternative methods […] Electrical conductivity: one of the pioneers works carried out for the detection of subclinical mastitis, using non-conventional technology, was that by Nielen et al. (1995a), the authors developed a model where they acquired, online and automatically, every 5 seconds, data of variables such as electrical conductivity per mammary quarter, milk temperature and milk production per cow since they concluded that the combination of these parameters would help to improve the detection results in terms of sensitivity and specificity.

• #32 Diagnostic methods of subclinical mastitis in bovine milk: an overview

  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0304-28472022000310077

  Infrared thermography: any object, material, or body emits radiation, in the form of heat, depending on its temperature. In the field of veterinary medicine, infrared thermography is sensitive enough to perceive changes in skin surface temperature (SST) and relate it to the severity of mammary gland infection. […] Flow cytometry: is a quick technique recognized by the International Dairy Federation (IDF) that uses laser light for counting cells and other particles in suspension. The technique consists of passing a laser light beam through the sample in solution. […] Ultrasound: milk and its components can be evaluated in a simple and fast way using ultrasound or other waves of the electromagnetic spectrum. This has encouraged research in ultrasonography to evaluate mastitis. […] Accuracy of diagnostic tests […] The diagnostic tests CMT, somatic cell count, and electrical conductivity have been shown to have good sensitivity and good specificity for detecting subclinical mastitis in dairy herds.

• #33 The Window of Diagnostic Techniques for Bovine Mastitis

  https://researcherslinks.com/current-issues/The-Window-of-Diagnostic-Techniques-for-Bovine-Mastitis/35/8/5493/html

  In this regard, biomarkers specific to mastitis have also been identified, which can be utilized to diagnose the disease at an early stage. […] Somatic cell count (SCC) is used as a gold standard for diagnosing subclinical mastitis and is a vital metric for the dairy sector since it influences the price of milk provided to producers. […] The California mastitis test has been frequently utilized for qualitative and indirect measurements of bodily cell totals. […] This test is quick and inexpensive, and it may be used to screen for mastitis at a dairy to assess udder health and milk quality. […] The pH of average milk is between 6.5 and 6.7, however, when a cow has mastitis, the pH rises owing to the alkalinity of the milk. […] Electrical conductivity (EC), which is based on anions and cations in milk, has been employed as a mastitis indication for the past four decades.

• #34 A step forward in mastitis diagnosis – Country Folks

  https://countryfolks.com/a-step-forward-in-mastitis-diagnosis/

  For decades dairymen, veterinarians and those in university laboratories have been fighting a battle against mastitis. Researchers in the UK have employed new technology for determining the origin of mastitis in a herd. […] The research team at the University of Nottingham in the UK incorporated algorithms as an aid in determining whether mastitis was of contagious or environmental origin in a study of samples from 1,000 herds. […] This ability to pinpoint a problem on a given farm is of great value to the practitioner. […] The study conducted was designed to see if the decision-making process of a well-trained specialist could be matched by a machine using algorithms. […] One advantage of this technology is that it would allow for much closer monitoring of a mastitis control program in a given herd. […] We may soon see our mastitis control programs undergoing some rather significant changes, with computer-driven programs taking over where only manual computations existed before.

• #35

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00521-025-11176-8

  Therefore, mastitis in cows can be diagnosed by considering the number of somatic cells; it can also be diagnosed by holistic examination of protein, fat, pH, lactose, viscosity, and color values in milk. […] This study provides original information for the diagnosis of mastitis by holistically evaluating the relationship between the components of milk affected by mastitis using machine learning algorithms. […] Mastitis is one of the most common and costly diseases in dairy cattle enterprises and causes significant losses in these enterprises due to its versatile financial consequences. […] Mastitis can be observed as clinical, subclinical, or chronic. […] Subclinical mastitis is the most common cause of milk loss because it is not noticed. […] The presence of somatic cell numbers in milk above established limits not only poses potential risks to human health but may also cause problems in the quality of dairy products.

• #35

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00521-025-11176-8

  Artificial intelligence is technologically intelligent computer software that can derive mathematical conclusions from what it has learned and help us make decisions. Machine learning, a sub-branch of artificial intelligence, is widely used in the medical field today. Studies in the literature show that machine learning methods provide quite successful results in diagnosing diseases. […] In this study, milk samples were taken from 118 different cows in dairy farms operating in Bucak district of Burdur province of Trkiye. […] The analysis results were used in the training and testing of machine learning algorithms, and mastitis disease was tried to be diagnosed with the results obtained from these algorithms. […] As a result of the study, the performances of the algorithms for the diagnosis of mastitis were compared and the highest accuracy rate was achieved with the Decision Tree algorithm (89%). Additionally, this study showed that mastitis disease can be diagnosed with a 89% accuracy rate if the protein, fat, pH, lactose, viscosity, and color values in cows milk are analyzed as a whole.

• #36 The Window of Diagnostic Techniques for Bovine Mastitis

  https://researcherslinks.com/current-issues/The-Window-of-Diagnostic-Techniques-for-Bovine-Mastitis/35/8/5493/html

  Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and nucleic acid-based testing have recently made considerable advancements in the identification of mastitis, although both approaches have some limitations. […] Furthermore, biomarkers associated with the start of the illness, such as N-acetyl-glucosaminidase (NAGase), Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), glucuronidase, and alkaline phosphatase, are measured using culturing techniques for mastitis diagnosis. […] With the rapid increase in adaptation rates of automated milking systems by dairy farmers all over the globe, the demand for automated detection of mastitis in automated milking cows is also increasing. […] A recent study in Canada was carried out aimed to develop automated system for the detection of mastitis on the farms where automated milking was carried out for milk collection.

• #37 Mastitis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mastitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20374829

  Mastitis, which mainly affects people who are breastfeeding, causes redness, swelling and pain in one or both breasts. […] Mastitis is swelling and redness, called inflammation, of breast tissue. It sometimes involves an infection. […] Mastitis most often affects people who are breastfeeding. This is called lactation mastitis. […] See your healthcare professional if you have breast symptoms that worry you. […] To avoid this complication, talk with your healthcare professional as soon as you get symptoms of mastitis. You may need to take a course of antibiotics.

• #38 Mastitis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15613-mastitis

  If left untreated, a breast infection like mastitis can lead to a breast abscess. […] Inflammatory mastitis usually gets completely better within 10 to 14 days. […] Yes, you should continue to nurse your baby. […] Yes, its possible to get mastitis multiple times. […] A good rule of thumb is to only pump whats needed for your baby. […] Mastitis is painful and uncomfortable, but it usually doesnt cause long-term problems. […] Mastitis doesnt increase your risk of breast cancer. […] You should call your healthcare provider at-home treatment for engorgement doesnt help. […] Its rare to need to go to an ER for mastitis. […] Clogged or plugged ducts are areas of inflammation or engorgement surrounding the ducts that compress the milk ducts, making it harder for the milk to come out or flow. When the inflammation isnt treated properly, it can lead to mastitis.

• #39 Breast Infection: A Review of Diagnosis and Management Practices

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6092150/

  Mastitis is a common condition that predominates during the puerperium. […] In secondary care abscesses can be diagnosed by ultrasound scan and in the past the management has been dependent on the receiving surgeon. Management options include aspiration under local anesthetic or more invasive incision and drainage (ID). […] We review the diagnosis and management of breast infection in the primary and secondary care setting, highlighting the importance of early referral for severe infection/breast abscesses. […] As a clear guideline on the management of breast infection is lacking, this review provides useful guidance for those who rarely see breast infection to help avoid long-term morbidity. […] Timely management of mastitis with antibiotics can help avoid complications. […] Early referrals are essential to prevent evolution into severe infection and even sepsis.

• #40 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Mastitis-Diagnosis.aspx

  If this infection is not promptly diagnosed and treated, the mother is at risk of developing a breast abscess which is the most serious complication of mastitis a woman can develop. The abscess may be painful and also cause the breast to become red, hot and swollen. In addition, a fever may develop. This painful collection of pus is usually treated using a surgical drainage technique.

• #41

  https://myhealth.alberta.ca/Health/pages/conditions.aspx?hwid=hw98039

  Your doctor or midwife can usually diagnose mastitis based on your symptoms and by checking your affected breast. Tests usually aren’t needed. […] If you have an infection that isn’t improving with treatment, your doctor or midwife may do a breast milk culture. To provide a sample for a culture, you will squeeze a small sample of milk from the affected breast onto a sterile swab. The culture results help your doctor or midwife confirm a diagnosis and find out the specific bacteria causing the infection. […] Your doctor or midwife can diagnose a breast abscess by checking your breast. If an abscess is deep, your doctor or midwife may use a breast ultrasound to check it. Ultrasound can also guide a needle to drain the abscess. A culture can then be done to identify the bacteria causing the abscess.

• #42 Breast Infection: A Review of Diagnosis and Management Practices

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6092150/

  After the acute phase of a breast abscess has subsided, chronically infected tissue and the major lactiferous duct associated with the abscess leading to the nipple may need to be excised. […] Recurrence may occur with therapy that is too short, delayed or inappropriate, and in Staphylococcus carriers. […] For women 40 years of age, breast imaging studies such as mammography or ultrasound should be performed after resolution of the acute process to exclude unsuspected underlying breast cancer. […] Complications from mastitis and/or breast abscesses can be divided into acute and chronic complications. […] If rupture of an abscess occurs, this can lead to a draining sinus with a resulting mammary fistula. […] Breast infection is common and if managed appropriately will usually resolve with antibiotics alone.

• #43 Mastitis

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/mastitis/

  Mastitis is when your breast becomes swollen, hot and painful. […] Mastitis usually only affects 1 breast, and symptoms often come on quickly. […] A GP will usually prescribe antibiotics if you have mastitis and your symptoms are not getting better. […] If you are breastfeeding and keep getting mastitis, it might be due to problems with positioning and attaching. […] Mastitis is common in breastfeeding women as it can be caused by a build-up of milk.

• #44 Mastitis Spectrum: Diagnosis and Treatment  – The ObG Project

  https://www.obgproject.com/2024/10/22/mastitis-spectrum-diagnosis-and-treatment/

  Mastitis, an inflammation of the mammary gland, is a common complication sometimes leading to the early cessation of breastfeeding. […] It is not a single entity, but a spectrum of disorders resulting from ductal inflammation and edema. […] In the setting of tissue trauma, bacterial mastitis can progress to a phlegmon or abscess. […] If inflammatory mastitis is not resolved, it will lead to bacterial mastitis. […] Requires antibiotics. […] Common organisms include Staphylococcus and streptococcus. […] If symptoms >24 hours, professional medical evaluation should occur. […] Do not interrupt breastfeeding; continued breastfeeding does not pose infection risk to infant. […] Confirm with ultrasound. […] Requires drainage. […] Abscess is well defined vs ill-defined phlegmon. […] Symptoms recur ≤2 to 4 weeks. […] Laboratory testing with WBC count or C reactive protein is of little utility. […] Bacterial mastitis does not pose a risk to the infant or require cessation of breastfeeding.

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