Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Leptospirosis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/220563-overview

  Leptospirosis is an infectious disease of humans and animals that is caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. […] Leptospirosis is caused by spiral bacteria that belong to the genus Leptospira, the family Leptospiraceae, and the order Spirochaetales. These spirochetes are finely coiled, thin, motile, obligate, slow-growing aerobes. […] The traditional system divided the genus into 2 species: the pathogenic Leptospira interrogans and the nonpathogenic Leptospira biflexa. […] Current studies that classify the organisms based on DNA relatedness identify at least 7 pathogenic species of leptospires. […] Transmission of leptospires to humans typically occurs by invasion across mucosal surfaces or nonintact skin. Infection may occur via direct contact with infected animals or their tissues or urine or through contact with contaminated water and soil.

• #2 Leptospirosis – Spirochetal Infections – Bacterial Diseases – Infectious Diseases – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.18.96.11.1.

  1. Etiologic agent: Spirochetes of the genus Leptospira; small, gram-negative obligate aerobes with a characteristic question-mark shape. The pathogen is widespread globally, except in polar regions (leptospirosis is considered the most common zoonosis). The genus Leptospira comprises both pathogenic (L interrogans) and nonpathogenic (L biflexa) species. Microscopic agglutination test (MAT) identifies specific serotypes within a species. L interrogans has 200 serotypes, of which L icterohaemorrhagiae, L canicola, and L australis are the most pathogenic for humans. […] Weil disease develops in 5% to 15% of patients with leptospirosis and is caused mainly by L icterohaemorrhagiae. Typical manifestations include jaundice and other features of liver injury as well as renal failure resulting from interstitial nephritis or immune complex glomerulonephritis. This is often accompanied by features of other organ damage.

• #3 Leptospirosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441858/

  Leptospirosis, also called Weil disease, is the most common zoonotic infection in the world. Leptospirosis is caused by an infection with the spirochete bacterium Leptospira and is most often spread through exposure to the urine of infected animals either from direct contact or from contact with soil or water contaminated by the urine. […] Leptospirosis is caused by an infection with the spirochete bacterium Leptospira. This disease is most often spread through exposure to the urine of infected animals either from direct contact or from contact with soil or water contaminated by the urine. […] The more than 160 species of animals found to carry the disease show no signs/symptoms if infected. They can be vectors of disease for several months after inoculation, sometimes never showing any signs/symptoms of infection.

• #4 :: IC :: Infection & Chemotherapy

  https://icjournal.org/DOIx.php?id=10.3947/ic.2019.51.3.315

  Leptospirosis is a widespread worldwide zoonosis. […] Human leptospirosis was first identified in the Korea in 1984 as the cause of epidemic pulmonary hemorrhagic fever of unknown etiology that occurred sporadically or in outbreaks. […] The disease was recognized as an entity in ancient times as well, and was referred to as rice-harvest jaundice in ancient Chinese language and as 7-day fever or autumn fever in Japanese language, with names associated with the season, occupation, and duration of symptoms. […] Since the causative bacteria, animal reservoirs, and the importance of environmental conditions were identified between 1920 and 1960, it became known that the disease transmission by working in dangerous environmental conditions rather than occupational exposure. […] The important basic knowledge of leptospirosis and Leptospira species was largely described in the early 1920s.

• #5 Leptospirosis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/220563-overview

  Leptospirosis is an infectious disease of humans and animals that is caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. […] Leptospirosis is caused by spiral bacteria that belong to the genus Leptospira, the family Leptospiraceae, and the order Spirochaetales. These spirochetes are finely coiled, thin, motile, obligate, slow-growing aerobes. […] The traditional system divided the genus into 2 species: the pathogenic Leptospira interrogans and the nonpathogenic Leptospira biflexa. […] Current studies that classify the organisms based on DNA relatedness identify at least 7 pathogenic species of leptospires. […] Transmission of leptospires to humans typically occurs by invasion across mucosal surfaces or nonintact skin. Infection may occur via direct contact with infected animals or their tissues or urine or through contact with contaminated water and soil.

• #6 Leptospirosis – Spirochetal Infections – Bacterial Diseases – Infectious Diseases – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.18.96.11.1.

  1. Etiologic agent: Spirochetes of the genus Leptospira; small, gram-negative obligate aerobes with a characteristic question-mark shape. The pathogen is widespread globally, except in polar regions (leptospirosis is considered the most common zoonosis). The genus Leptospira comprises both pathogenic (L interrogans) and nonpathogenic (L biflexa) species. Microscopic agglutination test (MAT) identifies specific serotypes within a species. L interrogans has 200 serotypes, of which L icterohaemorrhagiae, L canicola, and L australis are the most pathogenic for humans. […] Weil disease develops in 5% to 15% of patients with leptospirosis and is caused mainly by L icterohaemorrhagiae. Typical manifestations include jaundice and other features of liver injury as well as renal failure resulting from interstitial nephritis or immune complex glomerulonephritis. This is often accompanied by features of other organ damage.

• #7 Leptospirosis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/220563-overview

  Leptospirosis is an infectious disease of humans and animals that is caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. […] Leptospirosis is caused by spiral bacteria that belong to the genus Leptospira, the family Leptospiraceae, and the order Spirochaetales. These spirochetes are finely coiled, thin, motile, obligate, slow-growing aerobes. […] The traditional system divided the genus into 2 species: the pathogenic Leptospira interrogans and the nonpathogenic Leptospira biflexa. […] Current studies that classify the organisms based on DNA relatedness identify at least 7 pathogenic species of leptospires. […] Transmission of leptospires to humans typically occurs by invasion across mucosal surfaces or nonintact skin. Infection may occur via direct contact with infected animals or their tissues or urine or through contact with contaminated water and soil.

• #8 Causes of Weil’s Disease | Mercury Legal

  https://www.weilsdiseasecompensation.co.uk/causes-weils-disease/

  Weils Disease is caused by an infection from the Leptospira bacteria (hence the name of its early stage: Leptospirosis). There are over 20 different types, or strains, of these bacteria, of which around half can cause disease in humans. Among these, some of the most prevalent are Leptospira Interrogans, Leptospira Borgpetersenii and Leptospira Santarosai; these need humidity in which to survive, so stagnant water and soil can be ideal places for them to thrive. […] The disease is most commonly spread by animals; in particular rats and rodents, but also dogs, deer, pigs, cattle, sheep, rabbits and even hedgehogs. Some birds and reptiles have been found to carry a form of the disease, but that type is not transmitted to humans. […] Once the bacteria arrives in the human body; either through ingestion, an open wound, or into the nose, ears or eyes, it then spreads into the bloodstream from where it has access to the whole body. In some cases the body will fight off the infection and symptoms can be minimal, but if the dose is strong, or the body is weak, then the bacteria have a stronger chance of multiplication and swift medical intervention is the best course of action.

• #9 Leptospirosis – Spirochetal Infections – Bacterial Diseases – Infectious Diseases – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.18.96.11.1.

  1. Etiologic agent: Spirochetes of the genus Leptospira; small, gram-negative obligate aerobes with a characteristic question-mark shape. The pathogen is widespread globally, except in polar regions (leptospirosis is considered the most common zoonosis). The genus Leptospira comprises both pathogenic (L interrogans) and nonpathogenic (L biflexa) species. Microscopic agglutination test (MAT) identifies specific serotypes within a species. L interrogans has 200 serotypes, of which L icterohaemorrhagiae, L canicola, and L australis are the most pathogenic for humans. […] Weil disease develops in 5% to 15% of patients with leptospirosis and is caused mainly by L icterohaemorrhagiae. Typical manifestations include jaundice and other features of liver injury as well as renal failure resulting from interstitial nephritis or immune complex glomerulonephritis. This is often accompanied by features of other organ damage.

• #10 Leptospirosis | Cornell Wildlife Health Lab

  https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/disease/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis, also known as Weils disease in humans, is a zoonotic disease caused by several species of spiral-shaped bacteria in the genus Leptospira. […] Most clinical signs are related to kidney and/or liver damage and reproductive tract dysfunction. […] Transmission most commonly occurs from contact with urine or an environment contaminated with urine. Leptospira bacteria reproduce in the kidneys and are shed in the urine of infected animals. […] More than 250 pathogenic serovars have been identified, many of which are specific to different regions of the world. Rats are common sources for human infections because they are the maintenance hosts for the serovars that cause disease in people. […] Clinical signs in humans include fever, headache, muscle aches, vomiting, weakness, and meningitis. In more severe cases icterus (yellow pigmentation of skin) and kidney failure can occur. […] Leptospires can survive in the environment up to three months with favorable conditions, mainly high moisture alkaline (basic) soil or stagnant or slow-moving freshwater bodies of water. Leptospirosis outbreaks occur under favorable conditions such as following floods and monsoons.

• #11 Weil’s Disease: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments

  https://www.healthline.com/health/weils-disease

  Weils disease is a severe form of leptospirosis. This is a type of bacterial infection. Its caused by Leptospira bacteria. […] Weils disease is caused by Leptospira bacteria. If your infection is mild, its known as leptospirosis. If you develop a severe infection, its known as Weils disease. […] Leptospira bacteria typically infect some farm animals, dogs, and rodents. […] You can become infected with the bacteria if your eyes, mouth, nose, or open cuts on your skin come into contact with: urine, blood, or tissue from an animal that carries the bacteria; water thats contaminated with the bacteria; soil thats contaminated with the bacteria.

• #12 Leptospirosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441858/

  Leptospirosis, also called Weil disease, is the most common zoonotic infection in the world. Leptospirosis is caused by an infection with the spirochete bacterium Leptospira and is most often spread through exposure to the urine of infected animals either from direct contact or from contact with soil or water contaminated by the urine. […] Leptospirosis is caused by an infection with the spirochete bacterium Leptospira. This disease is most often spread through exposure to the urine of infected animals either from direct contact or from contact with soil or water contaminated by the urine. […] The more than 160 species of animals found to carry the disease show no signs/symptoms if infected. They can be vectors of disease for several months after inoculation, sometimes never showing any signs/symptoms of infection.

• #13 Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) | nidirect

  https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/conditions/leptospirosis-weils-disease

  Leptospirosis, also called Weil’s disease, is an infection you can catch from animals. […] Leptospirosis is spread in the pee of infected animals, most commonly: rats, mice, cows, pigs, dogs. […] You can catch it if: soil or freshwater (such as from a river, canal or lake) containing infected pee gets in your mouth, eyes or a cut usually during activities like kayaking, outdoor swimming or fishing; you touch an infected animal’s blood or flesh usually from working with animals or animal parts. […] It’s very rare to get leptospirosis from pets, other people or bites. […] Leptospirosis is rare, especially in Northern Ireland. […] You’re more at risk if you do lots of outdoor activities (especially while abroad) or work with animals or animal parts.

• #14 Leptospirosis: Treatment, symptoms, and types

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/246829

  Leptospirosis is a rare bacterial infection that affects people and animals. Several species of the Leptospira genus of bacteria cause leptospirosis. […] The Leptospira bacteria can exist in raccoons, bats, sheep, dogs, mice, rats, horses, cattle, buffaloes, and pigs. The bacteria inhabit the animals kidneys and are expelled through urination, infecting the soil or water supplies.

• #15 Leptospirosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441858/

  Leptospirosis, also called Weil disease, is the most common zoonotic infection in the world. Leptospirosis is caused by an infection with the spirochete bacterium Leptospira and is most often spread through exposure to the urine of infected animals either from direct contact or from contact with soil or water contaminated by the urine. […] Leptospirosis is caused by an infection with the spirochete bacterium Leptospira. This disease is most often spread through exposure to the urine of infected animals either from direct contact or from contact with soil or water contaminated by the urine. […] The more than 160 species of animals found to carry the disease show no signs/symptoms if infected. They can be vectors of disease for several months after inoculation, sometimes never showing any signs/symptoms of infection.

• #16 leptospirosis-and-weils-disease

  https://www.rya.org.uk/knowledge/environment/leptospirosis-and-weils-disease

  The national rat population is increasing and between 50 and 60% of rats carry and excrete the bacterium Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae in their urine. […] If your club operates in freshwater then it is important that your members are aware of the risks of Leptospirosis and Weil’s Disease. […] Leptospira bacteria are often carried by rats and excreted in their urine thus contaminating water and muddy soil. The bacteria can enter the human body through cuts, grazes, mouth or mucous membranes such as those which line the nose and ears. […] Infection with the bacterium causes an illness which has similar symptoms to flu – temperature, muscle aches and nausea. In mild cases these symptoms can be easily treated and patients will likely recover in a few weeks. In England and Wales an average of 40 cases of Leptospirosis are reported each year however very few of these go on to develop the more serious Weil’s Disease which can be fatal; Since 1996, there have only been four deaths from Weil’s Disease.

• #17 Leptospirosis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/220563-overview

  Leptospirosis is an infectious disease of humans and animals that is caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. […] Leptospirosis is caused by spiral bacteria that belong to the genus Leptospira, the family Leptospiraceae, and the order Spirochaetales. These spirochetes are finely coiled, thin, motile, obligate, slow-growing aerobes. […] The traditional system divided the genus into 2 species: the pathogenic Leptospira interrogans and the nonpathogenic Leptospira biflexa. […] Current studies that classify the organisms based on DNA relatedness identify at least 7 pathogenic species of leptospires. […] Transmission of leptospires to humans typically occurs by invasion across mucosal surfaces or nonintact skin. Infection may occur via direct contact with infected animals or their tissues or urine or through contact with contaminated water and soil.

• #18 Leptospirosis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/220563-overview

  Leptospirosis is an infectious disease of humans and animals that is caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. […] Leptospirosis is caused by spiral bacteria that belong to the genus Leptospira, the family Leptospiraceae, and the order Spirochaetales. These spirochetes are finely coiled, thin, motile, obligate, slow-growing aerobes. […] The traditional system divided the genus into 2 species: the pathogenic Leptospira interrogans and the nonpathogenic Leptospira biflexa. […] Current studies that classify the organisms based on DNA relatedness identify at least 7 pathogenic species of leptospires. […] Transmission of leptospires to humans typically occurs by invasion across mucosal surfaces or nonintact skin. Infection may occur via direct contact with infected animals or their tissues or urine or through contact with contaminated water and soil.

• #19 Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease)

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/leptospirosis/

  Leptospirosis, also called Weil’s disease, is an infection you can get from animals, soil or water. It’s rare in the UK. […] Leptospirosis is spread in the pee of infected animals, most commonly rats, mice, cows, pigs and dogs. […] You can get leptospirosis if: soil or freshwater (such as water from a river, canal or lake) that contains infected pee gets in your mouth, eyes or a cut, usually during activities like kayaking, outdoor swimming or fishing; you touch an infected animal’s blood or flesh, usually from working with animals or animal parts. […] Leptospirosis can often be treated by your GP. You’ll usually be given antibiotic tablets to treat the infection. Most people recover in a few days or weeks. […] Leptospirosis is rare in the UK. You have a higher chance of getting it if you do outdoor activities like water sports (especially while abroad in tropical areas), or you work with animals or animal parts.

• #20 Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) – including symptoms, treatment and prevention | SA Health

  https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/conditions/infectious+diseases/leptospirosis/leptospirosis+weils+disease+-+including+symptoms+treatment+and+prevention

  Leptospirosis is an infection caused by corkscrew-shaped bacteria called Leptospira interrogans. The bacteria occur worldwide and many different serotypes are known. […] People get leptospirosis by contact with fresh water, wet soil or vegetation contaminated by the urine of infected animals, especially: rodents (for example rats and mice), cattle, pigs, horses, dogs. […] Both domestic and wild animals can carry leptospirosis and they pass the bacteria in their urine. […] The Leptospira bacteria can enter the body through broken skin, water-softened skin, mucous membranes (the thin moist lining of many parts of the body such as the nose, mouth, throat and genitals) or by swallowing or inhaling contaminated water. […] Leptospirosis is an occupational hazard for many people working outdoors or with animals, such as: dairy farmers, sewer workers, veterinarians, abattoir workers, military personnel.

• #21 Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) – including symptoms, treatment and prevention | SA Health

  https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/conditions/infectious+diseases/leptospirosis/leptospirosis+weils+disease+-+including+symptoms+treatment+and+prevention

  Leptospirosis is an infection caused by corkscrew-shaped bacteria called Leptospira interrogans. The bacteria occur worldwide and many different serotypes are known. […] People get leptospirosis by contact with fresh water, wet soil or vegetation contaminated by the urine of infected animals, especially: rodents (for example rats and mice), cattle, pigs, horses, dogs. […] Both domestic and wild animals can carry leptospirosis and they pass the bacteria in their urine. […] The Leptospira bacteria can enter the body through broken skin, water-softened skin, mucous membranes (the thin moist lining of many parts of the body such as the nose, mouth, throat and genitals) or by swallowing or inhaling contaminated water. […] Leptospirosis is an occupational hazard for many people working outdoors or with animals, such as: dairy farmers, sewer workers, veterinarians, abattoir workers, military personnel.

• #22 Leptospirosis | Healthify

  https://healthify.nz/health-a-z/l/leptospirosis/

  Leptospirosis is caused by the bacteria leptospira. You can get it by being in contact with infected urine (pee) of many types of animals. You can also get it from contact with water that contains infected urine. […] Leptospirosis is a bacterial infection caused by contact with the urine (or some other body fluids) of infected animals either directly, or from soil or water containing their urine (pee). […] Leptospirosis spreads from animals to humans. Leptospira bacteria live in the kidneys of some animals (eg, rats, hedgehogs, possums or farm animals) and are present in their urine (pee). You get infected through contact with the urine of these animals or with water that’s been contaminated by infected urine. […] You dont have to come into direct contact with the urine or tissue of an infected animal. Even a splash or fine spray of urine or indirect contact with urine-contaminated water (eg, water used to clean down a cowshed) can spread a large number of the spiral-shaped bacteria (leptospires). […] Leptospirosis is diagnosed by blood tests to check for the presence of antibodies or to detect the bacteria in your blood. […] You will need antibiotics as the treatment for leptospirosis.

• #23 Leptospirosis | Cornell Wildlife Health Lab

  https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/disease/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis, also known as Weils disease in humans, is a zoonotic disease caused by several species of spiral-shaped bacteria in the genus Leptospira. […] Most clinical signs are related to kidney and/or liver damage and reproductive tract dysfunction. […] Transmission most commonly occurs from contact with urine or an environment contaminated with urine. Leptospira bacteria reproduce in the kidneys and are shed in the urine of infected animals. […] More than 250 pathogenic serovars have been identified, many of which are specific to different regions of the world. Rats are common sources for human infections because they are the maintenance hosts for the serovars that cause disease in people. […] Clinical signs in humans include fever, headache, muscle aches, vomiting, weakness, and meningitis. In more severe cases icterus (yellow pigmentation of skin) and kidney failure can occur. […] Leptospires can survive in the environment up to three months with favorable conditions, mainly high moisture alkaline (basic) soil or stagnant or slow-moving freshwater bodies of water. Leptospirosis outbreaks occur under favorable conditions such as following floods and monsoons.

• #24 Leptospirosis | Cornell Wildlife Health Lab

  https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/disease/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis, also known as Weils disease in humans, is a zoonotic disease caused by several species of spiral-shaped bacteria in the genus Leptospira. […] Most clinical signs are related to kidney and/or liver damage and reproductive tract dysfunction. […] Transmission most commonly occurs from contact with urine or an environment contaminated with urine. Leptospira bacteria reproduce in the kidneys and are shed in the urine of infected animals. […] More than 250 pathogenic serovars have been identified, many of which are specific to different regions of the world. Rats are common sources for human infections because they are the maintenance hosts for the serovars that cause disease in people. […] Clinical signs in humans include fever, headache, muscle aches, vomiting, weakness, and meningitis. In more severe cases icterus (yellow pigmentation of skin) and kidney failure can occur. […] Leptospires can survive in the environment up to three months with favorable conditions, mainly high moisture alkaline (basic) soil or stagnant or slow-moving freshwater bodies of water. Leptospirosis outbreaks occur under favorable conditions such as following floods and monsoons.

• #25 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Transmission of the organism to humans occurs via portals of entry, including cuts or abraded skin, mucous membranes, or conjunctivae. […] Humans are accidental hosts, infected incidentally after animal or environmental exposure. […] Risk factors primarily include direct animal exposure or activities that can lead to skin abrasions and water or soil exposure. […] Icteric leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) occurs in approximately 5 to 10 percent of symptomatic leptospirosis cases and is a rapidly progressive multisystem illness associated with mortality rates of 5 to 15 percent. […] Usually, icteric leptospirosis is accompanied by fever, jaundice, and renal failure, a syndrome known as „Weil’s disease.” Pulmonary hemorrhage with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), myocarditis with electrocardiogram (EKG) abnormalities, and rhabdomyolysis may also occur as part of this syndrome. […] The diagnosis is confirmed by a positive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of blood or urine or by positive serologic testing; rarely, a diagnosis is made by a positive culture of blood or urine.

• #26 Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) – including symptoms, treatment and prevention | SA Health

  https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/conditions/infectious+diseases/leptospirosis/leptospirosis+weils+disease+-+including+symptoms+treatment+and+prevention

  Leptospirosis is an infection caused by corkscrew-shaped bacteria called Leptospira interrogans. The bacteria occur worldwide and many different serotypes are known. […] People get leptospirosis by contact with fresh water, wet soil or vegetation contaminated by the urine of infected animals, especially: rodents (for example rats and mice), cattle, pigs, horses, dogs. […] Both domestic and wild animals can carry leptospirosis and they pass the bacteria in their urine. […] The Leptospira bacteria can enter the body through broken skin, water-softened skin, mucous membranes (the thin moist lining of many parts of the body such as the nose, mouth, throat and genitals) or by swallowing or inhaling contaminated water. […] Leptospirosis is an occupational hazard for many people working outdoors or with animals, such as: dairy farmers, sewer workers, veterinarians, abattoir workers, military personnel.

• #27 Leptospirosis: An important zoonosis acquired through work, play and travel

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2018/march/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is caused by bacteria of the genus Leptospira, which has 250 known pathogenic serovars. […] Humans become infected through direct contact with infected animals, including rodents, wildlife, livestock, and pets, or contact with soil or water contaminated by the urine of infected animals. […] Globally, leptospirosis is an emerging infectious disease with a rising incidence, increasing frequency and severity of outbreaks, and evolving climatic, sociodemographic and environmental drivers of transmission. […] Leptospirosis is responsible for about one million severe cases and 60,000 deaths per year worldwide. […] The incidence of leptospirosis is highest in tropical and subtropical areas, and disease burden is particularly high in Oceania. […] In Australia, occupational exposure is the predominant source of infection, particularly in livestock and dairy farmers, abattoir and meat workers, and banana workers (through exposure to rodents).

• #28 Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease)

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/leptospirosis/

  Leptospirosis, also called Weil’s disease, is an infection you can get from animals, soil or water. It’s rare in the UK. […] Leptospirosis is spread in the pee of infected animals, most commonly rats, mice, cows, pigs and dogs. […] You can get leptospirosis if: soil or freshwater (such as water from a river, canal or lake) that contains infected pee gets in your mouth, eyes or a cut, usually during activities like kayaking, outdoor swimming or fishing; you touch an infected animal’s blood or flesh, usually from working with animals or animal parts. […] Leptospirosis can often be treated by your GP. You’ll usually be given antibiotic tablets to treat the infection. Most people recover in a few days or weeks. […] Leptospirosis is rare in the UK. You have a higher chance of getting it if you do outdoor activities like water sports (especially while abroad in tropical areas), or you work with animals or animal parts.

• #29 Harmful Micro-Organisms: Leptospirosis / Weil’s Disease from rats – HSE

  https://www.hse.gov.uk/construction/healthrisks/hazardous-substances/harmful-micro-organisms/leptospirosis-weils-disease.htm

  The Weil’s disease form of leptospirosis is contracted from the urine of infected rats. […] The bacteria get into your body through cuts and scratches or through the lining of the mouth, throat and eyes after contact with infected urine or contaminated water. […] It is a rare condition in the UK. […] More severe cases can lead to meningitis, kidney failure and other serious conditions. […] In rare cases the disease can be fatal.

• #30 Weil’s Disease—Immunopathogenesis, Multiple Organ Failure, and Potential Role of Gut Microbiota

  https://www.mdpi.com/2218-273X/12/12/1830

  Leptospirosis is an important zoonotic disease, causing about 60,000 deaths annually. […] Leptospirosis is a re-emerging zoonosis, caused by Leptospira spp. It is estimated to infect more than a million people with approximately 60,000 deaths annually. […] Weil’s syndrome (10% of cases), is a severe form of leptospirosis with a high mortality rate; it is characterized by hepatic dysfunctions associated with renal failure and hemorrhages. […] The pathology of leptospirosis and the factors that cause severe leptospirosis are currently unclear. […] Both host factors and pathogens may play an important role in the pathogenesis of leptospirosis. […] Severe infectious diseases are often associated with a prolonged increase in pro-inflammatory IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6 expression, or “cytokine storm”, causing persistent inflammation and followed by a massive and systemic production of anti-inflammatory cytokines.

• #31 Leptospirosis | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-025-00614-5

  Leptospirosis is a zoonotic bacterial infection that is prevalent across all continents and is caused by pathogenic spirochaetes of the genus Leptospira. […] The pathogenesis of severe leptospirosis is poorly understood but is believed to involve an interplay between genetic predisposition, pathogen virulence and dysregulated immune responses that trigger a cytokine storm with associated immunoparesis. […] Leptospira are susceptible to several low-cost antibiotics, including benzyl penicillin, doxycycline, cephalosporins and macrolides, when used in the early phase of infection. […] Very few countries have licensed a vaccine for human leptospirosis, and available vaccines only protect against rodent-associated serogroups. […] Future research is needed to accurately estimate leptospirosis disease burden across the globe, to understand the pathophysiology of severe leptospirosis to inform the design of targeted immunotherapies and vaccines, and to develop cost-effective and accurate point-of-care diagnostics.

• #32 Leptospirosis

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/leptospirosis

  The organism gains entry to humans through skin abrasions or the mucous membranes of the nose, mouth, and eyes. The organism then enters the bloodstream, multiplies, and spreads to all organs, particularly the liver and kidneys. In humans, leptospires rarely persist in the kidneys for longer than 60 days. However they can persist in the eyes for much longer. […] Leptospirosis may occur in two phases separated by a period of apparent recovery. If a second phase occurs, it is more severe and may result in kidney or liver failure, or meningitis. This phase is also called Weil disease. Approximately 5-10% of patients develop this severe form.

• #33 Leptospirosis (Weil’s Disease): Symptoms and Diagnosis

  https://patient.info/infections/leptospirosis-and-weils-disease

  Leptospirosis is caused by infection with Leptospira germs (bacteria). The infection passes from animals (commonly rats, cattle, pigs and dogs) to humans. […] In the majority of cases, leptospirosis causes a mild illness but, in some people, a more severe form of leptospirosis occurs. This more severe form is commonly referred to as Weil’s disease. […] During this second stage, bacteria begin to infect the organs of the body, such as the kidneys, the liver, the brain, the eyes, the heart and the lungs. Different organs may be infected in different people. However, commonly the kidneys and the liver are affected and kidney or liver failure can occur. […] Leptospirosis can be passed on to humans through direct contact with the bodily fluids or tissues of an infected animal (such as urine) or through contact with contaminated water or soil. […] In more severe cases (Weil’s disease), the outlook depends on which organs of the body are involved and to what extent. People severely affected may die from organ failure or internal bleeding.

• #34 Fulminant Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) in an urban setting as an overlooked cause of multiorgan failure: a case report | Journal of Medical Case Reports | Full Text

  https://jmedicalcasereports.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1752-1947-5-7

  Leptospirosis is a zoonosis of worldwide distribution caused by infection with Leptospira interrogans, a pathogenic spirochete. The majority of patients manifest a mild, anicteric febrile illness, but a minority of patients develop a severe form with multiorgan involvement, called Weil’s disease. Weil’s disease is characterized by multisystem dysfunction and can present with high fever, significant jaundice, renal failure, hepatic necrosis, pulmonary involvement, cardiovascular collapse, neurologic changes and hemorrhagic diathesis. […] Weil’s disease is the most severe form of leptospirosis. Patients can present with high fever (40C), significant jaundice, renal failure, hepatic necrosis, pulmonary involvement, cardiovascular collapse, neurologic changes and hemorrhagic diathesis, with a variable clinical course.

• #35 Leptospirosis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, Prevention

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is a rare bacterial infection we get from animals. Its spread through their urine, especially from dogs, rodents, and farm animals. They may not have any symptoms, but they can be carriers. […] A bacteria called Leptospira interrogans causes leptospirosis. Many animals carry the organism, and it lives in their kidneys. It gets into soil and water from their urine. […] Once you reach this phase, the leptospira bacteria is now in your organs, especially your kidneys. The bacteria will show up in urine tests, and your body will build up protection (antibodies) against the bacteria. It’s possible that you could get sick during this phase with another illness called Weil’s syndrome, which causes internal bleeding, kidney damage, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). […] The disease can spread through your body (systemic inflammatory syndrome) and cause internal bleeding and inflame your pancreas or gallbladder. […] It also could inflame your heart muscle (myocarditis), leading to symptoms of heart failure, including blockages and an irregular heartbeat (dysrhythmia).

• #36 Weil disease • LITFL • Medical Eponym Library

  https://litfl.com/weil-disease/

  Weil disease refers to the severe icteric form of Leptospirosis. Bacterial infection with worldwide distribution. […] Human infection secondary to contact with fresh water, wet soil or vegetation contaminated by the urine of infected animals, especially rodents (for example rats and mice) but also skunks, foxes, cattle and dogs. […] It is worth noting that it is common for there to be an asymptomatic phase 1-3 days after symptoms start, before a later recurrence of symptoms. […] Multiple recorded outbreaks of infectious jaundice (most probably severe icteric Leptospirosis) prior to its first medical publication in 1886. […] Inada and Ido showed for the first time that inoculation of a guinea pig with blood of a patient known to be infected with Weils disease, produced symptoms reminiscent of Weils disease in the guinea pig.

• #37 SciELO Brazil – Pathology and pathogenesis of human leptospirosis: a commented review Pathology and pathogenesis of human leptospirosis: a commented review

  https://www.scielo.br/j/rimtsp/a/MhPBFRmcXR6RsCrxM5HjyPJ/

  Leptospirosis is an acute bacterial septicemic febrile disease caused by pathogenic leptospires, which affect humans and animals in all parts of the world. […] The most severe form of the disease, with multisystem damage, including vascular, hepatic, renal, pulmonary and skeletal muscles injury, is known as the Weil syndrome. […] Leptospirosis can also be regarded as a hemorrhagic septicemia, therefore, the main findings involving vessels, chiefly those of the microcirculatory circulation, are essential for its pathogenesis. […] Therefore, the general pattern of altered cell adhesion with partial or total disappearance of cadherins is also present in microcirculatory vessels. […] In summary, the primary lesion in leptospirosis seems to be the cell membrane damage mediated by unknown factors, possibly leptospiral proteins and/or toxic cellular components.

• #38 Weil’s Disease—Immunopathogenesis, Multiple Organ Failure, and Potential Role of Gut Microbiota

  https://www.mdpi.com/2218-273X/12/12/1830

  The very first research of cytokines in human leptospirosis showed a significant increase in TNF-α levels from patient sera. […] High levels of chemokines are found in susceptible hamsters, and are associated with organ damage and poor outcome. […] The kidneys are the target organs in human leptospirosis pathology. […] Leptospirosis is associated with an overwhelming activation of inflammasomes and proinflammatory cytokines in the early phases, causing kidney inflammation and subsequent damage. […] The most severe form of leptospirosis, Weil disease, is also characterized by liver injury. […] The presence of jaundice implies a poor prognosis with a mortality rate of 19.1%. […] Bleeding is a common symptom of severe leptospirosis. […] Endothelial cell injury and vasculitis are generally accepted as major pathological characteristics of leptospirosis.

• #39 Weil’s Disease—Immunopathogenesis, Multiple Organ Failure, and Potential Role of Gut Microbiota

  https://www.mdpi.com/2218-273X/12/12/1830

  The microbiota plays an essential role in the education, development, and function of the immune system, both locally and systemically. […] The role of the gut microbiota in leptospirosis infection was investigated using 16S rRNA sequencing, finding that the relative abundance of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes between uninfected mice and leptospire-infected mice 7 days after infection differed significantly at the level of type and genus. […] We proposed the hypothesis that gut dysbiosis caused by leptospirosis can lead to a more severe course of the disease, due to connections called axes.

• #40 Polyneuritis and Rare Sequelae of Leptospirosis Contracted While on an Urban Clean-Up Mission in Detroit : A Case Report of Weil’s Disease and Literature Review | Zuccarini | Journal of Medical Cases

  https://www.journalmc.org/index.php/JMC/article/view/3320/2613

  Leptospirosis is a common zoonosis, an infectious disease that infects both humans and animals, which is caused by spirochete bacteria from genus Leptospira. […] Leptospires are transmitted when mucous membranes, lungs via inhalation or abraded skin is exposed to body fluids of an acutely infected animal and by soil or fresh water contaminated with the urine of a chronic carrier. […] Weils disease, also known as icteric leptospirosis, occurs in approximately 10% of cases, and has a fatality rate of 5-10%. […] The primary differential diagnosis being Weils disease from leptospirosis and was proven positive with serologic testing via the Center for Disease Control. […] The clinical condition presented above likely was polyneuritis caused by leptospires due to the chronological association seropositivity of leptospirosis, CT evidence of lymphadenopathy near peripheral nerves and spinal cord, persistent neuralgia and polyneuritis symptoms post discharge in the outpatient setting, and lack of an alternative explanation.

• #41 Ophthalmological Features of Leptospirosis – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Ophthalmological_Features_of_Leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis (Weil disease) is a gram-negative, water-borne, spirochete that is part of the Leptospira genus within the Leptospiraceae family. […] The etiology of ocular features of leptospirosis has been postulated as a host immune response and/or toxin production. […] Specifically, the presence of serovar-specific lipopolysaccharide (LPS) with an increase of Interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) cytokines and selective neutrophil infiltration in aqueous humor is indicative of endotoxin as a possible causative factor for leptospiral uveitis.

• #42 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Transmission of the organism to humans occurs via portals of entry, including cuts or abraded skin, mucous membranes, or conjunctivae. […] Humans are accidental hosts, infected incidentally after animal or environmental exposure. […] Risk factors primarily include direct animal exposure or activities that can lead to skin abrasions and water or soil exposure. […] Icteric leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) occurs in approximately 5 to 10 percent of symptomatic leptospirosis cases and is a rapidly progressive multisystem illness associated with mortality rates of 5 to 15 percent. […] Usually, icteric leptospirosis is accompanied by fever, jaundice, and renal failure, a syndrome known as „Weil’s disease.” Pulmonary hemorrhage with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), myocarditis with electrocardiogram (EKG) abnormalities, and rhabdomyolysis may also occur as part of this syndrome. […] The diagnosis is confirmed by a positive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of blood or urine or by positive serologic testing; rarely, a diagnosis is made by a positive culture of blood or urine.

• #43 Leptospirosis (Weil’s Disease) | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/leptospirosis-weils-disease

  Leptospires are naturally aquatic organisms and are found in fresh water, damp soil, vegetation and mud. Flooding may spread the organism because, as water saturates the soil, leptospires pass directly into surface waters. […] The principal source of human infection is the rat but other sources include dogs, cattle, pigs, and other wild animals. […] Disease is acquired through contact with contaminated water or soil, or through contact with urine or tissues of infected animals. […] Infection occurs as two syndromes: anicteric (which is self-limiting, and may present as a flu-like illness) and icteric leptospirosis (a potentially severe condition also known as Weil’s disease). […] It seems that an excessive immune response may cause the more severe form of the disease rather than the infection itself, in particular uncontrolled cytokine production.

• #44 Leptospirosis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, Prevention

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is a rare bacterial infection we get from animals. Its spread through their urine, especially from dogs, rodents, and farm animals. They may not have any symptoms, but they can be carriers. […] A bacteria called Leptospira interrogans causes leptospirosis. Many animals carry the organism, and it lives in their kidneys. It gets into soil and water from their urine. […] Once you reach this phase, the leptospira bacteria is now in your organs, especially your kidneys. The bacteria will show up in urine tests, and your body will build up protection (antibodies) against the bacteria. It’s possible that you could get sick during this phase with another illness called Weil’s syndrome, which causes internal bleeding, kidney damage, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). […] The disease can spread through your body (systemic inflammatory syndrome) and cause internal bleeding and inflame your pancreas or gallbladder. […] It also could inflame your heart muscle (myocarditis), leading to symptoms of heart failure, including blockages and an irregular heartbeat (dysrhythmia).

• #45 Factors associated with thrombocytopenia in severe leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) | Clinics

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-clinics-22-articulo-factors-associated-with-thrombocytopenia-in-S1807593222009516

  Factors associated with thrombocytopenia in severe leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) […] Leptospirosis is an infectious disease caused by the pathogenic spirochete Leptospira interrogans, which has a worldwide distribution. There is a large range of clinical manifestations in leptospirosis, and infected people can present with asymptomatic illness, self-limited systemic infection or severe and potentially fatal disease. The severe form is characterized by jaundice, acute kidney injury (AKI) and hemorrhage, known as Weil’s disease, and is mainly caused by the serovars Icterohaemorrhagiae, Copenhageni and Lai. Hematological manifestations are common in leptospirosis and are usually manifested as thrombocytopenia. Thrombocytopenia is often observed in connection with hemorrhagic pneumopathy and is a significant predictor of the development of acute respiratory failure, which is currently the main cause of death in this disease.

• #46 Leptospirosis: An important zoonosis acquired through work, play and travel

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2018/march/leptospirosis

  In tropical, developing countries, including Australia’s neighbours in the Asia Pacific region, environmental and climatic drivers are important. […] Leptospirosis can also present with acute or chronic optic manifestations, including subconjunctival and retinal haemorrhages, optic neuritis and chronic uveitis. […] Weils disease is the classic triad of jaundice, renal failure and haemorrhage, but these manifestations do not always occur together. […] Diagnosis is confirmed by serology or culture, but PCR is valuable in the early phase of the infection.

• #47 Weil’s disease as a differential diagnosis of jaundice: A case report | Revista de Gastroenterología de México

  https://www.revistagastroenterologiamexico.org/en-weils-disease-as-differential-diagnosis-avance-S2255534X22000895

  Leptospirosis is a zoonotic infection with worldwide distribution, that is produced by spirochetes from the genus Leptospira. It predominates in tropical regions, especially during the rainy season, in areas with scant resources and the presence of rodents. […] The most characteristic severe form is Weils disease. It can appear after the acute phase and is characterized by altered liver function, and pulmonary and renal involvement. The mortality rate in patients with untreated severe disease reaches 40%. […] Leptospira spirochetes infiltrate the space of Disse and damage the hepatocytes, altering their intercellular binding and causing bile leakage from the bile canaliculi into the sinusoids, which explains the very high levels of direct bilirubin, with no major alterations in ALP or GGT.

• #48 Weil’s disease as a differential diagnosis of jaundice: A case report | Revista de Gastroenterología de México

  https://www.revistagastroenterologiamexico.org/en-weils-disease-as-differential-diagnosis-avance-S2255534X22000895

  Leptospirosis is a zoonotic infection with worldwide distribution, that is produced by spirochetes from the genus Leptospira. It predominates in tropical regions, especially during the rainy season, in areas with scant resources and the presence of rodents. […] The most characteristic severe form is Weils disease. It can appear after the acute phase and is characterized by altered liver function, and pulmonary and renal involvement. The mortality rate in patients with untreated severe disease reaches 40%. […] Leptospira spirochetes infiltrate the space of Disse and damage the hepatocytes, altering their intercellular binding and causing bile leakage from the bile canaliculi into the sinusoids, which explains the very high levels of direct bilirubin, with no major alterations in ALP or GGT.

• #49 Leptospirosis (Weil’s Disease) | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/leptospirosis-weils-disease

  Approximately 10% of those infected become jaundiced (with hepatocellular necrosis) and have a severe and rapidly progressive form of the disease with liver failure and acute kidney injury. […] In this severe form, known as Weil’s disease, there is often multiple organ failure. […] The vast majority of leptospiral infections are self-limiting. However, Weil’s disease has a mortality rate of up to 22% in developing countries and around 5% in the UK. […] Important causes of death include acute kidney injury, cardiopulmonary failure and widespread haemorrhage.

• #50 Leptospirosis (Weil’s Disease) | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/leptospirosis-weils-disease

  Approximately 10% of those infected become jaundiced (with hepatocellular necrosis) and have a severe and rapidly progressive form of the disease with liver failure and acute kidney injury. […] In this severe form, known as Weil’s disease, there is often multiple organ failure. […] The vast majority of leptospiral infections are self-limiting. However, Weil’s disease has a mortality rate of up to 22% in developing countries and around 5% in the UK. […] Important causes of death include acute kidney injury, cardiopulmonary failure and widespread haemorrhage.

• #51 Leptospirosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is caused by spirochaete bacteria that belong to the genus Leptospira, which are aerobic, right-handed helical, and 620 micrometers long. […] More than ten genetic types of Leptospira cause disease in humans. […] The bacteria are spread to humans through animal urine or feces, or water or soil contaminated with animal urine and feces, coming into contact with the eyes, mouth, nose or breaks in the skin. […] The classic form of severe leptospirosis, known as Weil’s disease, is characterised by liver damage (causing jaundice), kidney failure, and bleeding, which happens in 5-10% of those infected. […] The overall risk of death for leptospirosis is 5-10%. […] The disease was first described by physician Adolf Weil in 1886 in Germany.

• #52 Leptospirosis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/220563-overview

  Leptospirosis is an infectious disease of humans and animals that is caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. […] Leptospirosis is caused by spiral bacteria that belong to the genus Leptospira, the family Leptospiraceae, and the order Spirochaetales. These spirochetes are finely coiled, thin, motile, obligate, slow-growing aerobes. […] The traditional system divided the genus into 2 species: the pathogenic Leptospira interrogans and the nonpathogenic Leptospira biflexa. […] Current studies that classify the organisms based on DNA relatedness identify at least 7 pathogenic species of leptospires. […] Transmission of leptospires to humans typically occurs by invasion across mucosal surfaces or nonintact skin. Infection may occur via direct contact with infected animals or their tissues or urine or through contact with contaminated water and soil.

• #53 Ophthalmological Features of Leptospirosis – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Ophthalmological_Features_of_Leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis (Weil disease) is a gram-negative, water-borne, spirochete that is part of the Leptospira genus within the Leptospiraceae family. […] The etiology of ocular features of leptospirosis has been postulated as a host immune response and/or toxin production. […] Specifically, the presence of serovar-specific lipopolysaccharide (LPS) with an increase of Interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) cytokines and selective neutrophil infiltration in aqueous humor is indicative of endotoxin as a possible causative factor for leptospiral uveitis.

• #54 Leptospirosis – Spirochetal Infections – Bacterial Diseases – Infectious Diseases – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.18.96.11.1.

  1. Etiologic agent: Spirochetes of the genus Leptospira; small, gram-negative obligate aerobes with a characteristic question-mark shape. The pathogen is widespread globally, except in polar regions (leptospirosis is considered the most common zoonosis). The genus Leptospira comprises both pathogenic (L interrogans) and nonpathogenic (L biflexa) species. Microscopic agglutination test (MAT) identifies specific serotypes within a species. L interrogans has 200 serotypes, of which L icterohaemorrhagiae, L canicola, and L australis are the most pathogenic for humans. […] Weil disease develops in 5% to 15% of patients with leptospirosis and is caused mainly by L icterohaemorrhagiae. Typical manifestations include jaundice and other features of liver injury as well as renal failure resulting from interstitial nephritis or immune complex glomerulonephritis. This is often accompanied by features of other organ damage.

• #55 Leptospirosis | Cornell Wildlife Health Lab

  https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/disease/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis, also known as Weils disease in humans, is a zoonotic disease caused by several species of spiral-shaped bacteria in the genus Leptospira. […] Most clinical signs are related to kidney and/or liver damage and reproductive tract dysfunction. […] Transmission most commonly occurs from contact with urine or an environment contaminated with urine. Leptospira bacteria reproduce in the kidneys and are shed in the urine of infected animals. […] More than 250 pathogenic serovars have been identified, many of which are specific to different regions of the world. Rats are common sources for human infections because they are the maintenance hosts for the serovars that cause disease in people. […] Clinical signs in humans include fever, headache, muscle aches, vomiting, weakness, and meningitis. In more severe cases icterus (yellow pigmentation of skin) and kidney failure can occur. […] Leptospires can survive in the environment up to three months with favorable conditions, mainly high moisture alkaline (basic) soil or stagnant or slow-moving freshwater bodies of water. Leptospirosis outbreaks occur under favorable conditions such as following floods and monsoons.

• #56 Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease)

  https://health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/leptospirosis/fact_sheet.htm

  Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease associated with wild and domestic animals. Only a few cases are reported each year in New York State. […] Leptospirosis is primarily an occupational disease that affects farmers, veterinarians, sewer workers or others whose occupation involves contact with animals, especially rats. […] Leptospirosis is spread mainly by the urine of infected animals and is generally not transmitted from person to person. […] The disease is diagnosed using specific blood tests available through public health laboratories. […] There are several strains of the organism. Infection with one usually provides immunity to that organism but not to other strains. […] The antibiotics of choice are penicillin and doxycycline. Kidney dialysis may be necessary in some cases.

• #57

  https://achh.army.mil/history/book-wwii-communicablediseasesv5-chapter5/

  The extent of occurrence of other clinical syndromes due to Leptospira during World War II is difficult to determine, since in most of these jaundice is not a prominent feature and during the war diagnostic antigens for the other species of Leptospira were not available. […] The importance of including antigenically different species of Leptospira in the diagnostic procedures has already been noted. […] The members of the special commission attempted to isolate the etiological agent of the disease from frozen specimens of blood, nasal washings, and urine from the few patients available during the time of their study and from flies and mosquitoes collected locally. They concluded „* * all tests on this material proved negative insofar as isolating, or determining the nature of, the infectious agent responsible for this disease was concerned.” […] It was shown by Gochenour and others in 1952 that the etiological agent was Leptospira autumnalis.

• #58 Leptospirosis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/220563-overview

  Leptospirosis is an infectious disease of humans and animals that is caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. […] Leptospirosis is caused by spiral bacteria that belong to the genus Leptospira, the family Leptospiraceae, and the order Spirochaetales. These spirochetes are finely coiled, thin, motile, obligate, slow-growing aerobes. […] The traditional system divided the genus into 2 species: the pathogenic Leptospira interrogans and the nonpathogenic Leptospira biflexa. […] Current studies that classify the organisms based on DNA relatedness identify at least 7 pathogenic species of leptospires. […] Transmission of leptospires to humans typically occurs by invasion across mucosal surfaces or nonintact skin. Infection may occur via direct contact with infected animals or their tissues or urine or through contact with contaminated water and soil.

• #59 Leptospirosis

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/leptospirosis

  The organism gains entry to humans through skin abrasions or the mucous membranes of the nose, mouth, and eyes. The organism then enters the bloodstream, multiplies, and spreads to all organs, particularly the liver and kidneys. In humans, leptospires rarely persist in the kidneys for longer than 60 days. However they can persist in the eyes for much longer. […] Leptospirosis may occur in two phases separated by a period of apparent recovery. If a second phase occurs, it is more severe and may result in kidney or liver failure, or meningitis. This phase is also called Weil disease. Approximately 5-10% of patients develop this severe form.

• #60 Leptospirosis

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/leptospirosis

  The organism gains entry to humans through skin abrasions or the mucous membranes of the nose, mouth, and eyes. The organism then enters the bloodstream, multiplies, and spreads to all organs, particularly the liver and kidneys. In humans, leptospires rarely persist in the kidneys for longer than 60 days. However they can persist in the eyes for much longer. […] Leptospirosis may occur in two phases separated by a period of apparent recovery. If a second phase occurs, it is more severe and may result in kidney or liver failure, or meningitis. This phase is also called Weil disease. Approximately 5-10% of patients develop this severe form.

• #61 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Leptospirosis is a zoonosis with protean clinical manifestations caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. Synonyms for the disease include Weil’s disease, Weil-Vasiliev disease, Swineherd’s disease, rice-field fever, waterborne fever, nanukayami fever, cane-cutter fever, swamp fever, mud fever, Fort Bragg fever, Stuttgart disease, Mgunda fever, and Canicola fever. […] Leptospirosis is thought to be the most widespread zoonosis in the world. It is an under-reported infection, and there are no reliable global incidence figures. A systematic review and modeling exercise estimated that more than one million human cases occur worldwide annually, including almost 60,000 deaths. […] Mammals act as the primary reservoir for Leptospira organisms. The environment can serve as a reservoir if it becomes contaminated by the urine of infected mammals.

• #62 Weil’s Disease—Immunopathogenesis, Multiple Organ Failure, and Potential Role of Gut Microbiota

  https://www.mdpi.com/2218-273X/12/12/1830

  Leptospirosis is an important zoonotic disease, causing about 60,000 deaths annually. […] Leptospirosis is a re-emerging zoonosis, caused by Leptospira spp. It is estimated to infect more than a million people with approximately 60,000 deaths annually. […] Weil’s syndrome (10% of cases), is a severe form of leptospirosis with a high mortality rate; it is characterized by hepatic dysfunctions associated with renal failure and hemorrhages. […] The pathology of leptospirosis and the factors that cause severe leptospirosis are currently unclear. […] Both host factors and pathogens may play an important role in the pathogenesis of leptospirosis. […] Severe infectious diseases are often associated with a prolonged increase in pro-inflammatory IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6 expression, or “cytokine storm”, causing persistent inflammation and followed by a massive and systemic production of anti-inflammatory cytokines.

• #63 Leptospirosis: An important zoonosis acquired through work, play and travel

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2018/march/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is caused by bacteria of the genus Leptospira, which has 250 known pathogenic serovars. […] Humans become infected through direct contact with infected animals, including rodents, wildlife, livestock, and pets, or contact with soil or water contaminated by the urine of infected animals. […] Globally, leptospirosis is an emerging infectious disease with a rising incidence, increasing frequency and severity of outbreaks, and evolving climatic, sociodemographic and environmental drivers of transmission. […] Leptospirosis is responsible for about one million severe cases and 60,000 deaths per year worldwide. […] The incidence of leptospirosis is highest in tropical and subtropical areas, and disease burden is particularly high in Oceania. […] In Australia, occupational exposure is the predominant source of infection, particularly in livestock and dairy farmers, abattoir and meat workers, and banana workers (through exposure to rodents).

• #64 Leptospirosis: symptoms, treatment, prevention – Institut Pasteur

  https://www.pasteur.fr/en/medical-center/disease-sheets/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease that occurs worldwide. It is transmitted from animals to humans via urine. The main animal reservoirs are rats, but any mammals can carry the bacteria. In humans, leptospirosis is often mild, but it can lead to kidney failure or even death in 5 to 20% of cases. […] Leptospirosis is a disease caused by Leptospira bacteria (such as the species Leptospira interrogans). […] The main animals capable of transmitting the disease are rodents and insectivores, as well as livestock including cattle, horses and pigs. […] Weil’s disease refers to a severe form of leptospirosis that causes acute kidney failure, neurological symptoms (convulsions or coma) and sometimes severe gastrointestinal or pulmonary hemorrhage. […] The number of severe cases of leptospirosis worldwide every year is estimated to be over a million, with a case fatality rate above 10%.

• #65 Leptospirosis | Disease Outbreak Control Division

  https://health.hawaii.gov/docd/disease_listing/leptospirosis/

  Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease that affects humans and animals. It is caused by the bacteria of the genus Leptospira. […] The most severe form of illness (Weils disease) may include jaundice, impaired renal functions, hemolytic anemia, hemorrhage, and may be fatal. Case fatality rate is 5-15%. […] Leptospirosis has been reinstated as a nationally notifiable disease as of January 2013.

• #66 Leptospirosis (Weil’s Disease) | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/leptospirosis-weils-disease

  Leptospires are naturally aquatic organisms and are found in fresh water, damp soil, vegetation and mud. Flooding may spread the organism because, as water saturates the soil, leptospires pass directly into surface waters. […] The principal source of human infection is the rat but other sources include dogs, cattle, pigs, and other wild animals. […] Disease is acquired through contact with contaminated water or soil, or through contact with urine or tissues of infected animals. […] Infection occurs as two syndromes: anicteric (which is self-limiting, and may present as a flu-like illness) and icteric leptospirosis (a potentially severe condition also known as Weil’s disease). […] It seems that an excessive immune response may cause the more severe form of the disease rather than the infection itself, in particular uncontrolled cytokine production.

• #67

  https://journals.lww.com/ajim/fulltext/2022/12010/weil_s_disease__a_diagnostic_dilemma.7.aspx

  Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease that predominantly occurs in tropical and subtropical areas. It is caused by the spirochete Leptospira interrogans complex and may lead to syndromes that can vary from a subclinical infection or a mild febrile infection to a severe icterohemorrhagic condition. […] Leptospira interrogans complex, a pathogenic spirochete, causes a zoonosis of worldwide distribution known as Leptospirosis. This disease has a worldwide occurrence with higher prevalence in tropical and subtropical climates than temperate regions and with susceptibility during flooding in monsoon seasons. […] Weil’s disease is characterized by multiorgan involvement presenting with significant jaundice (mostly conjugated hyperbilirubinemia), very high fever, acute renal failure, hepatic necrosis, pulmonary involvement, cardiovascular complications (arrhythmias and heart failure), neurologic changes, and hemorrhagic diathesis.

• #68 Leptospirosis – Infections – MSD Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/infections/bacterial-infections-spirochetes/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is a potentially serious infection caused by Leptospira, which are spiral-shaped bacteria called spirochetes. […] People acquire these infections directly through contact with infected animals or indirectly through soil or water contaminated by urine from an infected animal. […] Leptospirosis usually occurs in 2 phases: […] This potentially fatal form of leptospirosis is called Weil syndrome. […] Weil syndrome can occur during the second phase. It causes fever, jaundice (yellowish discoloration of the skin and whites of the eyes that is caused by liver damage), kidney failure, and a tendency to bleed. […] About 5 to 15% of people with jaundice die, and this percentage is higher in those over age 60 years. Risk of death is higher if changes in mental function, kidney failure, respiratory failure, and internal bleeding occur.

• #69 Factors associated with thrombocytopenia in severe leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) | Clinics

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-clinics-22-articulo-factors-associated-with-thrombocytopenia-in-S1807593222009516

  Factors associated with thrombocytopenia in severe leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) […] Leptospirosis is an infectious disease caused by the pathogenic spirochete Leptospira interrogans, which has a worldwide distribution. There is a large range of clinical manifestations in leptospirosis, and infected people can present with asymptomatic illness, self-limited systemic infection or severe and potentially fatal disease. The severe form is characterized by jaundice, acute kidney injury (AKI) and hemorrhage, known as Weil’s disease, and is mainly caused by the serovars Icterohaemorrhagiae, Copenhageni and Lai. Hematological manifestations are common in leptospirosis and are usually manifested as thrombocytopenia. Thrombocytopenia is often observed in connection with hemorrhagic pneumopathy and is a significant predictor of the development of acute respiratory failure, which is currently the main cause of death in this disease.

• #70 Leptospirosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is caused by spirochaete bacteria that belong to the genus Leptospira, which are aerobic, right-handed helical, and 620 micrometers long. […] More than ten genetic types of Leptospira cause disease in humans. […] The bacteria are spread to humans through animal urine or feces, or water or soil contaminated with animal urine and feces, coming into contact with the eyes, mouth, nose or breaks in the skin. […] The classic form of severe leptospirosis, known as Weil’s disease, is characterised by liver damage (causing jaundice), kidney failure, and bleeding, which happens in 5-10% of those infected. […] The overall risk of death for leptospirosis is 5-10%. […] The disease was first described by physician Adolf Weil in 1886 in Germany.

• #71 Leptospirosis | House Wiki | Fandom

  https://house.fandom.com/wiki/Leptospirosis

  More severe manifestations include meningitis, extreme fatigue, hearing loss, respiratory distress, azotemia, renal interstitial tubular necrosis, which results in renal failure and occasionally liver failure (the severe form of this disease is known as Weil’s disease, though it is sometimes named Weil Syndrome). […] The disease was first described by Adolf Weil in 1886 when he reported an „acute infectious disease with enlargement of spleen, jaundice, and nephritis”. […] In 1908, Inada and Ito first identified it as the causative organism and in 1916 noted its presence in rats.

• #72 Weil disease • LITFL • Medical Eponym Library

  https://litfl.com/weil-disease/

  Based on the above finding, and the finding of spirochetes in the blood of patients with Weils disease, Inada and Ido were able to conclude that Spirochetes are the causative agent of Weils disease. […] Weils disease is an acute, noncontagious, infectious disease whose causative agent belongs to the group of spirochaetae which can be transmitted to man through the bite of insects. […] We came to the conclusion, in January, 1915, that this spirocheta is the pathogenic cause of Weils disease, and we named it Spirocheta icterohaemorrhagiae.

• #73 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis/print

  Leptospirosis is a zoonosis with protean clinical manifestations caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. Synonyms for the disease include Weil’s disease, Weil-Vasiliev disease, Swineherd’s disease, rice-field fever, waterborne fever, nanukayami fever, cane-cutter fever, swamp fever, mud fever, Fort Bragg fever, Stuttgart disease, Mgunda fever, and Canicola fever. […] Icteric leptospirosis occurs in approximately 5 to 10 percent of symptomatic leptospirosis cases and is a rapidly progressive multisystem illness associated with mortality rates of 5 to 15 percent. […] Usually, icteric leptospirosis is accompanied by fever, jaundice, and renal failure, a syndrome known as „Weil’s disease.”

• #74 :: IC :: Infection & Chemotherapy

  https://icjournal.org/DOIx.php?id=10.3947/ic.2019.51.3.315

  Leptospirosis is a widespread worldwide zoonosis. […] Human leptospirosis was first identified in the Korea in 1984 as the cause of epidemic pulmonary hemorrhagic fever of unknown etiology that occurred sporadically or in outbreaks. […] The disease was recognized as an entity in ancient times as well, and was referred to as rice-harvest jaundice in ancient Chinese language and as 7-day fever or autumn fever in Japanese language, with names associated with the season, occupation, and duration of symptoms. […] Since the causative bacteria, animal reservoirs, and the importance of environmental conditions were identified between 1920 and 1960, it became known that the disease transmission by working in dangerous environmental conditions rather than occupational exposure. […] The important basic knowledge of leptospirosis and Leptospira species was largely described in the early 1920s.

• #75 Leptospirosis (Weil’s Disease): Symptoms and Diagnosis

  https://patient.info/infections/leptospirosis-and-weils-disease

  Leptospirosis is caused by infection with Leptospira germs (bacteria). The infection passes from animals (commonly rats, cattle, pigs and dogs) to humans. […] In the majority of cases, leptospirosis causes a mild illness but, in some people, a more severe form of leptospirosis occurs. This more severe form is commonly referred to as Weil’s disease. […] During this second stage, bacteria begin to infect the organs of the body, such as the kidneys, the liver, the brain, the eyes, the heart and the lungs. Different organs may be infected in different people. However, commonly the kidneys and the liver are affected and kidney or liver failure can occur. […] Leptospirosis can be passed on to humans through direct contact with the bodily fluids or tissues of an infected animal (such as urine) or through contact with contaminated water or soil. […] In more severe cases (Weil’s disease), the outlook depends on which organs of the body are involved and to what extent. People severely affected may die from organ failure or internal bleeding.

• #76

  https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/leptospirosis.aspx

  Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease of humans and animals. It is caused by Leptospira bacteria that are excreted in the urine of infected animals. […] Leptospirosis is caused by Leptospira bacteria that are excreted in urine from infected animals including mice, rats, cattle, pigs and dogs. […] Leptospira bacteria usually enter the body through skin cuts or abrasions, and occasionally through the lining of the mouth, nose, and eyes. […] Infections are usually associated with exposure to water, soil or mud contaminated with the urine from infected animals. […] Many different animals can harbour Leptospira bacteria in their kidneys. […] Eating contaminated food or drinking contaminated water has occasionally been responsible for transmission. […] Leptospirosis is not generally spread from person to person. […] Because there are many different strains of Leptospira bacteria, it is possible for someone to be infected with another strain and develop leptospirosis again. […] Leptospirosis is commonly treated with antibiotics such as doxycycline or penicillin.

• #77 Fulminant Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) in an urban setting as an overlooked cause of multiorgan failure: a case report | Journal of Medical Case Reports | Full Text

  https://jmedicalcasereports.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1752-1947-5-7

  Leptospirosis is a zoonosis of worldwide distribution caused by infection with Leptospira interrogans, a pathogenic spirochete. The majority of patients manifest a mild, anicteric febrile illness, but a minority of patients develop a severe form with multiorgan involvement, called Weil’s disease. Weil’s disease is characterized by multisystem dysfunction and can present with high fever, significant jaundice, renal failure, hepatic necrosis, pulmonary involvement, cardiovascular collapse, neurologic changes and hemorrhagic diathesis. […] Weil’s disease is the most severe form of leptospirosis. Patients can present with high fever (40C), significant jaundice, renal failure, hepatic necrosis, pulmonary involvement, cardiovascular collapse, neurologic changes and hemorrhagic diathesis, with a variable clinical course.

• #78 Weil’s disease as a differential diagnosis of jaundice: A case report | Revista de Gastroenterología de México

  https://www.revistagastroenterologiamexico.org/en-weils-disease-as-differential-diagnosis-avance-S2255534X22000895

  Leptospirosis is a zoonotic infection with worldwide distribution, that is produced by spirochetes from the genus Leptospira. It predominates in tropical regions, especially during the rainy season, in areas with scant resources and the presence of rodents. […] The most characteristic severe form is Weils disease. It can appear after the acute phase and is characterized by altered liver function, and pulmonary and renal involvement. The mortality rate in patients with untreated severe disease reaches 40%. […] Leptospira spirochetes infiltrate the space of Disse and damage the hepatocytes, altering their intercellular binding and causing bile leakage from the bile canaliculi into the sinusoids, which explains the very high levels of direct bilirubin, with no major alterations in ALP or GGT.

• #79 Fulminant Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) in an urban setting as an overlooked cause of multiorgan failure: a case report | Journal of Medical Case Reports | Full Text

  https://jmedicalcasereports.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1752-1947-5-7

  The vast majority of infections with leptospira are self-limiting, and it remains controversial if antimicrobials produce benefit in cases of mild leptospirosis without end-organ damage. The current choices of treatment for mild leptospirosis include oral doxycycline and amoxicillin. Parenteral high-dose penicillin G has long been considered the treatment of choice of fulminant leptospirosis. Recent trials have demonstrated that the broad-spectrum third generation cephalosporins cefotaxime and ceftriaxone are also acceptable agents for patients with severe leptospirosis. […] The use of steroids in patients with leptospirosis has not been well established. In the current case, the improvement of the patient’s renal dysfunction, thrombocytopenia and hemoptysis may be attributed to the introduction of steroids. Several case reports have described the beneficial effects of glucocorticoids in severe leptospirosis with pulmonary hemorrhage, thrombocytopenia and renal failure.

• #80 Leptospirosis | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-025-00614-5

  Leptospirosis is a zoonotic bacterial infection that is prevalent across all continents and is caused by pathogenic spirochaetes of the genus Leptospira. […] The pathogenesis of severe leptospirosis is poorly understood but is believed to involve an interplay between genetic predisposition, pathogen virulence and dysregulated immune responses that trigger a cytokine storm with associated immunoparesis. […] Leptospira are susceptible to several low-cost antibiotics, including benzyl penicillin, doxycycline, cephalosporins and macrolides, when used in the early phase of infection. […] Very few countries have licensed a vaccine for human leptospirosis, and available vaccines only protect against rodent-associated serogroups. […] Future research is needed to accurately estimate leptospirosis disease burden across the globe, to understand the pathophysiology of severe leptospirosis to inform the design of targeted immunotherapies and vaccines, and to develop cost-effective and accurate point-of-care diagnostics.

Zobacz więcej