Mastitis
Epidemiologia

Mastitis, czyli zapalenie gruczołu mlekowego, jest powszechnym i ekonomicznie obciążającym schorzeniem u bydła mlecznego, a także występuje u innych gatunków zwierząt mlecznych i ludzi. Częstość występowania mastitis podklinicznego u bydła waha się od 5% do 75% w stadach, a klinicznego od 18% do ponad 80% w różnych regionach świata, np. w Indiach i Etiopii. U kobiet karmiących piersią mastitis występuje u 2-10%, z nawrotami u 6,5-8,5% przypadków, a 3-11% może rozwinąć ropień piersi. Diagnostyka opiera się na badaniu liczby komórek somatycznych (SCC), gdzie próg infekcji ustalono na 200 000 komórek/ml mleka. Główne patogeny to Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae oraz Escherichia coli, zróżnicowane pod względem źródeł zakażeń (zakaźne i środowiskowe). Czynniki ryzyka obejmują wiek, liczbę laktacji, warunki środowiskowe, higienę doju oraz wcześniejsze infekcje strzyków. Mastitis powoduje znaczne straty ekonomiczne, w tym spadek produkcji mleka, koszty leczenia i uboju, a także ograniczenia w przetwórstwie mleka z powodu wysokiego SCC i pozostałości antybiotyków.

Epidemiologia zapalenia gruczołu mlekowego (Mastitis)

Zapalenie gruczołu mlekowego, określane jako mastitis, jest stanem zapalnym tkanki gruczołowej wymienia, który stanowi jedno z najbardziej rozpowszechnionych schorzeń dotykających bydło mleczne. Mastitis występuje w stadach na całym świecie i jest najbardziej obciążającą ekonomicznie chorobą, z jaką borykają się hodowcy bydła mlecznego 1. Choroba ta dotyka nie tylko bydło, ale także inne gatunki zwierząt mlecznych, w tym bawoły, kozy, oraz ludzi, przyjmując różne formy i manifestacje w zależności od gatunku i czynników środowiskowych 2.

Rozpowszechnienie Mastitis na świecie

Mastitis występuje na całym świecie, a jego częstość występowania waha się od 1000 do 10000 przypadków na 100 000 osób w przypadku ludzi 3. W przypadku bydła, częstość występowania mastitis podklinicznego (bez widocznych objawów) wynosi od 5% do 75% w całych stadach, a w przypadku ćwiartek wymienia od 2% do 40% 4. W Indiach odnotowano ponad 18% przypadków klinicznego zapalenia wymienia i 43% podklinicznego zapalenia wymienia 5.

W Etiopii ogólny wskaźnik częstości występowania mastitis waha się od 0,4% do 81,1%, co pokazuje dużą zmienność w zależności od regionu i warunków hodowli 6. W badaniu przeprowadzonym w Etiopii stwierdzono ogólny wskaźnik zachorowalności na mastitis kliniczne wynoszący 83,72 przypadków na 100 krów-lat ryzyka 7.

W Pakistanie Staphylococcus aureus jest jednym z najczęstszych czynników wywołujących mastitis u bawołów, odpowiadając za 46,72% przypadków 8. Z kolei w badaniu przeprowadzonym w regionie Hazara w Pakistanie izolowano S. aureus od 18,41% badanych zwierząt 9.

Mastitis u ludzi

Zapalenie gruczołu mlekowego jest jednym z najczęstszych problemów występujących u karmiących piersią kobiet 10. Szacuje się, że mastitis w czasie laktacji występuje u około 2-10% wszystkich karmiących kobiet, choć zgłaszana częstość występowania różni się w zależności od populacji, a niektóre badania podają wskaźniki sięgające nawet 30% 11.

Najczęstszy czas występowania mastitis przypada na drugi lub trzeci tydzień po porodzie 12. Badania podłużne śledzące kobiety od 3 do 12 miesięcy po porodzie wykazały częstość występowania mastitis na poziomie od 23,7% do 27,1%. Nawroty również są stosunkowo częste, dotykając od 6,5% do 8,5% kobiet, które wcześniej doświadczyły tego stanu 13.

Około 3% do 11% kobiet z ostrym zapaleniem gruczołu mlekowego przechodzi w stan rozwoju ropnia piersi 14. Częstość występowania mastitis wymagającego hospitalizacji jest niska; jedno badanie przeprowadzone przez Stafford i wsp. obejmowało 136 459 nowych matek i stwierdziło, że 127 kobiet wymagało hospitalizacji z powodu mastitis, co dało częstość występowania 9 na 10 000 porodów 15.

Czynniki ryzyka zapalenia gruczołu mlekowego

Czynniki ryzyka mastitis można ogólnie podzielić na czynniki patogeniczne, środowiskowe i związane z gospodarzem 16. Badania wskazują, że mastitis jest chorobą złożoną i wieloczynnikową, a jej występowanie zależy od zmiennych związanych ze zwierzęciem, środowiskiem i patogenem 17.

Wiele czynników wpływa na częstość występowania mastitis, takich jak wiek, liczba porodów i stadium laktacji krowy, liczba laktacji, zarządzanie stadem, środowisko hodowlane, temperatura, wilgotność, pory roku, rasy oraz charakterystyka doju i natura patogenu 18.

  • Wcześniejsze zapalenie strzyku może prowadzić do wystąpienia mastitis, a nawet przeniesienie wcześniejszej infekcji na następną laktację może również stwarzać ryzyko mastitis
  • Zły drenaż/nachylenie dla obszaru obory, co powoduje gromadzenie się cieczy, takiej jak mocz i woda używana do czyszczenia wymion podczas doju
  • Starszy wiek zwierząt i wyższa liczba wycieleń
  • Brak zanurzania strzyków po doju w środkach dezynfekujących
  • Zła kondycja ciała
  • Nieprawidłowy kształt wymienia

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W przypadku patogenów zakaźnych, najbardziej narażone na infekcję są dorosłe, laktujące bydło. Dla Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus i gronkowców niebędących aureus, występuje niewielka lub żadna sezonowa zmienność częstości infekcji 22.

Epidemiologia głównych patogenów wywołujących mastitis

Z epidemiologicznego punktu widzenia, główne rezerwuary infekcji dla większości patogenów można uznać za zakaźne lub środowiskowe, choć to rozróżnienie może być niejednoznaczne dla niektórych patogenów 23.

Zakaźne patogeny mastitis zazwyczaj rozprzestrzeniają się z zakażonych ćwiartek wymienia na zdrowe ćwiartki lub krowy podczas doju, poprzez ręce dojarzy lub aparaturę udojową. Główne patogeny zakaźne to Staphylococcus aureus i Streptococcus agalactiae 2425.

Z kolei patogeny środowiskowe pochodzą z otoczenia krowy i mogą infekować wymię w dowolnym momencie. Głównym źródłem patogenów środowiskowych jest ściółka używana do utrzymania bydła; jednak zanieczyszczone zanurzenia strzyków, infuzje domaciczne, woda używana do przygotowywania wymion przed dojem, stawy wodne lub błotne doły, zmiany skórne, urazy strzyków i muchy były incertowane jako źródła zakażenia 26.

Główne patogeny powodujące mastitis to E. coli, S. aureus i paciorkowce 27. Nasilenie mastitis wywołanego przez E. coli zależy od nasilenia infekcji, stadium laktacji, bilansu energetycznego, niedoboru witamin oraz statusu szczepienia 28.

W ostatnich latach, zwłaszcza w krajach o bardziej rozwiniętym przemyśle mleczarskim, częstość występowania mastitis zakaźnego znacznie spadła, podczas gdy względna częstość występowania mastitis środowiskowego wzrosła 29.

Monitorowanie i nadzór nad mastitis

Najważniejszym środkiem monitorowania podklinicznego mastitis w stadach bydła mlecznego jest badanie mleka pod kątem liczby komórek somatycznych (SCC) i obliczanie kluczowych wskaźników wydajności 30. Na arenie międzynarodowej SCC wynoszący 200 000 komórek/ml jest często uważany za próg określania statusu infekcji 31.

Dobry program badań przesiewowych pod kątem mastitis powinien ostrzegać, że problem istnieje, zanim będzie miał czas przekształcić się w katastrofę 32. Ostatecznym celem badań przesiewowych pod kątem mastitis jest zapobieganie wybuchu mastitis 33.

Konkretne czynniki ryzyka gospodarstwa określają, jak agresywny powinien być program badań przesiewowych. Najbardziej agresywny program badań przesiewowych łączyłby nadzór zbiorników mlecznych z hodowlą (lub PCR) poszczególnych świeżych krów, krów z klinicznym zapaleniem wymienia lub krów z wysoką liczbą komórek somatycznych (SCC) 34.

Najmniej agresywny, ale nadal akceptowalnie ostrożny wobec ryzyka program badań przesiewowych, obejmowałby miesięczne lub kwartalne badania przesiewowe zbiorników mlecznych (odpowiednie dla mniejszych stad) lub hodowle przesiewowe pojedynczych krów (większe stada) 35.

Badanie przesiewowe pojedynczych krów jest bardziej czułe (lepsze w znajdowaniu patogenów) niż badanie przesiewowe zbiorników mlecznych, ale jest bardziej kosztowne i pracochłonne 36. PCR jest dobrym narzędziem do wykrywania patogenów zakaźnych 37.

Mastitis kliniczne i podkliniczne

Mastitis kliniczne jest łatwo rozpoznawalne dzięki widocznym objawom klinicznym i zmianom w mleku 38. Charakteryzuje się ono widocznymi zmianami w wyglądzie mleka, takimi jak przebarwienia, obecność skrzepów i obecność dużej liczby leukocytów 39.

Mastitis podkliniczne jest trudniejsze do wykrycia, ponieważ nie występują widoczne oznaki kliniczne. Jednakże duża część zainfekowanych gruczołów nie jest łatwo wykrywalna przez ręczną palpację lub przez wzrokowe badanie mleka; te ćwiartki reprezentują zakażenie podkliniczne 40.

Mastitis podkliniczne jest bardziej rozpowszechnione niż kliniczne i powoduje większe straty ekonomiczne dla hodowców bydła mlecznego i bawołów 41. W jednym z badań przeprowadzonych w Indiach, częstość występowania mastitis podklinicznego w bydła w Indiach wahała się od 9,88 do 86,87% 42.

W badaniu przeprowadzonym na trzech farmach w systemie Compost Barn, średnia częstość występowania i częstość podklinicznego mastitis w okresie badania wynosiły odpowiednio 60,6% i 15,2% dla farmy 1, 31,1% i 13,6% dla farmy 2 oraz 39,2% i 13,8% dla farmy 3 43.

Konsekwencje ekonomiczne i zdrowotne mastitis

Mastitis powoduje gwałtowny spadek produkcji mleka i dochodów gospodarstw 44. Straty ekonomiczne związane z mastitis można podzielić na te związane z leczeniem chorych zwierząt, straty spowodowane zwiększoną śmiertelnością z powodu infekcji i ubojem dotkniętych zwierząt oraz pośrednie straty z powodu zmniejszonej produkcji mleka 45.

Przemysł spożywczy nie może przetwarzać mleka o wysokim SCC lub mleka zawierającego pozostałości antybiotyków 46. Około 60-70% wszystkich środków przeciwdrobnoustrojowych podawanych w gospodarstwach mlecznych jest stosowanych w celu zapobiegania i leczenia mastitis 47.

Straty ekonomiczne z powodu mastitis w Indiach szacowano na około 971,39 miliona dolarów amerykańskich (indyjskie 7165 krorów) 48. Mastitis jest odpowiedzialne za prawie 70% utraty mleka 49.

Badania sugerują, że mastitis zwiększa również ryzyko przeniesienia HIV na niemowlę poprzez karmienie piersią 50. Wiele kobiet przestaje karmić piersią z powodu mastitis lub ropni piersi 51.

Systemy kontroli i zapobiegania mastitis

Częstość występowania mastitis zakaźnego można zmniejszyć poprzez wdrożenie programu pięciopunktowego, który później został rozszerzony do programu dziesięciopunktowego 52. Program ten obejmuje takie działania jak:

  • Higiena podczas doju
  • Stosowanie dezynfekcji strzyków po doju
  • Odpowiednie leczenie mastitis klinicznego
  • Brakowanie przewlekle zakażonych krów
  • Odpowiednie zarządzanie systemem doju

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Zapobieganie mastitis klinicznemu u bydła jest zasadniczo identyczne z zapobieganiem mastitis podklinicznemu, tj. zmniejszenie narażenia strzyków na drobnoustroje 54.

Skuteczne strategie kontroli obejmują ulepszone praktyki zarządzania, rutynowe badania przesiewowe za pomocą metod takich jak California Mastitis Test, wdrażanie środków bezpieczeństwa biologicznego i ukierunkowane leczenie 55. Ponadto wdrażanie inicjatyw szczepień i edukacja rolników są niezbędne dla skutecznego zarządzania trwałością choroby 56.

Recenzja De Vliegher i wsp. (2012) zalecała kontrolę much, unikanie ssania międzykrownego oraz higieniczne i wygodne pomieszczenia jako ważne elementy zapobiegania mastitis u jałówek 57.

Nowoczesne podejścia do zarządzania mastitis

W ostatnich latach nastąpił znaczny postęp w zrozumieniu epidemiologii mastitis dzięki nowym technologiom i metodom badawczym. Ulepszona diagnostyka molekularna doprowadziła również do ważnych badań dotyczących mikrobiomu gruczołu mlekowego. Obecne badania wskazywałyby, że mikrobiom zdrowych ćwiartek wymienia znacznie różni się od ćwiartek dotkniętych klinicznym lub podklinicznym mastitis 58.

Ważne zmiany w biologii, diagnostyce, zarządzaniu i leczeniu mastitis u bydła w ostatniej dekadzie doprowadziły do znacznie innego zrozumienia infekcji wewnątrz wymienia oraz leczenia i zapobiegania tym infekcjom 59.

Analiza danych przy użyciu oprogramowania i zrozumienie epidemiologii mastitis w gospodarstwie pozostaje barierą dla bardziej powszechnej kontroli mastitis w Wielkiej Brytanii z kilku powodów 60. Badania wykazały, że ukierunkowane podejście do kontroli, a nie podejście uniwersalne, jest niezbędne przy pracy nad zmniejszeniem częstości nowych infekcji, dlatego plany kontroli mastitis muszą być specjalnie dostosowane do obecnej sytuacji stada 61.

Nowy raport analizy wzorców mastitis wykorzystuje uczenie maszynowe i badania z 1000 zestawów danych stada 62. Producenci, którzy są zaangażowani w pełną usługę rejestracji mleka, mogą teraz otrzymywać raport analizy wzorców mastitis bezpłatnie za pośrednictwem w pełni zautomatyzowanego procesu 63.

Nadzór i monitorowanie mastitis

Nadzór i monitorowanie mastitis są kluczowymi elementami skutecznego programu kontroli. W celu śledzenia i analizy przypadków mastitis stosuje się różne metody diagnostyczne i systemy monitorowania.

Metody diagnostyczne

Do diagnozowania mastitis stosuje się różne metody, w zależności od dostępnych zasobów i charakteru badanego problemu:

  • California Mastitis Test (CMT) – najczęściej stosowany przyłóżkowy test w publikacjach dotyczących mastitis
  • Testy papierków wskaźnikowych – szybki sposób sprawdzania pH mleka
  • Hodowla bakteryjna – pozwala na identyfikację konkretnych patogenów
  • PCR – metoda molekularna do wykrywania DNA patogenów
  • Liczenie komórek somatycznych (SCC) – wskaźnik stanu zdrowia wymienia

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Badania DNA patogenów mastitis przyczyniły się znacznie do naszego zrozumienia źródeł, dróg transmisji i prognozy dla wielu patogenów mastitis u bydła mlecznego oraz do naszego zrozumienia mechanizmów adaptacji do gospodarza i wywoływania choroby 66.

Zastosowanie systemów monitorowania

Systemy monitorowania mastitis są kluczowe dla wczesnego wykrywania problemów i wdrażania odpowiednich strategii kontroli:

  • Regularne badanie zbiorników mlecznych
  • Indywidualne badania krów, szczególnie świeżo wycielonych
  • Monitorowanie liczby komórek somatycznych w mleku zbiorczym
  • Rejestrowanie i analiza przypadków klinicznych
  • Wykorzystanie zaawansowanych systemów analitycznych do wykrywania wzorców występowania mastitis

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Rejestracja chorób bydła mlecznego jest dokonywana przez lekarzy weterynarii. Wysokiej jakości zapisy dotyczące chorób bydła mlecznego są interesujące nie tylko dla zarządzania mleczarstwem, ale także dla celów nadzoru nad chorobami, monitorowania stosowania antybiotyków i bezpieczeństwa żywności 69.

Badanie ujawniło obszary ze znacznie niższym prawdopodobieństwem wystąpienia mastitis klinicznego, ale z wysokim odsetkiem krów o złym wyniku zdrowotnym wymienia, co sugeruje niedostateczne zgłaszanie mastitis klinicznego 70.

Znaczenie matematycznej epidemiologii

Modele matematyczne są coraz częściej wykorzystywane do zrozumienia dynamiki transmisji mastitis i przewidywania wpływu różnych strategii kontroli:

W ramach jednego z projektów badawczych opracowano model opisujący dynamikę transmisji patogenów mastitis i oszacowania ogólnych efektów diagnostyki i leczenia podklinicznego mastitis w stadach bydła mlecznego 71.

Model pozwala na ilościowe określenie bezpośrednich (na poziomie krowy) i pośrednich (na poziomie stada) efektów leczenia podklinicznego mastitis podczas laktacji. Wyniki symulacji modelu są zgodne z koncepcją, że skuteczne leczenie podklinicznego mastitis prowadzące do zmniejszenia czasu trwania infekcji skutkuje zmniejszeniem liczby nowych infekcji w stadzie 72.

Z tych badań wyłoniły się trzy ważne koncepcje:

  • Pośrednie efekty leczenia podklinicznego mastitis mają największy wpływ w stadach, które z powodzeniem wdrożyły podstawowe praktyki kontroli mastitis zakaźnego, takie jak dezynfekcja końców strzyków po doju
  • Istnieje znaczna wartość w monitorowaniu i raportowaniu czasu trwania infekcji jako miary wyniku w badaniach terenowych terapii mastitis
  • Pośrednie lub populacyjne efekty programów leczenia mastitis powinny być oceniane jako element badań terenowych terapii mastitis

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Wyzwania w nadzorze nad mastitis

Pomimo postępów w dziedzinie nadzoru nad mastitis, istnieje kilka wyzwań, które należy pokonać:

  • Niedostateczne zgłaszanie przypadków, szczególnie mastitis podklinicznego
  • Zróżnicowane praktyki diagnostyczne i definicje przypadków między regionami
  • Ograniczony dostęp do zaawansowanych narzędzi diagnostycznych w niektórych regionach
  • Trudności w interpretacji danych z różnych źródeł
  • Niewystarczająca świadomość rolników na temat znaczenia zgłaszania przypadków mastitis

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Molekularna epidemiologia mastitis

Rozwój metod molekularnych przyniósł nowe możliwości w zakresie identyfikacji i charakterystyki patogenów powodujących mastitis, co z kolei wpłynęło na lepsze zrozumienie epidemiologii tej choroby.

Metody typowania molekularnego

W ciągu ostatnich dwóch dekad szeroka gama metod typowania molekularnego została wykorzystana do badania epidemiologii mastitis u bydła na poziomie podgatunku 76. Te metody obejmują:

  • MLST (Multi-Locus Sequence Typing) – metoda oparta na sekwencjonowaniu wielu genów metabolizmu podstawowego
  • Typowanie molekularne kapsuł – identyfikacja różnych serotypów kapsuł polisacharydowych
  • Sekwencjonowanie całego genomu – kompletna analiza genomu patogenu
  • PFGE (Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis) – analiza profilu DNA
  • PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) – amplifikacja określonych fragmentów DNA

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Badania epidemiologii molekularnej znacznie przyczyniły się do naszego zrozumienia źródeł, dróg transmisji i prognozy dla wielu patogenów mastitis u bydła oraz do zrozumienia mechanizmów adaptacji do gospodarza i wywoływania choroby 79.

Znaczenie sekwencjonowania genomu w nadzorze

Sekwencjonowanie całego genomu (WGS) staje się coraz ważniejszym narzędziem w nadzorze nad mastitis:

Badanie wykazało znaczenie sekwencjonowania całego genomu dla nadzoru nad S. uberis i śledzenia horyzontalnego nabywania genów oporności na środki przeciwdrobnoustrojowe, a także dostarczenia wglądu w genetyczne determinanty choroby, których nie można wywnioskować ze schematów MLST 80.

Przyszłe badania nad tym patogenem środowiskowym powinny obejmować genomowy nadzór i analizę pokrewieństwa genetycznego bezpośrednio w kontekście rozmieszczenia geograficznego, wraz z analizą genów zaangażowanych w oporność na środki przeciwdrobnoustrojowe i patogenezę 81.

Epidemiologia molekularna mastitis weszła teraz w erę genomiki, z zakończonym sekwencjonowaniem całego genomu dla głównych patogenów gram-dodatnich i trwającymi pracami dla kilku patogenów gram-ujemnych 82.

Oporność na antybiotyki wśród patogenów mastitis

Monitorowanie oporności na antybiotyki wśród patogenów mastitis jest kluczowym elementem nadzoru:

W badaniu przeprowadzonym w regionie Kenii, wysoka skumulowana oporność na środki przeciwdrobnoustrojowe została wykazana wobec ampicyliny (81,7%), podczas gdy niska oporność została wykazana wobec kanamycyny (33,7%) i gentamycyny (5,8%) 83.

Geny oporności na środki przeciwdrobnoustrojowe były rzadkie wśród 46 sekwencjonowanych izolatów owczych S. uberis 84. Odkrycie to pokazuje, że te geny oporności na środki przeciwdrobnoustrojowe zostały wykorzystane przez te ruchome elementy genetyczne i mogą rozprzestrzeniać się niezależnie w dyskretnych populacjach S. uberis 85.

Różnice w epidemiologii mastitis między regionami

Epidemiologia mastitis różni się znacznie między regionami geograficznymi, co jest związane z różnicami w systemach hodowli, praktykach zarządzania, klimacie i dominujących patogenach.

Czynniki wpływające na różnice regionalne

Różnice w częstości występowania mastitis między regionami mogą być spowodowane wieloma czynnikami:

  • Różnice w systemach hodowli i zarządzania stadem
  • Warunki klimatyczne i środowiskowe
  • Dominujące patogeny w danym regionie
  • Dostęp do usług weterynaryjnych i diagnostycznych
  • Poziom wiedzy i świadomości rolników
  • Wdrożone programy kontroli i zapobiegania

8687

Częstość występowania patogenów mastitis różni się w zależności od regionu i praktyk zarządzania 88.

Porównanie częstości występowania mastitis w różnych regionach

Poniżej przedstawiono przykłady częstości występowania mastitis w różnych regionach:

  • W Stanach Zjednoczonych: 67,9%
  • W Chinach: 53,8%
  • W Etiopii: 62,6%
  • W Kenii: 58,7%

89

W Pakistanie w badaniu przeprowadzonym w regionie Pothohar odnotowano ogólną częstość występowania mastitis podklinicznego na poziomie 67,3% 90. Co ciekawe, w gospodarstwach komercyjnych stwierdzono wysoką częstość występowania mastitis podklinicznego (77,3%) niż w gospodarstwach przydomowych (22,7%) 91.

W badaniu przeprowadzonym w Bangladeszu stwierdzono, że mastitis podkliniczne jest często przeoczane z powodu braku widocznych objawów klinicznych, ale stwarza znaczące wyzwania, ponieważ prowadzi do znacznych strat ekonomicznych i produkcyjnych 92.

Wpływ zmian klimatycznych na epidemiologię mastitis

Zmiany klimatyczne mogą wpływać na częstość występowania mastitis:

Wzrost częstości występowania mastitis podklinicznego może być również spowodowany zmianą parametrów klimatycznych na badanym obszarze w ciągu ostatnich kilku lat 93.

W badaniu przeprowadzonym na dromaderach w dwóch różnych strefach agro-ekologicznych Pakistanu (pustynia Cholistan i pasmo górskie Suleiman), wykazano ogólną częstość występowania mastitis podklinicznego na poziomie 47,14% 94. Analiza statystyczna wykazała nieistotną różnicę między pustynią Cholistan a pasmem górskim Suleiman (odpowiednio 48,18% i 46,09%), ale S. aureus był izolowany z 53,03% próbek mleka, ze znacznie wyższą częstością występowania na pustyni Cholistan (66,10%) w porównaniu do pasma Suleiman (57,98%) 95.

Okres roku wpłynął na wynik higieny wymienia, wzmacniając znaczenie zarządzania ściółką przez cały rok 96.

Te wyniki sugerują, że patogeny izolowane z mleka u zwierząt trzymanych w systemie Compost Barn w warunkach tropikalnych są podobne do innych systemów utrzymania stosowanych gdzie indziej 97.

Znaczenie dostosowania programów kontroli do lokalnych warunków

Ze względu na różnice regionalne, programy kontroli mastitis muszą być dostosowane do lokalnych warunków:

Zrozumienie przez rolników przyczyny i transmisji mastitis jest słabe 98. Decydenci powinni opracować metody kontroli poprzez szczepienia przeciwko wysoce patogennym czynnikom i opracować wytyczne dotyczące zarządzania produkcją mleczarską w kraju 99.

Niniejszy przegląd podkreśla krytyczną konieczność jednolitej strategii w zakresie kontroli mastitis, łączącej postęp naukowy z efektywnymi praktykami gospodarskimi w celu ochrony sektora mleczarskiego przed tym ciągłym wyzwaniem 100.

Badania wykazały, że ukierunkowane podejście do kontroli, a nie podejście uniwersalne, jest niezbędne przy pracy nad zmniejszeniem częstości nowych infekcji, dlatego plany kontroli mastitis muszą być specjalnie dostosowane do obecnej sytuacji stada 101.

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  1. 21.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Epidemiology and Classification of Mastitis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7760962/
    Farmers should focus on milk quality over quantity. […] Mastitis affects herds in all countries and is the most economically burdensome disease encountered by dairy farmers. […] This review summarizes the current knowledge regarding mastitis prevalence, the characteristics of its main causative agents, and the effects of mastitis on dairy production. […] Mastitis, which manifests as inflammation of the mammary gland, is currently one of the most widespread diseases affecting dairy cattle. […] Approximately 60-70% of all antimicrobials administered on dairy farms are for preventing and treating mastitis. […] Mastitis causes a sharp decrease in milk production and farm revenue. […] The prevalence of contagious mastitis can be reduced through the implementation of a five-point program, which was later extended to a ten-point program.
  • #2
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10911-011-9234-0
    Mastitis is broadly defined as the inflammation of the mammary gland; however, the concept of mastitis is customized to address its social and clinical impact in the case of humans and the health, welfare, and economic consequences for other mammals. […] Together these factors influence the most prevalent etiological agents for each species and might determine the possibility of interspecies transmission with its consequences to public health. […] The present review will summarize and compare reports on mastitis etiology and its epidemiology in humans and food animal species. […] The incidence rate of clinical mastitis on Canadian dairy farms. […] Survey of the incidence and aetiology of mastitis on dairy farms in England and Wales. […] Incidence of clinical mastitis in dairy herds grouped in three categories by bulk milk somatic cell counts.
  • #3 Mastitis epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Mastitis_epidemiology_and_demographics
    Worldwide, the prevalence of mastitis ranges from a low of 1,000 per 100,000 persons to a high of 10,000 per 100,000 persons. […] The incidence of puerperal mastitis ranges from a low of 2,900 per 100,000 persons to a high of 9,500 per 100,000 persons, with an average incidence of 6,200 per 100,000 deliveries within the first seven weeks after delivery but most common during the second and third weeks. […] Mastitis commonly affects breastfeeding mothers between the ages of 21 to 35 years, with the highest occurrence in those between the ages of 30 to 34 years, even when parity and full-time employment are controlled. […] Women are more commonly affected with mastitis than men. […] There is no racial predilection to mastitis. […] Geographically the incidence of mastitis is higher in developing countries.
  • #4 Mastitis in Cattle – Reproductive System – MSD Veterinary Manual
    https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/mastitis-in-large-animals/mastitis-in-cattle
    The bedding used to house cattle is the primary source of environmental pathogens; however, contaminated teat dips, intramammary infusions, water used for udder preparation before milking, water ponds or mud holes, skin lesions, teat trauma, and flies have all been incriminated as sources of infection. […] All dairy herds have cows with subclinical mastitis; however, prevalence of infected cows varies from 5% to 75%, and quarters from 2% to 40%. […] Historically, subclinical mastitis control focused on the contagious pathogens Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus, as well as other gram-positive cocci. […] Herds have been identified that have considerable subclinical mastitis caused by gram-negative rods such as Klebsiella spp, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and other atypical pathogens such as Candida spp and Prototheca zopfii.
  • #5 1 Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis – Management of Metabolic and Production Disorders in Cattle
    https://opentextbooks.colvee.org/metabolicandproductiondisorderscattle/chapter/1-epidemiology-of-bovine-mastitis/
    In lesson one, we will deal with the Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis and […] we will be seeing a brief; […] Prevalence and Incidence Mastitis and also […] Coming to the Prevalence, it has not spared any country and as far as India is concerned, there is more than 18% of clinical Mastitis Prevalence and 43% of subclinical Mastitis Prevalence in India, West Bengal. […] Moving to Risk Factors for Mastitis: Mastitis risk factors can be broadly classified due to Pathogen factors, Environmental factors, and Host factors. […] The other factors are previous inflammation of the teat, so any teat like this can lead to the occurrence of Mastitis and even the carryover of the previous infection to the next lactation can also pose a risk of Mastitis. […] Commonly the Bacterial causes are more and even among that worldwide. staphylococcus, streptococcus, E-coli, and mycoplasma Mastitis are the common ones. […] we have seen the Prevalence and Incidence of Mastitis […] we have seen the Risk factors for Mastitis […] we have seen the Common Pathogens which cause Mastitis.
  • #6 Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Health – Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis in Ethiopia
    https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/epidemiology-of-bovine-mastitis-in-ethiopia-99539.html
    The prevalence reports were heterogeneous and were affected by several factors including locality, breed, management and diagnostic methods used. […] The prevalence for all types of Mastitis (i.e., without considering the classifications) ranged from 0.4% to 81.1%. […] The most commonly used cow side test in the publications reviewed was CMT, followed by indicator paper test. […] Prevalence of Mastitis is significantly associated with milking hygienic practice. […] The likelihood of Mastitis is higher in multiparous cows having four or more calvings compared with primiparous cows as studies conducted in Ethiopia shows. […] Prevalence of Mastitis at cow level is higher in those farms with poor drainage/slope for stable area which results accumulation of liquid such as urine and water used for cleaning of udders during milking, the liquid material mixed with the feces of the cows that led to dirty udder and teat there infection could enter. […] The sub clinical Mastitis which is highly prevalent and economically important should gain attention.
  • #7 Incidence rate, risk factors, and bacterial causes of clinical mastitis on dairy farms in Hawassa City, southern Ethiopia | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-37328-1
    Mastitis is the most common disease of dairy cattle worldwide, causing economic losses due to reduced yield and poor quality of milk. […] The overall incidence rate of CM was 83.72 (95% CI: 63.298.2) cases per 100 cow-years at risk. […] The high incidence rate of CM in the present study shows that the disease spreads rapidly and can be responsible for a significant economic loss to milk producers in the study area. […] Studies in different countries indicate that CM is a multifactorial disease resulting from exposure to pathogens, the presence of animal and herd-level risk factors, and interactions between these factors. […] The current study found a higher incidence rate of clinical mastitis in dairy farms in Hawassa City. This suggests that the disease is spreading rapidly in dairy farms and requires due attention. […] The study further demonstrated that both contagious and environmental pathogens are implicated in causing clinical mastitis on dairy farms.
  • #8 Epidemiology and molecular characterization of Staphylococcus aureus causing bovine mastitis in water buffaloes from the Hazara division of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0268152
    In Pakistan, S. aureus is one of the most common causative agents of bovine mastitis in buffaloes, accounting for 46.72% of cases. While numerous studies have examined the prevalence and epidemiology of mastitis in various regions of Pakistan, detailed molecular typing of the staphylococci from cases of mastitis in the country is limited. The present study, therefore, examines both the epidemiology and molecular characterization of S. aureus from bovine mastitis cases in water buffaloes of different districts of Hazara Division, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan. […] A total of 440 milking water buffaloes were sampled in the study area, each of which has 4 independent quarters, for a total of 1760 quarters. Of the 440 animals sampled less than half (152; 34.55%) were found to be SFMT positive, indicating the presence of an infection. All the infections contained a bacterial pathogen, as the same percentage of samples (34.55%) resulted in organism growth. […] This study represents the most complete molecular typing data for S. aureus causing bovine mastitis in the Hazara district of Pakistan, and the country as a whole.
  • #9 Epidemiology and molecular characterization of Staphylococcus aureus causing bovine mastitis in water buffaloes from the Hazara division of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0268152
    Buffalo represent a major source of milk in Pakistan. However, production is impacted by the disease bovine mastitis. Mastitis causes significant economic losses, with Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) being one of its major causative agents. While much work has been done understanding the epidemiology of bovine mastitis in Pakistan, detailed molecular characterization of the associated S. aureus is unavailable. In the current study both the epidemiological and molecular characterization of S. aureus from bovine mastitis in the Hazara division of Pakistan are examined. S. aureus was isolated from 18.41% of the animals, and left quarters more prone to infection (69.6%) than right quarters (30.4%). Sub-clinical mastitis (75.31%) was more prevalent than clinical mastitis (24.69%), with infections evenly distributed amongst the eight districts.
  • #10 Epidemiology of Mastitis
    https://www.nestlenutrition-institute.org/publication-series/epidemiology-mastitis
    Mastitis is one of the most common problems encountered by the breastfeeding mother. […] Many women stop breastfeeding due to mastitis or breast abscesses. […] Mastitis is one of the most common problems encountered by the breastfeeding mother. […] Lactational mastitis has been estimated to occur in approximately 210% of all breastfeeding women, though the reported incidence varies from one population to another, with some studies quoting rates as high as 30%. […] The most common time of occurrence of mastitis is in the second or third week postpartum. […] The development of a breast abscess is a severe complication of mastitis. […] The incidence of mastitis requiring hospitalization is low; one study by Stafford et al. included 136,459 new mothers, and found 127 women required hospitalization for mastitis, which resulted in an incidence of 9 per 10,000 deliveries. […] Research suggests that mastitis also increases the risk of transmission of HIV to the infant through breastfeeding.
  • #11 Epidemiology of Mastitis
    https://www.nestlenutrition-institute.org/publication-series/epidemiology-mastitis
    Mastitis is one of the most common problems encountered by the breastfeeding mother. […] Many women stop breastfeeding due to mastitis or breast abscesses. […] Mastitis is one of the most common problems encountered by the breastfeeding mother. […] Lactational mastitis has been estimated to occur in approximately 210% of all breastfeeding women, though the reported incidence varies from one population to another, with some studies quoting rates as high as 30%. […] The most common time of occurrence of mastitis is in the second or third week postpartum. […] The development of a breast abscess is a severe complication of mastitis. […] The incidence of mastitis requiring hospitalization is low; one study by Stafford et al. included 136,459 new mothers, and found 127 women required hospitalization for mastitis, which resulted in an incidence of 9 per 10,000 deliveries. […] Research suggests that mastitis also increases the risk of transmission of HIV to the infant through breastfeeding.
  • #12 Epidemiology of Mastitis
    https://www.nestlenutrition-institute.org/publication-series/epidemiology-mastitis
    Mastitis is one of the most common problems encountered by the breastfeeding mother. […] Many women stop breastfeeding due to mastitis or breast abscesses. […] Mastitis is one of the most common problems encountered by the breastfeeding mother. […] Lactational mastitis has been estimated to occur in approximately 210% of all breastfeeding women, though the reported incidence varies from one population to another, with some studies quoting rates as high as 30%. […] The most common time of occurrence of mastitis is in the second or third week postpartum. […] The development of a breast abscess is a severe complication of mastitis. […] The incidence of mastitis requiring hospitalization is low; one study by Stafford et al. included 136,459 new mothers, and found 127 women required hospitalization for mastitis, which resulted in an incidence of 9 per 10,000 deliveries. […] Research suggests that mastitis also increases the risk of transmission of HIV to the infant through breastfeeding.
  • #13 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/
    Lactational mastitis is a common complication of breastfeeding and can significantly influence the decision to discontinue nursing, with 1 in 4 women indicating mastitis as the deciding factor. […] Despite this, epidemiological studies regarding lactational mastitis incidence and risk factors are lacking. Reported rates of mastitis vary widely depending on definitions and study parameters, with estimates ranging from 1% to as high as 33% globally. […] Older studies have reported an incidence of approximately 7% and 10% in the United States. […] In some studies, the incidence of lactational mastitis peaks during the early postpartum period, particularly within the first 25 weeks after delivery, and declines thereafter. […] Longitudinal studies tracking women from 3 to 12 months postpartum have found mastitis incidence rates between 23.7% and 27.1%. Recurrence is also relatively common, affecting 6.5% to 8.5% of women who have previously experienced the condition. About 3% to 11% of women with acute mastitis progress to develop a breast abscess.
  • #14 Acute Mastitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557782/
    Lactational mastitis is a common complication of breastfeeding and can significantly influence the decision to discontinue nursing, with 1 in 4 women indicating mastitis as the deciding factor. […] Despite this, epidemiological studies regarding lactational mastitis incidence and risk factors are lacking. Reported rates of mastitis vary widely depending on definitions and study parameters, with estimates ranging from 1% to as high as 33% globally. […] Older studies have reported an incidence of approximately 7% and 10% in the United States. […] In some studies, the incidence of lactational mastitis peaks during the early postpartum period, particularly within the first 25 weeks after delivery, and declines thereafter. […] Longitudinal studies tracking women from 3 to 12 months postpartum have found mastitis incidence rates between 23.7% and 27.1%. Recurrence is also relatively common, affecting 6.5% to 8.5% of women who have previously experienced the condition. About 3% to 11% of women with acute mastitis progress to develop a breast abscess.
  • #15 Epidemiology of Mastitis
    https://www.nestlenutrition-institute.org/publication-series/epidemiology-mastitis
    Mastitis is one of the most common problems encountered by the breastfeeding mother. […] Many women stop breastfeeding due to mastitis or breast abscesses. […] Mastitis is one of the most common problems encountered by the breastfeeding mother. […] Lactational mastitis has been estimated to occur in approximately 210% of all breastfeeding women, though the reported incidence varies from one population to another, with some studies quoting rates as high as 30%. […] The most common time of occurrence of mastitis is in the second or third week postpartum. […] The development of a breast abscess is a severe complication of mastitis. […] The incidence of mastitis requiring hospitalization is low; one study by Stafford et al. included 136,459 new mothers, and found 127 women required hospitalization for mastitis, which resulted in an incidence of 9 per 10,000 deliveries. […] Research suggests that mastitis also increases the risk of transmission of HIV to the infant through breastfeeding.
  • #16 1 Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis – Management of Metabolic and Production Disorders in Cattle
    https://opentextbooks.colvee.org/metabolicandproductiondisorderscattle/chapter/1-epidemiology-of-bovine-mastitis/
    In lesson one, we will deal with the Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis and […] we will be seeing a brief; […] Prevalence and Incidence Mastitis and also […] Coming to the Prevalence, it has not spared any country and as far as India is concerned, there is more than 18% of clinical Mastitis Prevalence and 43% of subclinical Mastitis Prevalence in India, West Bengal. […] Moving to Risk Factors for Mastitis: Mastitis risk factors can be broadly classified due to Pathogen factors, Environmental factors, and Host factors. […] The other factors are previous inflammation of the teat, so any teat like this can lead to the occurrence of Mastitis and even the carryover of the previous infection to the next lactation can also pose a risk of Mastitis. […] Commonly the Bacterial causes are more and even among that worldwide. staphylococcus, streptococcus, E-coli, and mycoplasma Mastitis are the common ones. […] we have seen the Prevalence and Incidence of Mastitis […] we have seen the Risk factors for Mastitis […] we have seen the Common Pathogens which cause Mastitis.
  • #17 Review on Epidemiology of Clinical and Subclinical Mastitis on Dairy Cows | Argaw | Food Science and Quality Management
    https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/FSQM/article/view/31012
    Mastitis is a complex and multi-factorial disease, the occurrence of which depends on variables related to the animal, environment and pathogen. […] Mastitis is very common in cows of both developed and developing countries. […] Mastitis is one of the most economically important disease of dairy sector and is an important factor that limits dairy production in Ethiopia, giving emphasis only to clinical mastitis and subclinical mastitis, (with prevalence of 23% to 85%) is with little attention, causing heavy financial loses and public health hazards. […] Many factors influence the incidence of mastitis, such as Age, parity and lactation stage of a cow, lactation number, herd management, husbandry environment, temperature, humidity, seasons, breeds, and milking characteristics, and nature of the pathogen.
  • #18 Review on Epidemiology of Clinical and Subclinical Mastitis on Dairy Cows | Argaw | Food Science and Quality Management
    https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/FSQM/article/view/31012
    Mastitis is a complex and multi-factorial disease, the occurrence of which depends on variables related to the animal, environment and pathogen. […] Mastitis is very common in cows of both developed and developing countries. […] Mastitis is one of the most economically important disease of dairy sector and is an important factor that limits dairy production in Ethiopia, giving emphasis only to clinical mastitis and subclinical mastitis, (with prevalence of 23% to 85%) is with little attention, causing heavy financial loses and public health hazards. […] Many factors influence the incidence of mastitis, such as Age, parity and lactation stage of a cow, lactation number, herd management, husbandry environment, temperature, humidity, seasons, breeds, and milking characteristics, and nature of the pathogen.
  • #19 1 Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis – Management of Metabolic and Production Disorders in Cattle
    https://opentextbooks.colvee.org/metabolicandproductiondisorderscattle/chapter/1-epidemiology-of-bovine-mastitis/
    In lesson one, we will deal with the Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis and […] we will be seeing a brief; […] Prevalence and Incidence Mastitis and also […] Coming to the Prevalence, it has not spared any country and as far as India is concerned, there is more than 18% of clinical Mastitis Prevalence and 43% of subclinical Mastitis Prevalence in India, West Bengal. […] Moving to Risk Factors for Mastitis: Mastitis risk factors can be broadly classified due to Pathogen factors, Environmental factors, and Host factors. […] The other factors are previous inflammation of the teat, so any teat like this can lead to the occurrence of Mastitis and even the carryover of the previous infection to the next lactation can also pose a risk of Mastitis. […] Commonly the Bacterial causes are more and even among that worldwide. staphylococcus, streptococcus, E-coli, and mycoplasma Mastitis are the common ones. […] we have seen the Prevalence and Incidence of Mastitis […] we have seen the Risk factors for Mastitis […] we have seen the Common Pathogens which cause Mastitis.
  • #20 Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Health – Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis in Ethiopia
    https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/epidemiology-of-bovine-mastitis-in-ethiopia-99539.html
    The prevalence reports were heterogeneous and were affected by several factors including locality, breed, management and diagnostic methods used. […] The prevalence for all types of Mastitis (i.e., without considering the classifications) ranged from 0.4% to 81.1%. […] The most commonly used cow side test in the publications reviewed was CMT, followed by indicator paper test. […] Prevalence of Mastitis is significantly associated with milking hygienic practice. […] The likelihood of Mastitis is higher in multiparous cows having four or more calvings compared with primiparous cows as studies conducted in Ethiopia shows. […] Prevalence of Mastitis at cow level is higher in those farms with poor drainage/slope for stable area which results accumulation of liquid such as urine and water used for cleaning of udders during milking, the liquid material mixed with the feces of the cows that led to dirty udder and teat there infection could enter. […] The sub clinical Mastitis which is highly prevalent and economically important should gain attention.
  • #21 Epidemiology of Subclinical Mastitis in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius) of Two Distinct Agro-Ecological Zones of Pakistan
    https://researcherslinks.com/current-issues/Epidemiology-of-Subclinical-Mastitis-in-Dromedary/20/1/2011/html
    The chi square test showed that teat dipping, age group, parity number and body condition are significantly associated (P0.05) with subclinical mastitis. Teat abnormality was significantly (P0.05) associated with mastitis in Cholistan while no such association (P0.05) was noticed in animals of Suleiman range. The determinants like camel rearing system, water channels source, tick infestation and feeding system presented no association (P0.05) with subclinical mastitis. […] This study was conducted to determine the influence of climate on the prevalence of S. aureus caused subclinical mastitis in camels of distinct ecological zones of Pakistan. Results showed astonishingly higher rates of prevalence in study areas. Findings of the current study was in line with the previous reports of Aqib et al. (2017b) and Ahmad et al. (2012) who reported 41.67% and 46% prevalence of subclinical mastitis, respectively. The significant association of determinants like teat dipping, age group, parity number and body condition with mastitis was found in line with findings of Aqib et al. (2017a), Husein et al. (2013) and Ahmad et al. (2012). The higher percentage of S. aureus can be related to poor farm management and unhygienic milking practices that might have led to robust spread of this contagious pathogen in camels (Radostitis et al., 2007).
  • #22 Mastitis in Cattle – Reproductive System – MSD Veterinary Manual
    https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/mastitis-in-large-animals/mastitis-in-cattle
    For contagious pathogens, adult lactating cattle are most at risk of infection. […] For Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus, and nonaureus staphylococci, there is little or no seasonal variation in the incidence of infection. […] The most important measure to monitor subclinical mastitis in dairy herds is testing milk for SCCs and the calculation of key performance indicators. […] Internationally, an SCC of 200,000 cells/mL is often considered the threshold for determining infection status. […] The primary reservoir of infection is the mammary gland; transmission occurs at milking with either milkers hands or milking equipment acting as fomites. […] The goal is to eliminate the infection by causing fibrosis of the affected quarter, thus decreasing the risk of infection for other cows. […] Prevention of clinical mastitis in cattle is essentially identical to that for subclinical mastitis, ie, decreasing microbe exposure to the teats.
  • #23 Mastitis in Cattle – Reproductive System – MSD Veterinary Manual
    https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/mastitis-in-large-animals/mastitis-in-cattle
    With few exceptions, mastitis occurs when microbes enter the teat via the teat canal. […] From an epidemiological standpoint, the primary reservoirs of infection for most pathogens may be regarded as contagious or environmental, although this separation can be ambiguous for some pathogens. […] Except for Mycoplasma spp, which may spread from cow to cow through aerosol transmission and invade the udder subsequent to bacteremia, contagious spread of pathogens occurs during milking, through such pathways as milkers hands or the liners of the milking unit. […] Most other pathogens are opportunistic invaders from the cows environment, although other streptococci and staphylococci may also have a contagious component. […] In addition, contagious transmission may infrequently occur for pathogens typically associated with environmental reservoirs, either through the development of host-adapted virulence factors or by shedding of overwhelming numbers of bacteria from infected udders.
  • #24 Mastitis in Cattle – Reproductive System – MSD Veterinary Manual
    https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/mastitis-in-large-animals/mastitis-in-cattle
    With few exceptions, mastitis occurs when microbes enter the teat via the teat canal. […] From an epidemiological standpoint, the primary reservoirs of infection for most pathogens may be regarded as contagious or environmental, although this separation can be ambiguous for some pathogens. […] Except for Mycoplasma spp, which may spread from cow to cow through aerosol transmission and invade the udder subsequent to bacteremia, contagious spread of pathogens occurs during milking, through such pathways as milkers hands or the liners of the milking unit. […] Most other pathogens are opportunistic invaders from the cows environment, although other streptococci and staphylococci may also have a contagious component. […] In addition, contagious transmission may infrequently occur for pathogens typically associated with environmental reservoirs, either through the development of host-adapted virulence factors or by shedding of overwhelming numbers of bacteria from infected udders.
  • #25 Mastitis in Cattle – Reproductive System – MSD Veterinary Manual
    https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/mastitis-in-large-animals/mastitis-in-cattle
    The bedding used to house cattle is the primary source of environmental pathogens; however, contaminated teat dips, intramammary infusions, water used for udder preparation before milking, water ponds or mud holes, skin lesions, teat trauma, and flies have all been incriminated as sources of infection. […] All dairy herds have cows with subclinical mastitis; however, prevalence of infected cows varies from 5% to 75%, and quarters from 2% to 40%. […] Historically, subclinical mastitis control focused on the contagious pathogens Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus, as well as other gram-positive cocci. […] Herds have been identified that have considerable subclinical mastitis caused by gram-negative rods such as Klebsiella spp, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and other atypical pathogens such as Candida spp and Prototheca zopfii.
  • #26 Mastitis in Cattle – Reproductive System – MSD Veterinary Manual
    https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/mastitis-in-large-animals/mastitis-in-cattle
    The bedding used to house cattle is the primary source of environmental pathogens; however, contaminated teat dips, intramammary infusions, water used for udder preparation before milking, water ponds or mud holes, skin lesions, teat trauma, and flies have all been incriminated as sources of infection. […] All dairy herds have cows with subclinical mastitis; however, prevalence of infected cows varies from 5% to 75%, and quarters from 2% to 40%. […] Historically, subclinical mastitis control focused on the contagious pathogens Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus, as well as other gram-positive cocci. […] Herds have been identified that have considerable subclinical mastitis caused by gram-negative rods such as Klebsiella spp, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and other atypical pathogens such as Candida spp and Prototheca zopfii.
  • #27 Epidemiology and Classification of Mastitis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7760962/
    Farmers should focus on milk quality over quantity. […] Mastitis affects herds in all countries and is the most economically burdensome disease encountered by dairy farmers. […] This review summarizes the current knowledge regarding mastitis prevalence, the characteristics of its main causative agents, and the effects of mastitis on dairy production. […] Mastitis, which manifests as inflammation of the mammary gland, is currently one of the most widespread diseases affecting dairy cattle. […] Approximately 60-70% of all antimicrobials administered on dairy farms are for preventing and treating mastitis. […] Mastitis causes a sharp decrease in milk production and farm revenue. […] The prevalence of contagious mastitis can be reduced through the implementation of a five-point program, which was later extended to a ten-point program.
  • #28 Epidemiology and Classification of Mastitis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7760962/
    In recent years, and especially in countries with more highly developed dairy farming industries, the prevalence of contagious mastitis has considerably declined while the relative incidence of environmental mastitis has increased. […] The pathogens found in cases of subclinical mastitis usually originate from persistent or chronic infections. […] The disease is mostly transmitted because of poor hygiene during milking and because infected cows are not milked last. […] The primary pathogens that cause mastitis are E. coli, S. aureus, and streptococci. […] The severity of mastitis caused by E. coli depends upon the severity of infection, stage of lactation, energy balance, vitamin deficiency, and vaccination status. […] The clinical outcome of E. coli mastitis depends upon the severity of infection.
  • #29 Epidemiology and Classification of Mastitis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7760962/
    In recent years, and especially in countries with more highly developed dairy farming industries, the prevalence of contagious mastitis has considerably declined while the relative incidence of environmental mastitis has increased. […] The pathogens found in cases of subclinical mastitis usually originate from persistent or chronic infections. […] The disease is mostly transmitted because of poor hygiene during milking and because infected cows are not milked last. […] The primary pathogens that cause mastitis are E. coli, S. aureus, and streptococci. […] The severity of mastitis caused by E. coli depends upon the severity of infection, stage of lactation, energy balance, vitamin deficiency, and vaccination status. […] The clinical outcome of E. coli mastitis depends upon the severity of infection.
  • #30 Mastitis in Cattle – Reproductive System – MSD Veterinary Manual
    https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/mastitis-in-large-animals/mastitis-in-cattle
    For contagious pathogens, adult lactating cattle are most at risk of infection. […] For Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus, and nonaureus staphylococci, there is little or no seasonal variation in the incidence of infection. […] The most important measure to monitor subclinical mastitis in dairy herds is testing milk for SCCs and the calculation of key performance indicators. […] Internationally, an SCC of 200,000 cells/mL is often considered the threshold for determining infection status. […] The primary reservoir of infection is the mammary gland; transmission occurs at milking with either milkers hands or milking equipment acting as fomites. […] The goal is to eliminate the infection by causing fibrosis of the affected quarter, thus decreasing the risk of infection for other cows. […] Prevention of clinical mastitis in cattle is essentially identical to that for subclinical mastitis, ie, decreasing microbe exposure to the teats.
  • #31 Mastitis in Cattle – Reproductive System – MSD Veterinary Manual
    https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/mastitis-in-large-animals/mastitis-in-cattle
    For contagious pathogens, adult lactating cattle are most at risk of infection. […] For Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus, and nonaureus staphylococci, there is little or no seasonal variation in the incidence of infection. […] The most important measure to monitor subclinical mastitis in dairy herds is testing milk for SCCs and the calculation of key performance indicators. […] Internationally, an SCC of 200,000 cells/mL is often considered the threshold for determining infection status. […] The primary reservoir of infection is the mammary gland; transmission occurs at milking with either milkers hands or milking equipment acting as fomites. […] The goal is to eliminate the infection by causing fibrosis of the affected quarter, thus decreasing the risk of infection for other cows. […] Prevention of clinical mastitis in cattle is essentially identical to that for subclinical mastitis, ie, decreasing microbe exposure to the teats.
  • #32 Cost-effective mastitis screening programs
    https://extension.umn.edu/dairy-milking-cows/mastitis-screening
    A good mastitis screening program will alert you that a problem is present before it has time to grow into a disaster. […] The ultimate purpose of mastitis screening is to prevent a mastitis outbreak. […] A farm’s specific risk factors dictate how aggressive the screening program should be. […] The most aggressive screening program would combine bulk tank surveillance with culture (or PCR) of individual fresh cows, cows with clinical mastitis or cows with high somatic cell counts (SCC). […] The least aggressive but still acceptably risk-averse screening program would be monthly or quarterly bulk tank screening (appropriate for smaller herds), or screening cultures of individual cows (larger herds). […] Individual cow screening is more sensitive (better at finding pathogens) than bulk tank screening, but is more costly and labor intensive. […] PCR is a good tool to detect contagious pathogens.
  • #33 Cost-effective mastitis screening programs
    https://extension.umn.edu/dairy-milking-cows/mastitis-screening
    A good mastitis screening program will alert you that a problem is present before it has time to grow into a disaster. […] The ultimate purpose of mastitis screening is to prevent a mastitis outbreak. […] A farm’s specific risk factors dictate how aggressive the screening program should be. […] The most aggressive screening program would combine bulk tank surveillance with culture (or PCR) of individual fresh cows, cows with clinical mastitis or cows with high somatic cell counts (SCC). […] The least aggressive but still acceptably risk-averse screening program would be monthly or quarterly bulk tank screening (appropriate for smaller herds), or screening cultures of individual cows (larger herds). […] Individual cow screening is more sensitive (better at finding pathogens) than bulk tank screening, but is more costly and labor intensive. […] PCR is a good tool to detect contagious pathogens.
  • #34 Cost-effective mastitis screening programs
    https://extension.umn.edu/dairy-milking-cows/mastitis-screening
    A good mastitis screening program will alert you that a problem is present before it has time to grow into a disaster. […] The ultimate purpose of mastitis screening is to prevent a mastitis outbreak. […] A farm’s specific risk factors dictate how aggressive the screening program should be. […] The most aggressive screening program would combine bulk tank surveillance with culture (or PCR) of individual fresh cows, cows with clinical mastitis or cows with high somatic cell counts (SCC). […] The least aggressive but still acceptably risk-averse screening program would be monthly or quarterly bulk tank screening (appropriate for smaller herds), or screening cultures of individual cows (larger herds). […] Individual cow screening is more sensitive (better at finding pathogens) than bulk tank screening, but is more costly and labor intensive. […] PCR is a good tool to detect contagious pathogens.
  • #35 Cost-effective mastitis screening programs
    https://extension.umn.edu/dairy-milking-cows/mastitis-screening
    A good mastitis screening program will alert you that a problem is present before it has time to grow into a disaster. […] The ultimate purpose of mastitis screening is to prevent a mastitis outbreak. […] A farm’s specific risk factors dictate how aggressive the screening program should be. […] The most aggressive screening program would combine bulk tank surveillance with culture (or PCR) of individual fresh cows, cows with clinical mastitis or cows with high somatic cell counts (SCC). […] The least aggressive but still acceptably risk-averse screening program would be monthly or quarterly bulk tank screening (appropriate for smaller herds), or screening cultures of individual cows (larger herds). […] Individual cow screening is more sensitive (better at finding pathogens) than bulk tank screening, but is more costly and labor intensive. […] PCR is a good tool to detect contagious pathogens.
  • #36 Cost-effective mastitis screening programs
    https://extension.umn.edu/dairy-milking-cows/mastitis-screening
    A good mastitis screening program will alert you that a problem is present before it has time to grow into a disaster. […] The ultimate purpose of mastitis screening is to prevent a mastitis outbreak. […] A farm’s specific risk factors dictate how aggressive the screening program should be. […] The most aggressive screening program would combine bulk tank surveillance with culture (or PCR) of individual fresh cows, cows with clinical mastitis or cows with high somatic cell counts (SCC). […] The least aggressive but still acceptably risk-averse screening program would be monthly or quarterly bulk tank screening (appropriate for smaller herds), or screening cultures of individual cows (larger herds). […] Individual cow screening is more sensitive (better at finding pathogens) than bulk tank screening, but is more costly and labor intensive. […] PCR is a good tool to detect contagious pathogens.
  • #37 Cost-effective mastitis screening programs
    https://extension.umn.edu/dairy-milking-cows/mastitis-screening
    A good mastitis screening program will alert you that a problem is present before it has time to grow into a disaster. […] The ultimate purpose of mastitis screening is to prevent a mastitis outbreak. […] A farm’s specific risk factors dictate how aggressive the screening program should be. […] The most aggressive screening program would combine bulk tank surveillance with culture (or PCR) of individual fresh cows, cows with clinical mastitis or cows with high somatic cell counts (SCC). […] The least aggressive but still acceptably risk-averse screening program would be monthly or quarterly bulk tank screening (appropriate for smaller herds), or screening cultures of individual cows (larger herds). […] Individual cow screening is more sensitive (better at finding pathogens) than bulk tank screening, but is more costly and labor intensive. […] PCR is a good tool to detect contagious pathogens.
  • #38 Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis and Its Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/79344
    Mastitis is responsible for nearly 70% of milk loss. Economic losses due to mastitis in India were estimated to be around U.S. $ 971.39 million (Indian 7165 crore). […] Clinical mastitis is diagnosed readily by visible clinical signs and changes in the milk. […] A higher level of incidence of subclinical mastitis (47.79%) was reported in the state of Madhya Pradesh. […] Subclinical mastitis results in greater economic losses to the farmers rearing dairy cattle and buffalo. […] The prevalence of subclinical mastitis in bovines in India ranged from 9.88 to 86.87%. […] The prevalence percentages of subclinical mastitis in organized (scientifically reared animals with adequate floor space availability) and unorganized dairy farms (animals reared in open space by livestock owners) were 29.82 and 41.66%, respectively.
  • #39 An Overview on the Epidemiology and Diagnosis of Bovine Mastitis | Eshetu | Advances in Life Science and Technology
    https://iiste.org/Journals/index.php/ALST/article/view/24601
    Mastitis is the most common infectious disease encountered in intensively farmed dairy cattle (Quinn et al., 2002). […] Mastitis is therefore characterized by a range of physical and chemical change in the milk include discoloration, the present of clot and present of large number of leukocyte (Radostits et al., 2007). […] However, a large proportion of mastitic gland is not readily detectable by manual palpation or by visual examination of the milk strip cup; these quarters represent subclinical infection (Radostits et al., 2007).
  • #40 An Overview on the Epidemiology and Diagnosis of Bovine Mastitis | Eshetu | Advances in Life Science and Technology
    https://iiste.org/Journals/index.php/ALST/article/view/24601
    Mastitis is the most common infectious disease encountered in intensively farmed dairy cattle (Quinn et al., 2002). […] Mastitis is therefore characterized by a range of physical and chemical change in the milk include discoloration, the present of clot and present of large number of leukocyte (Radostits et al., 2007). […] However, a large proportion of mastitic gland is not readily detectable by manual palpation or by visual examination of the milk strip cup; these quarters represent subclinical infection (Radostits et al., 2007).
  • #41 Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis and Its Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/79344
    Mastitis is responsible for nearly 70% of milk loss. Economic losses due to mastitis in India were estimated to be around U.S. $ 971.39 million (Indian 7165 crore). […] Clinical mastitis is diagnosed readily by visible clinical signs and changes in the milk. […] A higher level of incidence of subclinical mastitis (47.79%) was reported in the state of Madhya Pradesh. […] Subclinical mastitis results in greater economic losses to the farmers rearing dairy cattle and buffalo. […] The prevalence of subclinical mastitis in bovines in India ranged from 9.88 to 86.87%. […] The prevalence percentages of subclinical mastitis in organized (scientifically reared animals with adequate floor space availability) and unorganized dairy farms (animals reared in open space by livestock owners) were 29.82 and 41.66%, respectively.
  • #42 Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis and Its Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/79344
    Mastitis is responsible for nearly 70% of milk loss. Economic losses due to mastitis in India were estimated to be around U.S. $ 971.39 million (Indian 7165 crore). […] Clinical mastitis is diagnosed readily by visible clinical signs and changes in the milk. […] A higher level of incidence of subclinical mastitis (47.79%) was reported in the state of Madhya Pradesh. […] Subclinical mastitis results in greater economic losses to the farmers rearing dairy cattle and buffalo. […] The prevalence of subclinical mastitis in bovines in India ranged from 9.88 to 86.87%. […] The prevalence percentages of subclinical mastitis in organized (scientifically reared animals with adequate floor space availability) and unorganized dairy farms (animals reared in open space by livestock owners) were 29.82 and 41.66%, respectively.
  • #43 SciELO Brazil – Epidemiology of mastitis and interactions of environmental factors on udder health in the compost barn system Epidemiology of mastitis and interactions of environmental factors on udder health in the compost barn system
    https://www.scielo.br/j/abmvz/a/RT4GSzNCJwsTxzdyvWFYh8C/
    The results of this study present information on the epidemiology of mastitis and its consequences on the quality of milk in the CBP system in tropical conditions. […] The epidemiology of mastitis and the profile of the pathogens isolated in the CBP are similar to other confinement systems when well managed. […] The year period influenced the hygiene score of the animals only on farm 3. […] The hygiene score was related to the incidence of environmental streptococci and might be an additional tool to control these pathogens in the routine of farms that use the CBP. […] The mean prevalence and incidence of subclinical mastitis during the study period were 60.6% and 15.2% for farm 1, 31.1% and 13.6% for farm 2, and 39.2% and 13.8% for farm 3, respectively. […] The incidence of clinical mastitis peaked at 9.9% and 8.6% in December 2014 and February 2015, respectively.
  • #44 Epidemiology and Classification of Mastitis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7760962/
    Farmers should focus on milk quality over quantity. […] Mastitis affects herds in all countries and is the most economically burdensome disease encountered by dairy farmers. […] This review summarizes the current knowledge regarding mastitis prevalence, the characteristics of its main causative agents, and the effects of mastitis on dairy production. […] Mastitis, which manifests as inflammation of the mammary gland, is currently one of the most widespread diseases affecting dairy cattle. […] Approximately 60-70% of all antimicrobials administered on dairy farms are for preventing and treating mastitis. […] Mastitis causes a sharp decrease in milk production and farm revenue. […] The prevalence of contagious mastitis can be reduced through the implementation of a five-point program, which was later extended to a ten-point program.
  • #45 Epidemiology and Classification of Mastitis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7760962/
    The severity of Klebsiella spp. mastitis is usually at the mild clinical or subclinical level. […] The majority of Str. uberis infections occur in the dry period and are usually of subclinical form. […] The prevalence of Str. agalactiae demonstrates that this bacterium is a significant cause of mastitis, especially in herds that are not well managed and have poor hygiene. […] The prevalence of mastitis pathogens varies by region and management practices. […] The economic losses related to mastitis can be divided into those associated with the treatment of ill animals, losses caused by increased mortality due to infection and culling of afflicted animals, and indirect losses due to reduced milk production. […] The food industry cannot process milk with a high SCC or milk containing antibiotic residues. […] Driving this heightened concern are that mastitis remains the costliest medical and economic problem in the milk-producing industry.
  • #46 Epidemiology and Classification of Mastitis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7760962/
    The severity of Klebsiella spp. mastitis is usually at the mild clinical or subclinical level. […] The majority of Str. uberis infections occur in the dry period and are usually of subclinical form. […] The prevalence of Str. agalactiae demonstrates that this bacterium is a significant cause of mastitis, especially in herds that are not well managed and have poor hygiene. […] The prevalence of mastitis pathogens varies by region and management practices. […] The economic losses related to mastitis can be divided into those associated with the treatment of ill animals, losses caused by increased mortality due to infection and culling of afflicted animals, and indirect losses due to reduced milk production. […] The food industry cannot process milk with a high SCC or milk containing antibiotic residues. […] Driving this heightened concern are that mastitis remains the costliest medical and economic problem in the milk-producing industry.
  • #47 Epidemiology and Classification of Mastitis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7760962/
    Farmers should focus on milk quality over quantity. […] Mastitis affects herds in all countries and is the most economically burdensome disease encountered by dairy farmers. […] This review summarizes the current knowledge regarding mastitis prevalence, the characteristics of its main causative agents, and the effects of mastitis on dairy production. […] Mastitis, which manifests as inflammation of the mammary gland, is currently one of the most widespread diseases affecting dairy cattle. […] Approximately 60-70% of all antimicrobials administered on dairy farms are for preventing and treating mastitis. […] Mastitis causes a sharp decrease in milk production and farm revenue. […] The prevalence of contagious mastitis can be reduced through the implementation of a five-point program, which was later extended to a ten-point program.
  • #48 Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis and Its Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/79344
    Mastitis is responsible for nearly 70% of milk loss. Economic losses due to mastitis in India were estimated to be around U.S. $ 971.39 million (Indian 7165 crore). […] Clinical mastitis is diagnosed readily by visible clinical signs and changes in the milk. […] A higher level of incidence of subclinical mastitis (47.79%) was reported in the state of Madhya Pradesh. […] Subclinical mastitis results in greater economic losses to the farmers rearing dairy cattle and buffalo. […] The prevalence of subclinical mastitis in bovines in India ranged from 9.88 to 86.87%. […] The prevalence percentages of subclinical mastitis in organized (scientifically reared animals with adequate floor space availability) and unorganized dairy farms (animals reared in open space by livestock owners) were 29.82 and 41.66%, respectively.
  • #49 Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis and Its Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/79344
    Mastitis is responsible for nearly 70% of milk loss. Economic losses due to mastitis in India were estimated to be around U.S. $ 971.39 million (Indian 7165 crore). […] Clinical mastitis is diagnosed readily by visible clinical signs and changes in the milk. […] A higher level of incidence of subclinical mastitis (47.79%) was reported in the state of Madhya Pradesh. […] Subclinical mastitis results in greater economic losses to the farmers rearing dairy cattle and buffalo. […] The prevalence of subclinical mastitis in bovines in India ranged from 9.88 to 86.87%. […] The prevalence percentages of subclinical mastitis in organized (scientifically reared animals with adequate floor space availability) and unorganized dairy farms (animals reared in open space by livestock owners) were 29.82 and 41.66%, respectively.
  • #50 Epidemiology of Mastitis
    https://www.nestlenutrition-institute.org/publication-series/epidemiology-mastitis
    Mastitis is one of the most common problems encountered by the breastfeeding mother. […] Many women stop breastfeeding due to mastitis or breast abscesses. […] Mastitis is one of the most common problems encountered by the breastfeeding mother. […] Lactational mastitis has been estimated to occur in approximately 210% of all breastfeeding women, though the reported incidence varies from one population to another, with some studies quoting rates as high as 30%. […] The most common time of occurrence of mastitis is in the second or third week postpartum. […] The development of a breast abscess is a severe complication of mastitis. […] The incidence of mastitis requiring hospitalization is low; one study by Stafford et al. included 136,459 new mothers, and found 127 women required hospitalization for mastitis, which resulted in an incidence of 9 per 10,000 deliveries. […] Research suggests that mastitis also increases the risk of transmission of HIV to the infant through breastfeeding.
  • #51 Epidemiology of Mastitis
    https://www.nestlenutrition-institute.org/publication-series/epidemiology-mastitis
    Mastitis is one of the most common problems encountered by the breastfeeding mother. […] Many women stop breastfeeding due to mastitis or breast abscesses. […] Mastitis is one of the most common problems encountered by the breastfeeding mother. […] Lactational mastitis has been estimated to occur in approximately 210% of all breastfeeding women, though the reported incidence varies from one population to another, with some studies quoting rates as high as 30%. […] The most common time of occurrence of mastitis is in the second or third week postpartum. […] The development of a breast abscess is a severe complication of mastitis. […] The incidence of mastitis requiring hospitalization is low; one study by Stafford et al. included 136,459 new mothers, and found 127 women required hospitalization for mastitis, which resulted in an incidence of 9 per 10,000 deliveries. […] Research suggests that mastitis also increases the risk of transmission of HIV to the infant through breastfeeding.
  • #52 Epidemiology and Classification of Mastitis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7760962/
    Farmers should focus on milk quality over quantity. […] Mastitis affects herds in all countries and is the most economically burdensome disease encountered by dairy farmers. […] This review summarizes the current knowledge regarding mastitis prevalence, the characteristics of its main causative agents, and the effects of mastitis on dairy production. […] Mastitis, which manifests as inflammation of the mammary gland, is currently one of the most widespread diseases affecting dairy cattle. […] Approximately 60-70% of all antimicrobials administered on dairy farms are for preventing and treating mastitis. […] Mastitis causes a sharp decrease in milk production and farm revenue. […] The prevalence of contagious mastitis can be reduced through the implementation of a five-point program, which was later extended to a ten-point program.
  • #53 Epidemiology and Classification of Mastitis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7760962/
    Farmers should focus on milk quality over quantity. […] Mastitis affects herds in all countries and is the most economically burdensome disease encountered by dairy farmers. […] This review summarizes the current knowledge regarding mastitis prevalence, the characteristics of its main causative agents, and the effects of mastitis on dairy production. […] Mastitis, which manifests as inflammation of the mammary gland, is currently one of the most widespread diseases affecting dairy cattle. […] Approximately 60-70% of all antimicrobials administered on dairy farms are for preventing and treating mastitis. […] Mastitis causes a sharp decrease in milk production and farm revenue. […] The prevalence of contagious mastitis can be reduced through the implementation of a five-point program, which was later extended to a ten-point program.
  • #54 Mastitis in Cattle – Reproductive System – MSD Veterinary Manual
    https://www.msdvetmanual.com/reproductive-system/mastitis-in-large-animals/mastitis-in-cattle
    For contagious pathogens, adult lactating cattle are most at risk of infection. […] For Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus, and nonaureus staphylococci, there is little or no seasonal variation in the incidence of infection. […] The most important measure to monitor subclinical mastitis in dairy herds is testing milk for SCCs and the calculation of key performance indicators. […] Internationally, an SCC of 200,000 cells/mL is often considered the threshold for determining infection status. […] The primary reservoir of infection is the mammary gland; transmission occurs at milking with either milkers hands or milking equipment acting as fomites. […] The goal is to eliminate the infection by causing fibrosis of the affected quarter, thus decreasing the risk of infection for other cows. […] Prevention of clinical mastitis in cattle is essentially identical to that for subclinical mastitis, ie, decreasing microbe exposure to the teats.
  • #55 Bovine Mastitis: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Control Strategies in Dairy Sectors of Bangladesh
    https://journals.ekb.eg/article_407888.html
    The economic impact encompasses diminished milk output, heightened veterinary expenses, early culling of livestock and public health issues associated with antibiotic residues and the transmission of pathogens via milk. […] Effective control strategies include enhanced management practices, routine screening through methods such as the California Mastitis Test, implementation of biosecurity measures, and focused treatments. […] Furthermore, the implementation of vaccination initiatives and the education of farmers are essential for the effective management of disease sustainability. […] This review highlights the critical necessity for a unified strategy in addressing mastitis control, merging scientific progress with effective on-farm practices to protect Bangladeshs dairy sector from this ongoing challenge.
  • #56 Bovine Mastitis: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Control Strategies in Dairy Sectors of Bangladesh
    https://journals.ekb.eg/article_407888.html
    The economic impact encompasses diminished milk output, heightened veterinary expenses, early culling of livestock and public health issues associated with antibiotic residues and the transmission of pathogens via milk. […] Effective control strategies include enhanced management practices, routine screening through methods such as the California Mastitis Test, implementation of biosecurity measures, and focused treatments. […] Furthermore, the implementation of vaccination initiatives and the education of farmers are essential for the effective management of disease sustainability. […] This review highlights the critical necessity for a unified strategy in addressing mastitis control, merging scientific progress with effective on-farm practices to protect Bangladeshs dairy sector from this ongoing challenge.
  • #57 Vet Times: Latest Veterinary News, Jobs & Clinical Resources
    https://www.vettimes.com/clinical/livestock/mastitis-latest-research-treatments-and-prevention-cpdmastitis
    A review by De Vliegher et al (2012) recommended fly control, avoidance of inter-sucking, and hygienic and comfortable housing as important for prevention of heifer mastitis. […] In summary, the current picture of mastitis control shows a declining trend in mean CM rate, SCC and dry period new infection rate (Leach et al, 2023).
  • #58 Epidemiology of bovine mastitis on the modern dairy farm – Introduction | IVIS
    https://www.ivis.org/library/wab/world-buiatrics-congress-madrid-2022/epidemiology-of-bovine-mastitis-on-modern-dairy-farm-introduction
    Bovine mastitis remains one of the most important diseases on the modern dairy farm. In the last decade much has been learned about the epidemiology of bovine mastitis, therefore the objective of this overview is to summarize these findings and to develop directions for further improvement of udder health on modern dairy farms. […] Improved molecular diagnostics has also resulted on Important research with regard to the microbiome of the mammary gland. Current research would indicate that the mammary microbiome of health quarters is substantially different from quarters that are affected by either clinical or subclinical mastitis. […] Important changes in the biology, diagnostics, management and treatment of bovine mastitis in the recent decade has resulted in a vastly different understanding of intramammary infections and the treatment and prevention of these infections.
  • #59 Epidemiology of bovine mastitis on the modern dairy farm – Introduction | IVIS
    https://www.ivis.org/library/wab/world-buiatrics-congress-madrid-2022/epidemiology-of-bovine-mastitis-on-modern-dairy-farm-introduction
    Bovine mastitis remains one of the most important diseases on the modern dairy farm. In the last decade much has been learned about the epidemiology of bovine mastitis, therefore the objective of this overview is to summarize these findings and to develop directions for further improvement of udder health on modern dairy farms. […] Improved molecular diagnostics has also resulted on Important research with regard to the microbiome of the mammary gland. Current research would indicate that the mammary microbiome of health quarters is substantially different from quarters that are affected by either clinical or subclinical mastitis. […] Important changes in the biology, diagnostics, management and treatment of bovine mastitis in the recent decade has resulted in a vastly different understanding of intramammary infections and the treatment and prevention of these infections.
  • #60 UK Vet Livestock – Mastitis pattern analysis: epidemiology into practice
    https://www.ukvetlivestock.com/content/clinical/mastitis-pattern-analysis-epidemiology-into-practice/
    Analysis of data to inform decision making in dairy animal practice is a cornerstone of modern dairy herd health work and is routinely carried out in areas such as fertility management and mastitis control. Mastitis in dairy herds continues to be important and relevant to veterinary advisors for many reasons, such as cow welfare, the cost of disease, the use of antimicrobials and the sustainability of farming and food supply, including environmental impact and waste milk. […] When implementing control measures to reduce mastitis infection rates on farm, herd level analysis of infection patterns to inform decision making has been shown to be an important first step. […] Analysis of data using software and the understanding of mastitis epidemiology on farm remains a barrier to more widespread control of mastitis in the UK for several reasons.
  • #61 UK Vet Livestock – Mastitis pattern analysis: epidemiology into practice
    https://www.ukvetlivestock.com/content/clinical/mastitis-pattern-analysis-epidemiology-into-practice/
    Analysis of mastitis data is an essential first step in any mastitis investigation, including the Mastitis Control Plan because any control measures that are prioritised to the farmer are dependent on a correct interpretation of mastitis patterns at this point. […] Research has shown that a targeted approach to control rather than a one size fits all approach is vital when working to reduce the rate of new infection, and therefore mastitis control plans have to be specifically tailored to the present herd situation. […] This represents a key barrier that prevents mastitis control being more successful and there continue to be many examples of where mastitis control advice has become confused and ineffective in the absence of a clear herd pattern. […] The mastitis pattern analysis report relies on individual somatic cell count (SCC) data, just as the veterinary advisor relies on this data to make decisions on likely origin of infection and therefore where to prioritise control measures.
  • #62 UK Vet Livestock – Mastitis pattern analysis: epidemiology into practice
    https://www.ukvetlivestock.com/content/clinical/mastitis-pattern-analysis-epidemiology-into-practice/
    The new mastitis pattern analysis report uses machine learning and research from 1000 herd datasets. […] Producers who are engaged with a full milk recording service can now receive the mastitis pattern analysis report free of charge via a fully automated process. […] Veterinary surgeons are encouraged to help their clients sign up to this service as the first stage of the Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board (AHDB) Dairy QuarterPRO scheme.
  • #63 UK Vet Livestock – Mastitis pattern analysis: epidemiology into practice
    https://www.ukvetlivestock.com/content/clinical/mastitis-pattern-analysis-epidemiology-into-practice/
    The new mastitis pattern analysis report uses machine learning and research from 1000 herd datasets. […] Producers who are engaged with a full milk recording service can now receive the mastitis pattern analysis report free of charge via a fully automated process. […] Veterinary surgeons are encouraged to help their clients sign up to this service as the first stage of the Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board (AHDB) Dairy QuarterPRO scheme.
  • #64 Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Health – Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis in Ethiopia
    https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/epidemiology-of-bovine-mastitis-in-ethiopia-99539.html
    The diagnostic tests commonly used in Ethiopia are: California Mastitis test (CMT), bacterial culture and isolation direct microscopy, indicator paper test. […] Mastitis remain the most devastating disease in livestock production. […] The occurrence of disease is an outcome of interplay between three major factors: infectious agents, host resistance, and environmental factors. […] The disease has been reported by several authors on the prevalence and major causes of bovine Mastitis mostly in cross bred dairy cattle in different parts of the country. […] Several of these studies have shown the occurrence of Mastitis causing bacteria, including, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus as dominant and pathogenic species. […] The majority of isolates were Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), followed by Coagulase negative staphylococci (CNS) Streptococcus agalactiae (S. agalactiae), and the lowest isolation was Bacillus species.
  • #65 Free Course: Mastitis epidemiology and diagnostic from EDUlib | Class Central
    https://www.classcentral.com/course/independent-mastitis-epidemiology-and-diagnostic-14442
    As you know mastitis is a very costly disease on dairies. […] This second MOOC (of a duration of 18 hours), titled „Mastitis Epidemiology and Diagnostic” will discuss risk factors as well as measuring the prevalence and incidence of clinical and subclinical mastitis. […] This series will be followed by a third MOOC that will focus on the control of mastitis. […] Module 2: Mastitis General Epidemiology. […] General epidemiology; […] Module 3: Important Pathogens. […] Contagious pathogens; […] Environmental pathogens; […] Module 4: Diagnostic Methods. […] Milk culture; […] PCR; […] SCC and other markers of inflammation; […] On-farm culture methods; […] Molecular methods.
  • #66
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10911-011-9236-y
    Mastitis, inflammation of the mammary gland, can be caused by a wide range of organisms, including gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, mycoplasmas and algae. […] A wide range of molecular typing methods have been used in the past two decades to investigate the epidemiology of bovine mastitis at the subspecies level. […] Molecular epidemiological studies have contributed considerably to our understanding of sources, transmission routes, and prognosis for many bovine mastitis pathogens and to our understanding of mechanisms of host-adaptation and disease causation. […] The aim of this review is to summarize knowledge gleaned from two decades of molecular epidemiological studies of mastitis pathogens in dairy cattle, reflecting the breadth of coverage and depth of knowledge available for the different pathogen species.
  • #67 Cost-effective mastitis screening programs
    https://extension.umn.edu/dairy-milking-cows/mastitis-screening
    A good mastitis screening program will alert you that a problem is present before it has time to grow into a disaster. […] The ultimate purpose of mastitis screening is to prevent a mastitis outbreak. […] A farm’s specific risk factors dictate how aggressive the screening program should be. […] The most aggressive screening program would combine bulk tank surveillance with culture (or PCR) of individual fresh cows, cows with clinical mastitis or cows with high somatic cell counts (SCC). […] The least aggressive but still acceptably risk-averse screening program would be monthly or quarterly bulk tank screening (appropriate for smaller herds), or screening cultures of individual cows (larger herds). […] Individual cow screening is more sensitive (better at finding pathogens) than bulk tank screening, but is more costly and labor intensive. […] PCR is a good tool to detect contagious pathogens.
  • #68 UK Vet Livestock – Mastitis pattern analysis: epidemiology into practice
    https://www.ukvetlivestock.com/content/clinical/mastitis-pattern-analysis-epidemiology-into-practice/
    Analysis of mastitis data is an essential first step in any mastitis investigation, including the Mastitis Control Plan because any control measures that are prioritised to the farmer are dependent on a correct interpretation of mastitis patterns at this point. […] Research has shown that a targeted approach to control rather than a one size fits all approach is vital when working to reduce the rate of new infection, and therefore mastitis control plans have to be specifically tailored to the present herd situation. […] This represents a key barrier that prevents mastitis control being more successful and there continue to be many examples of where mastitis control advice has become confused and ineffective in the absence of a clear herd pattern. […] The mastitis pattern analysis report relies on individual somatic cell count (SCC) data, just as the veterinary advisor relies on this data to make decisions on likely origin of infection and therefore where to prioritise control measures.
  • #69
    https://www.geospatialhealth.net/gh/article/view/163
    Clinical mastitis (CM) is the most common veterinary treated disease in Swedish dairy cattle. […] The study revealed areas with significantly lower odds for CM but with a high proportion of cows with a poor udder health score, suggesting an under-reporting of CM. […] High quality disease records for dairy cattle are of interest not only for the dairy management but also for disease surveillance, monitoring of use of antibiotics and food safety purposes.
  • #70
    https://www.geospatialhealth.net/gh/article/view/163
    Clinical mastitis (CM) is the most common veterinary treated disease in Swedish dairy cattle. […] The study revealed areas with significantly lower odds for CM but with a high proportion of cows with a poor udder health score, suggesting an under-reporting of CM. […] High quality disease records for dairy cattle are of interest not only for the dairy management but also for disease surveillance, monitoring of use of antibiotics and food safety purposes.
  • #71
    https://portal.nifa.usda.gov/web/crisprojectpages/0203442-mathematical-and-molecular-epidemiology-of-mastitis-control-in-dairy-herds-direct-and-indirect-effects-of-subclinical-mastitis-treatment.html
    Mastitis is one of the most common and costly diseases affecting dairy cattle. A major limiting factor in US dairy production systems is insufficient knowledge concerning the effects of subclinical mastitis treatment programs. […] This project examines the effects of diagnosis-based antibiotic treatment of subclinical mastitis in dairy herds. The impact of subclinical mastitis treatment on the spread of mastitis in dairy herds, and on the development of antimicrobial resistance among mastitis pathogens are being quantified in this research. Our research will deliver knowledge that allows dairy producers to make informed rational decisions regarding the implementation of mastitis treatment practices. […] The purpose of this project is to enhance understanding of the impact of antibiotic treatment programs on mastitis transmission and the epidemiology of subclinical mastitis. In meeting the first objective of this project, we have developed a model to describe mastitis pathogen transmission dynamics and to estimate the overall effects of diagnosis and treatment of subclinical mastitis in dairy herds.
  • #72
    https://portal.nifa.usda.gov/web/crisprojectpages/0203442-mathematical-and-molecular-epidemiology-of-mastitis-control-in-dairy-herds-direct-and-indirect-effects-of-subclinical-mastitis-treatment.html
    The model allows for the quantification of direct (cow level) and indirect (herd level) effects of treating subclinical mastitis during lactation. Results of model simulations are consistent with the concept that successful treatment of subclinical mastitis leading to reductions in duration of infection results in decreased new infections in the herd. […] Three important concepts have emerged from these studies. First, that the indirect effects of treating subclinical mastitis have the greatest impact in herds that have successfully implemented basic contagious mastitis control practices such as post-milking teat end disinfection. Second, that there is substantial value in monitoring and reporting duration of infection as an outcome measure in field trials of mastitis therapy. And third, that the indirect or population level effects of mastitis treatment programs should be evaluated as a component of mastitis therapy field trials. […] This research has contributed to a change in knowledge regarding mastitis control practices among research scientists, professional dairy advisors, and dairy producers.
  • #73
    https://portal.nifa.usda.gov/web/crisprojectpages/0203442-mathematical-and-molecular-epidemiology-of-mastitis-control-in-dairy-herds-direct-and-indirect-effects-of-subclinical-mastitis-treatment.html
    The model allows for the quantification of direct (cow level) and indirect (herd level) effects of treating subclinical mastitis during lactation. Results of model simulations are consistent with the concept that successful treatment of subclinical mastitis leading to reductions in duration of infection results in decreased new infections in the herd. […] Three important concepts have emerged from these studies. First, that the indirect effects of treating subclinical mastitis have the greatest impact in herds that have successfully implemented basic contagious mastitis control practices such as post-milking teat end disinfection. Second, that there is substantial value in monitoring and reporting duration of infection as an outcome measure in field trials of mastitis therapy. And third, that the indirect or population level effects of mastitis treatment programs should be evaluated as a component of mastitis therapy field trials. […] This research has contributed to a change in knowledge regarding mastitis control practices among research scientists, professional dairy advisors, and dairy producers.
  • #74
    https://www.geospatialhealth.net/gh/article/view/163
    Clinical mastitis (CM) is the most common veterinary treated disease in Swedish dairy cattle. […] The study revealed areas with significantly lower odds for CM but with a high proportion of cows with a poor udder health score, suggesting an under-reporting of CM. […] High quality disease records for dairy cattle are of interest not only for the dairy management but also for disease surveillance, monitoring of use of antibiotics and food safety purposes.
  • #75 Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Health – Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis in Ethiopia
    https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/epidemiology-of-bovine-mastitis-in-ethiopia-99539.html
    The prevalence reports were heterogeneous and were affected by several factors including locality, breed, management and diagnostic methods used. […] The prevalence for all types of Mastitis (i.e., without considering the classifications) ranged from 0.4% to 81.1%. […] The most commonly used cow side test in the publications reviewed was CMT, followed by indicator paper test. […] Prevalence of Mastitis is significantly associated with milking hygienic practice. […] The likelihood of Mastitis is higher in multiparous cows having four or more calvings compared with primiparous cows as studies conducted in Ethiopia shows. […] Prevalence of Mastitis at cow level is higher in those farms with poor drainage/slope for stable area which results accumulation of liquid such as urine and water used for cleaning of udders during milking, the liquid material mixed with the feces of the cows that led to dirty udder and teat there infection could enter. […] The sub clinical Mastitis which is highly prevalent and economically important should gain attention.
  • #76
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10911-011-9236-y
    Mastitis, inflammation of the mammary gland, can be caused by a wide range of organisms, including gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, mycoplasmas and algae. […] A wide range of molecular typing methods have been used in the past two decades to investigate the epidemiology of bovine mastitis at the subspecies level. […] Molecular epidemiological studies have contributed considerably to our understanding of sources, transmission routes, and prognosis for many bovine mastitis pathogens and to our understanding of mechanisms of host-adaptation and disease causation. […] The aim of this review is to summarize knowledge gleaned from two decades of molecular epidemiological studies of mastitis pathogens in dairy cattle, reflecting the breadth of coverage and depth of knowledge available for the different pathogen species.
  • #77 Molecular epidemiology of Streptococcus agalactiae isolated from mastitis in Brazilian dairy herds | Brazilian Journal of Microbiology
    https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-brazilian-journal-microbiology-490-articulo-molecular-epidemiology-streptococcus-agalactiae-isolated-S151783821730120X
    Mastitis is currently treated with antibiotics, which, when used indiscriminately, can lead to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria that can be further propagated. […] The major bovine mastitis-causing pathogenic bacteria are Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus uberis, and Staphylococcus aureus. […] S. agalactiae, also known as Group B Streptococcus (GBS), has been shown to cause both clinical and subclinical mastitis in cattle, and has been detected in 60% of Brazilian dairy herds. […] Because GBSs exert a major effect on both animal and human health, several tools have been developed for epidemiological typing of this pathogen. […] To date, 10 GBS capsular polysaccharide serotypes (CPSs) have been identified (Ia, Ib, and IIIX), and their distribution in humans is directly related to ethnic and geographic regions.
  • #78
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10911-011-9236-y
    The major question in molecular epidemiology of bovine Strep. agalactiae is whether it constitutes a human health hazard, either through direct transmission between cattle and humans or through evolution of human-pathogenic strains from a bovine reservoir. […] Molecular epidemiological studies have not changed the biology of mastitis and despite decades of research, mastitis control in dairy herds still largely depends on conscientious and continuous effort on the part of the farmer or herd manager and his or her staff. […] Molecular epidemiological studies will also be of value for understanding of mastitis in non-bovine host species, including sheep and goats. […] The molecular epidemiology of mastitis has now moved into the genomics era, with whole genome sequencing completed for the major gram-positive pathogens and in progress for several gram-negative pathogens.
  • #79
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10911-011-9236-y
    Mastitis, inflammation of the mammary gland, can be caused by a wide range of organisms, including gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, mycoplasmas and algae. […] A wide range of molecular typing methods have been used in the past two decades to investigate the epidemiology of bovine mastitis at the subspecies level. […] Molecular epidemiological studies have contributed considerably to our understanding of sources, transmission routes, and prognosis for many bovine mastitis pathogens and to our understanding of mechanisms of host-adaptation and disease causation. […] The aim of this review is to summarize knowledge gleaned from two decades of molecular epidemiological studies of mastitis pathogens in dairy cattle, reflecting the breadth of coverage and depth of knowledge available for the different pathogen species.
  • #80 Genomic surveillance reveals antibiotic resistance gene transmission via phage recombinases within sheep mastitis-associated Streptococcus uberis | BMC Veterinary Research | Full Text
    https://bmcvetres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12917-022-03341-1
    Mastitis is one of the most common and costly diseases affecting dairy sheep. […] In a recent surveillance study of sheep mastitis in Sardinia, *Streptococcus uberis* was the most frequently isolated pathogen from sheep and goat milk samples. […] Therefore, the characterization of the *S. uberis* population in each site or area is as crucial as its global epidemiology, and it is essential for the prevention and surveillance of local outbreaks. […] This study demonstrated the importance of whole genome sequencing for surveillance of *S. uberis* and tracking horizontal acquisition of antimicrobial resistance genes, as well as providing insight into genetic determinants of disease, which cannot be inferred from the MLST schemes. Future mastitis surveillance should be informed by genomic analysis.
  • #81 Genomic surveillance reveals antibiotic resistance gene transmission via phage recombinases within sheep mastitis-associated Streptococcus uberis | BMC Veterinary Research | Full Text
    https://bmcvetres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12917-022-03341-1
    Antimicrobial resistance genes were rare across the 46 sequenced sheep isolates. […] This finding shows these antimicrobial resistance genes have been co-opted by these mobile genetic elements and can spread independently within discrete *S. uberis* populations. […] Future study of this environmental pathogen should involve genomic surveillance and analysis of genetic relatedness directly in context of geographic distribution, along with analysis of genes involved in antimicrobial resistance and pathogenesis.
  • #82
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10911-011-9236-y
    The major question in molecular epidemiology of bovine Strep. agalactiae is whether it constitutes a human health hazard, either through direct transmission between cattle and humans or through evolution of human-pathogenic strains from a bovine reservoir. […] Molecular epidemiological studies have not changed the biology of mastitis and despite decades of research, mastitis control in dairy herds still largely depends on conscientious and continuous effort on the part of the farmer or herd manager and his or her staff. […] Molecular epidemiological studies will also be of value for understanding of mastitis in non-bovine host species, including sheep and goats. […] The molecular epidemiology of mastitis has now moved into the genomics era, with whole genome sequencing completed for the major gram-positive pathogens and in progress for several gram-negative pathogens.
  • #83 Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis, Antimicrobial Resistance and Management Practices on Small-Holder Dairy Farms in Moiben and Kapseret Sub-Counties – Uasin-Gishu, Kenya
    http://ir.jkuat.ac.ke/handle/123456789/6263
    High cumulative antimicrobial resistance was demonstrated against ampicillin (81.7%) while low resistance was shown against Kanamycin (33.7%) and Gentamycin (5.8%) (P0.05). […] Management practices revealed that high mastitis infection was reported on intensive farming system at (71.9%) than (58.3%) on extensive farming system. […] Staphylococcal-mastitis was a major burden, consequently, intervention strategies by way of rational treatment regimens should be put in place targeting predominant Staphylococcal species. […] Strict observation of withdrawal period before using raw milk for human consumption is recommended to reduce adverse effects of antimicrobial Drug residue.
  • #84 Genomic surveillance reveals antibiotic resistance gene transmission via phage recombinases within sheep mastitis-associated Streptococcus uberis | BMC Veterinary Research | Full Text
    https://bmcvetres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12917-022-03341-1
    Antimicrobial resistance genes were rare across the 46 sequenced sheep isolates. […] This finding shows these antimicrobial resistance genes have been co-opted by these mobile genetic elements and can spread independently within discrete *S. uberis* populations. […] Future study of this environmental pathogen should involve genomic surveillance and analysis of genetic relatedness directly in context of geographic distribution, along with analysis of genes involved in antimicrobial resistance and pathogenesis.
  • #85 Genomic surveillance reveals antibiotic resistance gene transmission via phage recombinases within sheep mastitis-associated Streptococcus uberis | BMC Veterinary Research | Full Text
    https://bmcvetres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12917-022-03341-1
    Antimicrobial resistance genes were rare across the 46 sequenced sheep isolates. […] This finding shows these antimicrobial resistance genes have been co-opted by these mobile genetic elements and can spread independently within discrete *S. uberis* populations. […] Future study of this environmental pathogen should involve genomic surveillance and analysis of genetic relatedness directly in context of geographic distribution, along with analysis of genes involved in antimicrobial resistance and pathogenesis.
  • #86 Epidemiology and Classification of Mastitis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7760962/
    The severity of Klebsiella spp. mastitis is usually at the mild clinical or subclinical level. […] The majority of Str. uberis infections occur in the dry period and are usually of subclinical form. […] The prevalence of Str. agalactiae demonstrates that this bacterium is a significant cause of mastitis, especially in herds that are not well managed and have poor hygiene. […] The prevalence of mastitis pathogens varies by region and management practices. […] The economic losses related to mastitis can be divided into those associated with the treatment of ill animals, losses caused by increased mortality due to infection and culling of afflicted animals, and indirect losses due to reduced milk production. […] The food industry cannot process milk with a high SCC or milk containing antibiotic residues. […] Driving this heightened concern are that mastitis remains the costliest medical and economic problem in the milk-producing industry.
  • #87 Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Health – Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis in Ethiopia
    https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/epidemiology-of-bovine-mastitis-in-ethiopia-99539.html
    The prevalence reports were heterogeneous and were affected by several factors including locality, breed, management and diagnostic methods used. […] The prevalence for all types of Mastitis (i.e., without considering the classifications) ranged from 0.4% to 81.1%. […] The most commonly used cow side test in the publications reviewed was CMT, followed by indicator paper test. […] Prevalence of Mastitis is significantly associated with milking hygienic practice. […] The likelihood of Mastitis is higher in multiparous cows having four or more calvings compared with primiparous cows as studies conducted in Ethiopia shows. […] Prevalence of Mastitis at cow level is higher in those farms with poor drainage/slope for stable area which results accumulation of liquid such as urine and water used for cleaning of udders during milking, the liquid material mixed with the feces of the cows that led to dirty udder and teat there infection could enter. […] The sub clinical Mastitis which is highly prevalent and economically important should gain attention.
  • #88 Epidemiology and Classification of Mastitis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7760962/
    The severity of Klebsiella spp. mastitis is usually at the mild clinical or subclinical level. […] The majority of Str. uberis infections occur in the dry period and are usually of subclinical form. […] The prevalence of Str. agalactiae demonstrates that this bacterium is a significant cause of mastitis, especially in herds that are not well managed and have poor hygiene. […] The prevalence of mastitis pathogens varies by region and management practices. […] The economic losses related to mastitis can be divided into those associated with the treatment of ill animals, losses caused by increased mortality due to infection and culling of afflicted animals, and indirect losses due to reduced milk production. […] The food industry cannot process milk with a high SCC or milk containing antibiotic residues. […] Driving this heightened concern are that mastitis remains the costliest medical and economic problem in the milk-producing industry.
  • #89 Epidemiology of Bovine Mastitis, Antimicrobial Resistance and Management Practices on Small-Holder Dairy Farms in Moiben and Kapseret Sub-Counties – Uasin-Gishu, Kenya
    http://ir.jkuat.ac.ke/handle/123456789/6263
    Mastitis is multi-etiologic disease characterized by the swelling of the udder and inflammation of the udder tissues of dairy animals globally. The following prevalence of the disease was reported worldwide; in United States of America at 67.9%, in China, at 53.8%, in Ethiopia at 62.6% and in Kenya at 58.7%. […] The study aimed to identify the determinants of bovine mastitis, antimicrobial resistance and management practices on small-holder dairy farms in Uasin-Gishu, with specific objectives to n determining the incidence of mastitis, its microbial profiles, determine susceptibility of mastitis causing pathogens against antimicrobial agents, determine presence of antimicrobial drug residues in raw milk and determine dairy cow characteristics and management practices. […] The overall mastitis incidence in study area was (48.2%).
  • #90 Epidemiology of Bovine Sub-Clinical Mastitis in Pothohar Region, Punjab, Pakistan in 2018
    https://researcherslinks.com/current-issues/Epidemiology-of-Bovine-Sub-Clinical/20/1/2290/html
    Epidemiology of Bovine Sub-Clinical Mastitis in Pothohar Region, Punjab, Pakistan in 2018 […] Sub-clinical mastitis considered as a leading hindrance in the development of dairy industry in Pakistan. Pakistan is the top listed country with the highest prevalence of Sub-clinical mastitis. Therefore, this study was conducted to estimate the prevalence and assess the potential risk factors of sub-clinical mastitis in lactating buffaloes in Pothohar region of Pakistan. An overall prevalence of 67.3% was found. On multivariable logistic regression several health (lactation stage, number of lactations, body mass index, udder shape and milk yield), management (udder preparation and teat dipping) and bio-security (source of animal, feed sharing, manure removal and de-worming) factors were identified as potential risk factors (OR1; P-Value0.05). An increasing trend of prevalence of sub-clinical mastitis was observed considering previous studies from Pakistan. It can be concluded that the health, management and bio-security measures are under satisfactory level. To control the epidemic trend of sub-clinical mastitis in Pakistan addressing these factors needs to be prioritized.
  • #91 Epidemiology of Bovine Sub-Clinical Mastitis in Pothohar Region, Punjab, Pakistan in 2018
    https://researcherslinks.com/current-issues/Epidemiology-of-Bovine-Sub-Clinical/20/1/2290/html
    Knowledge of mastitis pathogens and their predominance as well as understanding of its risk factors are prerequisites to improve udder health in a herd, region or country. In Pakistan, such information is scarce, even though mastitis is an important cattle disease in the country. The objectives of this research were to evaluate the prevalence and risk factors of sub-clinical Mastitis to understand its epidemiology in Pothohar region Rawalpindi district of Punjab Pakistan. […] The prevalence of SCM recorded here (67.3) at buffalo level was like the earlier reported by Mekonnen et al. (2017) in Ethiopia. Over all prevalence estimated in this study is much higher reported in other studies from Pakistan. Interestingly in commercial farms, we found high prevalence (77.3%) of SCM than subsistent (22.7%). These findings indicate that SCM prevalence have shown increasing trend over the past decade in different parts of Pakistan. The increase in prevalence of SCM could also be due to change in climatic parameters in the study area over the last few years. […] The results indicated that certain predicting variables are associated with SCM in lactating buffaloes of Pothohar region of Pakistan. Broadly certain health, management and bio-security practices contributed in high SCM prevalence in the study area.
  • #92 Bovine Mastitis: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Control Strategies in Dairy Sectors of Bangladesh
    https://www.ejvs.journals.ekb.eg/article_407888.html
    Mastitis is a common and highly-cost disease of various animals, which poses substantial challenge and serious implications to dairy sectors of different countries including Bangladesh. […] Subclinical mastitis is frequently overlooked due to the absence of visible clinical symptoms but poses significant challenges as it lead to considerable economic and productivity losses. […] Investigations indicate a notable occurrence of subclinical mastitis in different areas of the country, with infection rates differing according to factors like lactation stage, parity, and breed. […] The economic impact encompasses diminished milk output, heightened veterinary expenses, early culling of livestock and public health issues associated with antibiotic residues and the transmission of pathogens via milk.
  • #93 Epidemiology of Bovine Sub-Clinical Mastitis in Pothohar Region, Punjab, Pakistan in 2018
    https://researcherslinks.com/current-issues/Epidemiology-of-Bovine-Sub-Clinical/20/1/2290/html
    Knowledge of mastitis pathogens and their predominance as well as understanding of its risk factors are prerequisites to improve udder health in a herd, region or country. In Pakistan, such information is scarce, even though mastitis is an important cattle disease in the country. The objectives of this research were to evaluate the prevalence and risk factors of sub-clinical Mastitis to understand its epidemiology in Pothohar region Rawalpindi district of Punjab Pakistan. […] The prevalence of SCM recorded here (67.3) at buffalo level was like the earlier reported by Mekonnen et al. (2017) in Ethiopia. Over all prevalence estimated in this study is much higher reported in other studies from Pakistan. Interestingly in commercial farms, we found high prevalence (77.3%) of SCM than subsistent (22.7%). These findings indicate that SCM prevalence have shown increasing trend over the past decade in different parts of Pakistan. The increase in prevalence of SCM could also be due to change in climatic parameters in the study area over the last few years. […] The results indicated that certain predicting variables are associated with SCM in lactating buffaloes of Pothohar region of Pakistan. Broadly certain health, management and bio-security practices contributed in high SCM prevalence in the study area.
  • #94 Epidemiology of Subclinical Mastitis in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius) of Two Distinct Agro-Ecological Zones of Pakistan
    https://researcherslinks.com/current-issues/Epidemiology-of-Subclinical-Mastitis-in-Dromedary/20/1/2011/html
    Epidemiology of Subclinical Mastitis in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius) of Two Distinct Agro-Ecological Zones of Pakistan […] The present study was accomplished to explore the epidemiological dynamics of subclinical mastitis, caused by Staphylococcus aureus, in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) reared in two distinct agro-ecological zones of Pakistan viz. Cholistan desert and Suleiman mountain range. A total of 768 lactating she-camels were screened for subclinical mastitis using California mastitis test (CMT). Results showed an overall prevalence of 47.14% for subclinical mastitis. Statistical analysis revealed non-significant (P0.05) difference between Cholistan desert and Suleiman mountain range (48.18% and 46.09%, respectively). S. aureus was isolated from 53.03% of the milk samples, with significantly higher (P0.05) prevalence in Cholistan desert (66.10%) as compared to Suleiman range (57.98%). The non-parametric statistical analysis showed significant association (P0.05) of thin body condition, older age, lack of teat dipping and higher parity number with S. aureus subclinical mastitis. This study highlights the effect of agro-climatic conditions on S. aureus subclinical mastitis which is instrumental when devising strategies for effective disease control according to the climatic conditions of the area.
  • #95 Epidemiology of Subclinical Mastitis in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius) of Two Distinct Agro-Ecological Zones of Pakistan
    https://researcherslinks.com/current-issues/Epidemiology-of-Subclinical-Mastitis-in-Dromedary/20/1/2011/html
    Epidemiology of Subclinical Mastitis in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius) of Two Distinct Agro-Ecological Zones of Pakistan […] The present study was accomplished to explore the epidemiological dynamics of subclinical mastitis, caused by Staphylococcus aureus, in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) reared in two distinct agro-ecological zones of Pakistan viz. Cholistan desert and Suleiman mountain range. A total of 768 lactating she-camels were screened for subclinical mastitis using California mastitis test (CMT). Results showed an overall prevalence of 47.14% for subclinical mastitis. Statistical analysis revealed non-significant (P0.05) difference between Cholistan desert and Suleiman mountain range (48.18% and 46.09%, respectively). S. aureus was isolated from 53.03% of the milk samples, with significantly higher (P0.05) prevalence in Cholistan desert (66.10%) as compared to Suleiman range (57.98%). The non-parametric statistical analysis showed significant association (P0.05) of thin body condition, older age, lack of teat dipping and higher parity number with S. aureus subclinical mastitis. This study highlights the effect of agro-climatic conditions on S. aureus subclinical mastitis which is instrumental when devising strategies for effective disease control according to the climatic conditions of the area.
  • #96 Epidemiology of mastitis and interactions of environmental factors on udder health in the compost barn system | Arq. bras. med. vet. zootec. (Online);75(1): 14-26, 2023. tab, graf | VETINDEX
    https://pesquisa.bvsalud.org/portal/resource/esChatterji/biblio-1416434
    The year period influenced the udder hygiene score, reinforcing the importance of bed management throughout the year. […] Os resultados indicam que o perfil de patgenos isolados do leite em animais confinados em Compost Barn sob clima tropical semelhante a outros sistemas de confinamento adotados em outros lugares.
  • #97 Epidemiology of mastitis and interactions of environmental factors on udder health in the compost barn system | Arq. bras. med. vet. zootec. (Online);75(1): 14-26, 2023. tab, graf | VETINDEX
    https://pesquisa.bvsalud.org/portal/resource/esChatterji/biblio-1416434
    Epidemiology of mastitis and interactions of environmental factors on udder health in the compost barn system / Epidemiologia da mastite e interaes de fatores ambientais na sade do bere no sistema de Compost Barn […] This study aimed to describe the epidemiological indexes of mastitis, milk quality and udder hygiene in the Compost Barn system, as well as to search for associations between isolated pathogens from milk with compost characteristics. […] Environmental pathogens caused most cases of clinical mastitis on farm 2, and contagious pathogens caused the most cases on farm 1. […] Poor udder hygiene contributed to the increased incidence of environmental pathogens in one of the farms. […] The results suggest that pathogens isolated from milk in animals confined in Compost Barn under tropical climate are like other confinement systems adopted elsewhere.
  • #98 Epidemiology and financial impact of bovine mastitis in an animal production and research center and small holder dairy farms in horoguduru wollega zone, western Ethiopia – MedCrave online
    https://medcraveonline.com/JDVAR/epidemiology-and-financial-impact-of-bovine-mastitis-in-an-animal-production-and-research-center-and-small-holder-dairy-farms-in-horoguduru-wollega-zone-western-ethiopia.html
    The study showed existence of subclinical and clinical mastitis in the area. Breed, age and lactation status were statistically significant risk factors for the occurrence of mastitis. […] The study also revealed that most lactating cows are kept in poor husbandry management. […] The understanding of farmers on cause and transmission of Mastitis is poor. […] The policy makers should design control methods through vaccination for highly pathogenic agent and develop guideline for dairy production management in the country.
  • #99 Epidemiology and financial impact of bovine mastitis in an animal production and research center and small holder dairy farms in horoguduru wollega zone, western Ethiopia – MedCrave online
    https://medcraveonline.com/JDVAR/epidemiology-and-financial-impact-of-bovine-mastitis-in-an-animal-production-and-research-center-and-small-holder-dairy-farms-in-horoguduru-wollega-zone-western-ethiopia.html
    The study showed existence of subclinical and clinical mastitis in the area. Breed, age and lactation status were statistically significant risk factors for the occurrence of mastitis. […] The study also revealed that most lactating cows are kept in poor husbandry management. […] The understanding of farmers on cause and transmission of Mastitis is poor. […] The policy makers should design control methods through vaccination for highly pathogenic agent and develop guideline for dairy production management in the country.
  • #100 Bovine Mastitis: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Control Strategies in Dairy Sectors of Bangladesh
    https://journals.ekb.eg/article_407888.html
    The economic impact encompasses diminished milk output, heightened veterinary expenses, early culling of livestock and public health issues associated with antibiotic residues and the transmission of pathogens via milk. […] Effective control strategies include enhanced management practices, routine screening through methods such as the California Mastitis Test, implementation of biosecurity measures, and focused treatments. […] Furthermore, the implementation of vaccination initiatives and the education of farmers are essential for the effective management of disease sustainability. […] This review highlights the critical necessity for a unified strategy in addressing mastitis control, merging scientific progress with effective on-farm practices to protect Bangladeshs dairy sector from this ongoing challenge.
  • #101 UK Vet Livestock – Mastitis pattern analysis: epidemiology into practice
    https://www.ukvetlivestock.com/content/clinical/mastitis-pattern-analysis-epidemiology-into-practice/
    Analysis of mastitis data is an essential first step in any mastitis investigation, including the Mastitis Control Plan because any control measures that are prioritised to the farmer are dependent on a correct interpretation of mastitis patterns at this point. […] Research has shown that a targeted approach to control rather than a one size fits all approach is vital when working to reduce the rate of new infection, and therefore mastitis control plans have to be specifically tailored to the present herd situation. […] This represents a key barrier that prevents mastitis control being more successful and there continue to be many examples of where mastitis control advice has become confused and ineffective in the absence of a clear herd pattern. […] The mastitis pattern analysis report relies on individual somatic cell count (SCC) data, just as the veterinary advisor relies on this data to make decisions on likely origin of infection and therefore where to prioritise control measures.