Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Leptospirosis is thought to be the most widespread zoonosis in the world. It is an under-reported infection, and there are no reliable global incidence figures. A systematic review and modeling exercise estimated that more than one million human cases occur worldwide annually, including almost 60,000 deaths. […] It is most prevalent in tropical regions but also occurs in temperate regions. Regions with the highest incidence of infections include South and Southeast Asia, Oceania, the Caribbean, parts of sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Latin America. […] In the United States, the incidence of leptospirosis is relatively low (approximately 100 to 150 cases are reported annually). Puerto Rico and Hawaii consistently report the most cases. […] Disease in humans is usually sporadic, although outbreaks may occur from common source exposures.

• #2 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis/print

  Leptospirosis is thought to be the most widespread zoonosis in the world. It is an under-reported infection, and there are no reliable global incidence figures. A systematic review and modeling exercise estimated that more than one million human cases occur worldwide annually, including almost 60,000 deaths. […] It is most prevalent in tropical regions but also occurs in temperate regions. Regions with the highest incidence of infections include South and Southeast Asia, Oceania, the Caribbean, parts of sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Latin America. […] In the United States, the incidence of leptospirosis is relatively low (approximately 100 to 150 cases are reported annually). Puerto Rico and Hawaii consistently report the most cases. […] Disease in humans is usually sporadic, although outbreaks may occur from common source exposures.

• #3 Leptospirosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptospirosis

  It is estimated that one million severe cases of leptospirosis occur annually, with 58,900 deaths, with the highest disease burden occurring in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in South and Southeast Asia, Latin America, and parts of Africa. Severe cases account for 515% of all leptospirosis cases. […] The convergence of climate change impacts such as rising temperatures, flooding and natural disasters, mass migration, poverty, and public health challenges with insufficient health and sanitation infrastructure heightens the risk of leptospirosis. […] Leptospirosis is considered a neglected tropical disease (NTD), and its incidence may be significantly underreported due to diagnostic challenges and low awareness among healthcare providers. […] The global rates of leptospirosis have been underestimated because most affected countries lack notification or notification is not mandatory.

• #4 Leptospirosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptospirosis

  It is estimated that one million severe cases of leptospirosis occur annually, with 58,900 deaths, with the highest disease burden occurring in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in South and Southeast Asia, Latin America, and parts of Africa. Severe cases account for 515% of all leptospirosis cases. […] The convergence of climate change impacts such as rising temperatures, flooding and natural disasters, mass migration, poverty, and public health challenges with insufficient health and sanitation infrastructure heightens the risk of leptospirosis. […] Leptospirosis is considered a neglected tropical disease (NTD), and its incidence may be significantly underreported due to diagnostic challenges and low awareness among healthcare providers. […] The global rates of leptospirosis have been underestimated because most affected countries lack notification or notification is not mandatory.

• #5 Leptospirosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK441858/

  Leptospirosis typically occurs in a temperate climate, during the late summer or early fall in Western countries, and during the rainy season in the tropics. The incidence in the tropics is almost 10 times that of more temperate climates. This tends to be an unreported disease because its symptoms mimic many other disease processes; however, the World Health Organization has estimated that there are 873,000 cases annually with over 40,000 deaths. […] In the United States, there are 100 to 200 identified cases annually, and most are documented in Hawaii. However, when testing people in urban centers such as Detroit, many tested positive for past infection.

• #6 Leptospirosis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/220563-overview

  In Hawaii, which reports the highest annual occurrence rate, 405 suspected cases of leptospirosis were reported between June 1998 and February 1999; 61 of those cases were confirmed. […] An estimated 100-200 cases are identified annually in the United States, with about 50% of cases occurring in Hawaii. […] Leptospirosis has a seasonal incidence. Most cases occur during the rainy season in the tropics and during the late summer or early fall in Western countries, when the soil is moist and alkaline. […] Leptospirosis is a ubiquitous disease found throughout the world. Specific serovars vary with locality. The incidence varies from sporadic in temperate zones to endemic in a few tropical countries. […] High-risk areas include the Caribbean islands, Central and South America, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific islands.

• #7 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Leptospirosis is thought to be the most widespread zoonosis in the world. It is an under-reported infection, and there are no reliable global incidence figures. A systematic review and modeling exercise estimated that more than one million human cases occur worldwide annually, including almost 60,000 deaths. […] It is most prevalent in tropical regions but also occurs in temperate regions. Regions with the highest incidence of infections include South and Southeast Asia, Oceania, the Caribbean, parts of sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Latin America. […] In the United States, the incidence of leptospirosis is relatively low (approximately 100 to 150 cases are reported annually). Puerto Rico and Hawaii consistently report the most cases. […] Disease in humans is usually sporadic, although outbreaks may occur from common source exposures.

• #8 Leptospirosis | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/infections-diseases/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis has a worldwide distribution; however, incidence is greater in tropical climates. […] Regions with the highest estimated morbidity and mortality include parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, parts of Latin America, the Caribbean, South and Southeast Asia, and Oceania. […] Specific country incidence rates are usually not available because leptospirosis is not reportable in many countries and there are gaps in diagnostic access. […] Travelers to endemic areas are at increased risk when participating in recreational freshwater activities (e.g., white water rafting, kayaking, boating, camping, hiking, swimming, fishing), particularly after heavy rainfall or flooding. […] Prolonged exposure to contaminated water and activities that involve head immersion or swallowing water increase the risk for infection.

• #9 Leptospirosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441858/

  Leptospirosis, also called Weil disease, is the most common zoonotic infection in the world. […] Leptospirosis typically occurs in a temperate climate, during the late summer or early fall in Western countries, and during the rainy season in the tropics. The incidence in the tropics is almost 10 times that of more temperate climates. This tends to be an unreported disease because its symptoms mimic many other disease processes; however, the World Health Organization has estimated that there are 873,000 cases annually with over 40,000 deaths. […] In the United States, there are 100 to 200 identified cases annually, and most are documented in Hawaii. However, when testing people in urban centers such as Detroit, many tested positive for past infection.

• #10 Leptospirosis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/220563-overview

  No evidence suggests that leptospirosis affects persons of various races, ages, or sexes differently. However, because occupational exposure constitutes a major risk for development of disease, a disproportionate number of working-aged males seem to be affected. […] Leptospirosis has a seasonal incidence. Most cases occur during the rainy season in the tropics and during the late summer or early fall in Western countries, as leptospires survive best in fresh water, damp alkaline soil, vegetation, and mud with temperatures higher than 22C.

• #11 Leptospirosis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/220563-overview

  No evidence suggests that leptospirosis affects persons of various races, ages, or sexes differently. However, because occupational exposure constitutes a major risk for development of disease, a disproportionate number of working-aged males seem to be affected. […] Leptospirosis has a seasonal incidence. Most cases occur during the rainy season in the tropics and during the late summer or early fall in Western countries, as leptospires survive best in fresh water, damp alkaline soil, vegetation, and mud with temperatures higher than 22C.

• #12 Leptospirosis (Weil’s Disease) | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/leptospirosis-weils-disease

  Leptospirosis is uncommon in the UK. In 2017 there were 92 cases reported in the UK. […] It is more common in other areas of the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that it affects 0.1 to 1 per 100,000 people living in temperate climates each year, increasing to 10 or more per 100,000 people living in tropical climates. If there is an epidemic, the incidence can soar to 100 or more per 100,000 people. This may not reflect true figures as the disease is under-reported for a number of reasons, including diagnostic difficulty (it is similar to other endemic diseases) and lack of diagnostic facilities in the affected areas. […] It is said to be the most common zoonotic infection in the world.

• #13 Leptospirosis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/220563-overview

  In Hawaii, which reports the highest annual occurrence rate, 405 suspected cases of leptospirosis were reported between June 1998 and February 1999; 61 of those cases were confirmed. […] An estimated 100-200 cases are identified annually in the United States, with about 50% of cases occurring in Hawaii. […] Leptospirosis has a seasonal incidence. Most cases occur during the rainy season in the tropics and during the late summer or early fall in Western countries, when the soil is moist and alkaline. […] Leptospirosis is a ubiquitous disease found throughout the world. Specific serovars vary with locality. The incidence varies from sporadic in temperate zones to endemic in a few tropical countries. […] High-risk areas include the Caribbean islands, Central and South America, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific islands.

• #14 Leptospirosis (Weil’s Disease) | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/leptospirosis-weils-disease

  Leptospirosis is uncommon in the UK. In 2017 there were 92 cases reported in the UK. […] It is more common in other areas of the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that it affects 0.1 to 1 per 100,000 people living in temperate climates each year, increasing to 10 or more per 100,000 people living in tropical climates. If there is an epidemic, the incidence can soar to 100 or more per 100,000 people. This may not reflect true figures as the disease is under-reported for a number of reasons, including diagnostic difficulty (it is similar to other endemic diseases) and lack of diagnostic facilities in the affected areas. […] It is said to be the most common zoonotic infection in the world.

• #15 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Leptospirosis is thought to be the most widespread zoonosis in the world. It is an under-reported infection, and there are no reliable global incidence figures. A systematic review and modeling exercise estimated that more than one million human cases occur worldwide annually, including almost 60,000 deaths. […] It is most prevalent in tropical regions but also occurs in temperate regions. Regions with the highest incidence of infections include South and Southeast Asia, Oceania, the Caribbean, parts of sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Latin America. […] In the United States, the incidence of leptospirosis is relatively low (approximately 100 to 150 cases are reported annually). Puerto Rico and Hawaii consistently report the most cases. […] Disease in humans is usually sporadic, although outbreaks may occur from common source exposures.

• #16 Leptospirosis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/220563-overview

  In Hawaii, which reports the highest annual occurrence rate, 405 suspected cases of leptospirosis were reported between June 1998 and February 1999; 61 of those cases were confirmed. […] An estimated 100-200 cases are identified annually in the United States, with about 50% of cases occurring in Hawaii. […] Leptospirosis has a seasonal incidence. Most cases occur during the rainy season in the tropics and during the late summer or early fall in Western countries, when the soil is moist and alkaline. […] Leptospirosis is a ubiquitous disease found throughout the world. Specific serovars vary with locality. The incidence varies from sporadic in temperate zones to endemic in a few tropical countries. […] High-risk areas include the Caribbean islands, Central and South America, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific islands.

• #17 Leptospirosis (Weil’s Disease) | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/leptospirosis-weils-disease

  Leptospirosis is uncommon in the UK. In 2017 there were 92 cases reported in the UK. […] It is more common in other areas of the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that it affects 0.1 to 1 per 100,000 people living in temperate climates each year, increasing to 10 or more per 100,000 people living in tropical climates. If there is an epidemic, the incidence can soar to 100 or more per 100,000 people. This may not reflect true figures as the disease is under-reported for a number of reasons, including diagnostic difficulty (it is similar to other endemic diseases) and lack of diagnostic facilities in the affected areas. […] It is said to be the most common zoonotic infection in the world.

• #18 Leptospirosis: symptoms, treatment, prevention – Institut Pasteur

  https://www.pasteur.fr/en/medical-center/disease-sheets/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease that occurs worldwide. It is transmitted from animals to humans via urine. The main animal reservoirs are rats, but any mammals can carry the bacteria. In humans, leptospirosis is often mild, but it can lead to kidney failure or even death in 5 to 20% of cases. […] More than a million people experience a severe form of leptospirosis every year worldwide, and more than 60,000 die from the disease. […] In mainland France, leptospirosis affects 600 to 700 people each year. It has been a notifiable disease since August 2023. […] Leptospirosis is a disease that occurs worldwide but especially in tropical regions. In mainland France, it affects 600 to 700 people each year, an annual incidence of 1/100,000 people. […] The incidence is 50 or 100 times higher in tropical regions, such as the French overseas territories or countries in Latin America or South-East Asia.

• #19

  https://www.gov.uk/guidance/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is a zoonotic infection caused by spiral-shaped bacteria of the genus Leptospira (also referred to as leptospires). […] Cases of leptospirosis are reported worldwide, although the disease is more prevalent in tropical regions as the bacteria can survive longer in warm, humid environments. […] It is estimated that globally there are 1 million cases and 60,000 deaths caused by leptospirosis each year (CDC Yellow Book 2024). […] In Europe, there were 1,246 confirmed or suspected cases reported in 2021 and the burden was highest in Mediterranean and East European regions (ECDC Annual Epidemiological Report for 2021). […] In England, from 2020 to 2023 there were on average 57 laboratory-confirmed cases and 89 probable cases annually. […] Leptospirosis cases in England show seasonality with more cases reported in summer and autumn.

• #20 Leptospirosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptospirosis

  It is estimated that one million severe cases of leptospirosis occur annually, with 58,900 deaths, with the highest disease burden occurring in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in South and Southeast Asia, Latin America, and parts of Africa. Severe cases account for 515% of all leptospirosis cases. […] The convergence of climate change impacts such as rising temperatures, flooding and natural disasters, mass migration, poverty, and public health challenges with insufficient health and sanitation infrastructure heightens the risk of leptospirosis. […] Leptospirosis is considered a neglected tropical disease (NTD), and its incidence may be significantly underreported due to diagnostic challenges and low awareness among healthcare providers. […] The global rates of leptospirosis have been underestimated because most affected countries lack notification or notification is not mandatory.

• #21 Leptospirosis (Weil’s Disease) | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/leptospirosis-weils-disease

  Leptospirosis is uncommon in the UK. In 2017 there were 92 cases reported in the UK. […] It is more common in other areas of the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that it affects 0.1 to 1 per 100,000 people living in temperate climates each year, increasing to 10 or more per 100,000 people living in tropical climates. If there is an epidemic, the incidence can soar to 100 or more per 100,000 people. This may not reflect true figures as the disease is under-reported for a number of reasons, including diagnostic difficulty (it is similar to other endemic diseases) and lack of diagnostic facilities in the affected areas. […] It is said to be the most common zoonotic infection in the world.

• #22 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Mammals act as the primary reservoir for Leptospira organisms. The environment can serve as a reservoir if it becomes contaminated by the urine of infected mammals. […] Approximately 160 mammalian species have been identified as natural carriers of pathogenic Leptospira species. The organism lives in the renal tubules of infected mammals and is shed in the urine. […] Rodents are the most important reservoirs for maintaining transmission in most settings. […] Humans are accidental hosts, infected incidentally after animal or environmental exposure. […] Transmission of the organism to humans occurs via portals of entry, including cuts or abraded skin, mucous membranes, or conjunctivae. […] Risk factors primarily include direct animal exposure or activities that can lead to skin abrasions and water or soil exposure.

• #23 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis/print

  Mammals act as the primary reservoir for Leptospira organisms. The environment can serve as a reservoir if it becomes contaminated by the urine of infected mammals. […] Approximately 160 mammalian species have been identified as natural carriers of pathogenic Leptospira species. […] Rodents are the most important reservoirs for maintaining transmission in most settings. […] In addition to rodents, the organism infects a variety of both wild and domestic mammals, especially cattle, swine, dogs, horses, sheep, and goats. […] Humans are accidental hosts, infected incidentally after animal or environmental exposure. […] Transmission of the organism to humans occurs via portals of entry, including cuts or abraded skin, mucous membranes, or conjunctivae. […] Risk factors primarily include direct animal exposure or activities that can lead to skin abrasions and water or soil exposure.

• #24 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Mammals act as the primary reservoir for Leptospira organisms. The environment can serve as a reservoir if it becomes contaminated by the urine of infected mammals. […] Approximately 160 mammalian species have been identified as natural carriers of pathogenic Leptospira species. The organism lives in the renal tubules of infected mammals and is shed in the urine. […] Rodents are the most important reservoirs for maintaining transmission in most settings. […] Humans are accidental hosts, infected incidentally after animal or environmental exposure. […] Transmission of the organism to humans occurs via portals of entry, including cuts or abraded skin, mucous membranes, or conjunctivae. […] Risk factors primarily include direct animal exposure or activities that can lead to skin abrasions and water or soil exposure.

• #25 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Mammals act as the primary reservoir for Leptospira organisms. The environment can serve as a reservoir if it becomes contaminated by the urine of infected mammals. […] Approximately 160 mammalian species have been identified as natural carriers of pathogenic Leptospira species. The organism lives in the renal tubules of infected mammals and is shed in the urine. […] Rodents are the most important reservoirs for maintaining transmission in most settings. […] Humans are accidental hosts, infected incidentally after animal or environmental exposure. […] Transmission of the organism to humans occurs via portals of entry, including cuts or abraded skin, mucous membranes, or conjunctivae. […] Risk factors primarily include direct animal exposure or activities that can lead to skin abrasions and water or soil exposure.

• #26 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis/print

  Mammals act as the primary reservoir for Leptospira organisms. The environment can serve as a reservoir if it becomes contaminated by the urine of infected mammals. […] Approximately 160 mammalian species have been identified as natural carriers of pathogenic Leptospira species. […] Rodents are the most important reservoirs for maintaining transmission in most settings. […] In addition to rodents, the organism infects a variety of both wild and domestic mammals, especially cattle, swine, dogs, horses, sheep, and goats. […] Humans are accidental hosts, infected incidentally after animal or environmental exposure. […] Transmission of the organism to humans occurs via portals of entry, including cuts or abraded skin, mucous membranes, or conjunctivae. […] Risk factors primarily include direct animal exposure or activities that can lead to skin abrasions and water or soil exposure.

• #27 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Mammals act as the primary reservoir for Leptospira organisms. The environment can serve as a reservoir if it becomes contaminated by the urine of infected mammals. […] Approximately 160 mammalian species have been identified as natural carriers of pathogenic Leptospira species. The organism lives in the renal tubules of infected mammals and is shed in the urine. […] Rodents are the most important reservoirs for maintaining transmission in most settings. […] Humans are accidental hosts, infected incidentally after animal or environmental exposure. […] Transmission of the organism to humans occurs via portals of entry, including cuts or abraded skin, mucous membranes, or conjunctivae. […] Risk factors primarily include direct animal exposure or activities that can lead to skin abrasions and water or soil exposure.

• #28 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis/print

  Mammals act as the primary reservoir for Leptospira organisms. The environment can serve as a reservoir if it becomes contaminated by the urine of infected mammals. […] Approximately 160 mammalian species have been identified as natural carriers of pathogenic Leptospira species. […] Rodents are the most important reservoirs for maintaining transmission in most settings. […] In addition to rodents, the organism infects a variety of both wild and domestic mammals, especially cattle, swine, dogs, horses, sheep, and goats. […] Humans are accidental hosts, infected incidentally after animal or environmental exposure. […] Transmission of the organism to humans occurs via portals of entry, including cuts or abraded skin, mucous membranes, or conjunctivae. […] Risk factors primarily include direct animal exposure or activities that can lead to skin abrasions and water or soil exposure.

• #29 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Mammals act as the primary reservoir for Leptospira organisms. The environment can serve as a reservoir if it becomes contaminated by the urine of infected mammals. […] Approximately 160 mammalian species have been identified as natural carriers of pathogenic Leptospira species. The organism lives in the renal tubules of infected mammals and is shed in the urine. […] Rodents are the most important reservoirs for maintaining transmission in most settings. […] Humans are accidental hosts, infected incidentally after animal or environmental exposure. […] Transmission of the organism to humans occurs via portals of entry, including cuts or abraded skin, mucous membranes, or conjunctivae. […] Risk factors primarily include direct animal exposure or activities that can lead to skin abrasions and water or soil exposure.

• #30 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis/print

  Mammals act as the primary reservoir for Leptospira organisms. The environment can serve as a reservoir if it becomes contaminated by the urine of infected mammals. […] Approximately 160 mammalian species have been identified as natural carriers of pathogenic Leptospira species. […] Rodents are the most important reservoirs for maintaining transmission in most settings. […] In addition to rodents, the organism infects a variety of both wild and domestic mammals, especially cattle, swine, dogs, horses, sheep, and goats. […] Humans are accidental hosts, infected incidentally after animal or environmental exposure. […] Transmission of the organism to humans occurs via portals of entry, including cuts or abraded skin, mucous membranes, or conjunctivae. […] Risk factors primarily include direct animal exposure or activities that can lead to skin abrasions and water or soil exposure.

• #31 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Mammals act as the primary reservoir for Leptospira organisms. The environment can serve as a reservoir if it becomes contaminated by the urine of infected mammals. […] Approximately 160 mammalian species have been identified as natural carriers of pathogenic Leptospira species. The organism lives in the renal tubules of infected mammals and is shed in the urine. […] Rodents are the most important reservoirs for maintaining transmission in most settings. […] Humans are accidental hosts, infected incidentally after animal or environmental exposure. […] Transmission of the organism to humans occurs via portals of entry, including cuts or abraded skin, mucous membranes, or conjunctivae. […] Risk factors primarily include direct animal exposure or activities that can lead to skin abrasions and water or soil exposure.

• #32 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis/print

  Mammals act as the primary reservoir for Leptospira organisms. The environment can serve as a reservoir if it becomes contaminated by the urine of infected mammals. […] Approximately 160 mammalian species have been identified as natural carriers of pathogenic Leptospira species. […] Rodents are the most important reservoirs for maintaining transmission in most settings. […] In addition to rodents, the organism infects a variety of both wild and domestic mammals, especially cattle, swine, dogs, horses, sheep, and goats. […] Humans are accidental hosts, infected incidentally after animal or environmental exposure. […] Transmission of the organism to humans occurs via portals of entry, including cuts or abraded skin, mucous membranes, or conjunctivae. […] Risk factors primarily include direct animal exposure or activities that can lead to skin abrasions and water or soil exposure.

• #33 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Specific risk factors for infection include occupational exposure, recreational activities, household exposure, low socioeconomic status, and travel to endemic areas. […] Large outbreaks affecting thousands of people and causing tens and hundreds of deaths have been reported. Outbreaks tend to occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in areas with poor housing and sanitation conditions.

• #34 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis/print

  Specific risk factors for infection include occupational exposure, recreational activities, household exposure, low socioeconomic status, and travel to endemic areas. […] In the tropics, endemic leptospirosis is mainly a disease of poverty. […] Large outbreaks affecting thousands of people and causing tens and hundreds of deaths have been reported. […] Outbreaks tend to occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in areas with poor housing and sanitation conditions.

• #35 Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease)

  https://health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/leptospirosis/fact_sheet.htm

  Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease associated with wild and domestic animals. Only a few cases are reported each year in New York State. […] Leptospirosis is primarily an occupational disease that affects farmers, veterinarians, sewer workers or others whose occupation involves contact with animals, especially rats. […] Leptospirosis is spread mainly by the urine of infected animals and is generally not transmitted from person to person. […] The disease is diagnosed using specific blood tests available through public health laboratories. […] Disease prevention consists of good sanitation. The use of boots and gloves in hazardous places, and rodent control can also minimize the risk of spread.

• #36 Leptospirosis | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/infections-diseases/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis has a worldwide distribution; however, incidence is greater in tropical climates. […] Regions with the highest estimated morbidity and mortality include parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, parts of Latin America, the Caribbean, South and Southeast Asia, and Oceania. […] Specific country incidence rates are usually not available because leptospirosis is not reportable in many countries and there are gaps in diagnostic access. […] Travelers to endemic areas are at increased risk when participating in recreational freshwater activities (e.g., white water rafting, kayaking, boating, camping, hiking, swimming, fishing), particularly after heavy rainfall or flooding. […] Prolonged exposure to contaminated water and activities that involve head immersion or swallowing water increase the risk for infection.

• #37 Factsheet – Health Protection Surveillance Centre

  https://www.hpsc.ie/a-z/zoonotic/leptospirosis/factsheet/

  Leptospirosis is a notifiable disease in Ireland. […] People at greatest risk of acquiring leptospirosis include those who fish, swim or use water for other recreational purposes. […] High risk water includes stagnant, dirty-looking or obviously polluted fresh water found in ditches, drains, ponds, lakes or rivers. […] A few people can develop meningitis and occasionally it can develop into the severe form (Weil’s Disease) with liver and kidney failure. […] If you get a flu-like illness within a three week period after engaging in any of these activities you should visit your doctor immediately, and tell her or him of your concerns and possible exposure to dirty or stagnant water.

• #38 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Specific risk factors for infection include occupational exposure, recreational activities, household exposure, low socioeconomic status, and travel to endemic areas. […] Large outbreaks affecting thousands of people and causing tens and hundreds of deaths have been reported. Outbreaks tend to occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in areas with poor housing and sanitation conditions.

• #39 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis/print

  Specific risk factors for infection include occupational exposure, recreational activities, household exposure, low socioeconomic status, and travel to endemic areas. […] In the tropics, endemic leptospirosis is mainly a disease of poverty. […] Large outbreaks affecting thousands of people and causing tens and hundreds of deaths have been reported. […] Outbreaks tend to occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in areas with poor housing and sanitation conditions.

• #40 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis/print

  Specific risk factors for infection include occupational exposure, recreational activities, household exposure, low socioeconomic status, and travel to endemic areas. […] In the tropics, endemic leptospirosis is mainly a disease of poverty. […] Large outbreaks affecting thousands of people and causing tens and hundreds of deaths have been reported. […] Outbreaks tend to occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in areas with poor housing and sanitation conditions.

• #41 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Specific risk factors for infection include occupational exposure, recreational activities, household exposure, low socioeconomic status, and travel to endemic areas. […] Large outbreaks affecting thousands of people and causing tens and hundreds of deaths have been reported. Outbreaks tend to occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in areas with poor housing and sanitation conditions.

• #42 Leptospirosis | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/infections-diseases/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis has a worldwide distribution; however, incidence is greater in tropical climates. […] Regions with the highest estimated morbidity and mortality include parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, parts of Latin America, the Caribbean, South and Southeast Asia, and Oceania. […] Specific country incidence rates are usually not available because leptospirosis is not reportable in many countries and there are gaps in diagnostic access. […] Travelers to endemic areas are at increased risk when participating in recreational freshwater activities (e.g., white water rafting, kayaking, boating, camping, hiking, swimming, fishing), particularly after heavy rainfall or flooding. […] Prolonged exposure to contaminated water and activities that involve head immersion or swallowing water increase the risk for infection.

• #43 Leptospirosis | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/infections-diseases/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis has a worldwide distribution; however, incidence is greater in tropical climates. […] Regions with the highest estimated morbidity and mortality include parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, parts of Latin America, the Caribbean, South and Southeast Asia, and Oceania. […] Specific country incidence rates are usually not available because leptospirosis is not reportable in many countries and there are gaps in diagnostic access. […] Travelers to endemic areas are at increased risk when participating in recreational freshwater activities (e.g., white water rafting, kayaking, boating, camping, hiking, swimming, fishing), particularly after heavy rainfall or flooding. […] Prolonged exposure to contaminated water and activities that involve head immersion or swallowing water increase the risk for infection.

• #44 Leptospirosis | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/infections-diseases/leptospirosis

  Participating in activities involving mud (e.g., adventure races) also increases a traveler’s risk for infection, as does working directly with animals in endemic areas, especially when exposed to their body fluids, and visiting or residing in areas with rodent infestation. […] Leptospirosis occurs most commonly in adult males. […] The estimated worldwide annual incidence is 1 million cases, including approximately 59,000 deaths. […] Outbreaks can occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in urban areas of low- and middle-income countries, where housing conditions and sanitation are poor and rodent infestation is common. […] Outbreaks of leptospirosis have occurred after flooding in popular U.S. travel destinations, including Florida, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. […] Most U.S. cases are reported outside the continental United States in the domestic travel destinations of Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

• #45 Leptospirosis | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/infections-diseases/leptospirosis

  Participating in activities involving mud (e.g., adventure races) also increases a traveler’s risk for infection, as does working directly with animals in endemic areas, especially when exposed to their body fluids, and visiting or residing in areas with rodent infestation. […] Leptospirosis occurs most commonly in adult males. […] The estimated worldwide annual incidence is 1 million cases, including approximately 59,000 deaths. […] Outbreaks can occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in urban areas of low- and middle-income countries, where housing conditions and sanitation are poor and rodent infestation is common. […] Outbreaks of leptospirosis have occurred after flooding in popular U.S. travel destinations, including Florida, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. […] Most U.S. cases are reported outside the continental United States in the domestic travel destinations of Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

• #46 Leptospirosis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/220563-overview

  No evidence suggests that leptospirosis affects persons of various races, ages, or sexes differently. However, because occupational exposure constitutes a major risk for development of disease, a disproportionate number of working-aged males seem to be affected. […] Leptospirosis has a seasonal incidence. Most cases occur during the rainy season in the tropics and during the late summer or early fall in Western countries, as leptospires survive best in fresh water, damp alkaline soil, vegetation, and mud with temperatures higher than 22C.

• #47 – Epidemiology Unit

  https://www.epid.gov.lk/leptospirosis

  Even though Leptospirosis infections are seen worldwide, it is more common in the tropics and subtropics. Each year an average of 1.03 million persons are infected and 58,900 deaths occur due to leptospirosis globally. Infections and deaths disproportionately occur among economically active young adult males between the ages of 20-49 years. Leptospirosis infection is categorized as a neglected tropical disease. […] Infections are reported throughout the year and outbreaks commonly occur following rainfall due to the higher possibility of contamination of water by infected rodent urine. Seasonal variability is clearly seen in disease occurrence, as Leptospira infections peak following the two monsoons. A smaller peak in disease incidence is observed during March-May and a much higher peak is seen during October-December. These two peaks coincide with the two main paddy cultivation and harvesting seasons (especially if it rains during harvesting) of Yala and Maha. There are more leptospirosis infections following floods.

• #48 Pica (Allotriophagy): An Underestimated Risk Factor for Severe Leptospirosis (Weil’s Diseases)? Report of a Leptospira Septic Shock Successfully Managed with ECMO

  https://www.mdpi.com/2036-7449/13/3/58

  Leptospirosis is a zoonosis caused by pathogenic strains of the bacterium Leptospira. […] Although spread worldwide, leptospirosis is more representative in tropical and financially poor areas, where transmission is more favorable. […] A large proportion of cases (48%, 95% CI 40–61%) and deaths (42%, 95% CI 34–53%) occur in adult males aged 20–49. […] The most common symptoms of leptospirosis include fevers, headaches and myalgia, sometimes with hemorrhage or encephalitis as the initial presentation. […] However, leptospirosis can be complicated by pulmonary hemorrhages and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), with the mortality rate increasing up to 100%. […] Precise data about the overall incidence of Leptospira infection in humans in Italy are scarce. […] Leptospirosis is present and often endemic worldwide, and it is sustained by the persisting colonization of the proximal renal tubules of both wild and domestic carrier mammals, such as mice, rats, dogs, swine, bovines, bats, rodents and marsupials.

• #49 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Leptospirosis-Epidemiology.aspx

  The spirochete bacterium Leptospira is a very common disease-causing microorganism for both humans and animals. […] A small percentage of these people, approximately 10%, may go on to develop more severe leptospirosis called Weils disease and have problems, such as pneumonitis, pancreatitis, hepatitis, meningitis, and even death due to internal hemorrhaging and multiple organ failure. […] Leptospirosis is believed to be the most widespread zoonosis globally. […] The number of people affected by the condition worldwide is not very well documented. […] Notwithstanding these estimates, it is believed that cases worldwide may also be underreported due to being overlooked or mistaken for other conditions. […] Faine defined three epidemiological patterns of the disease. […] The second epidemiological pattern is found in wet tropical regions and has many more serovars implicated and involves more animal reservoirs, including dogs and other pets. […] The third epidemiological pattern is seen in urban environments.

• #50 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Leptospirosis-Epidemiology.aspx

  The spirochete bacterium Leptospira is a very common disease-causing microorganism for both humans and animals. […] A small percentage of these people, approximately 10%, may go on to develop more severe leptospirosis called Weils disease and have problems, such as pneumonitis, pancreatitis, hepatitis, meningitis, and even death due to internal hemorrhaging and multiple organ failure. […] Leptospirosis is believed to be the most widespread zoonosis globally. […] The number of people affected by the condition worldwide is not very well documented. […] Notwithstanding these estimates, it is believed that cases worldwide may also be underreported due to being overlooked or mistaken for other conditions. […] Faine defined three epidemiological patterns of the disease. […] The second epidemiological pattern is found in wet tropical regions and has many more serovars implicated and involves more animal reservoirs, including dogs and other pets. […] The third epidemiological pattern is seen in urban environments.

• #51

  https://journals.lww.com/co-infectiousdiseases/fulltext/2005/10000/leptospirosis.3.aspx

  Leptospirosis, a spirochaetal zoonotic disease, has been recognized as an important emerging infectious disease in the last 10 years. […] Leptospirosis has spread from its traditional rural base to become the cause of epidemics in poor urban slum communities in developing countries. Mortality from severe disease forms, Weil’s disease and severe pulmonary haemorrhage syndrome, is high (10% and 50%, respectively) even when optimal treatment is provided. […] Barriers to addressing this problem have been the lack of an adequate diagnostic test and effective control measures. […] Major progress has been made in the basic research of leptospirosis. Future challenges will be to translate these advances into public health measures for developing countries. Yet the most effective responses may be interventions that directly address the determinants of poverty, such as poor sanitation, which are often responsible for transmission.

• #52 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Leptospirosis is thought to be the most widespread zoonosis in the world. It is an under-reported infection, and there are no reliable global incidence figures. A systematic review and modeling exercise estimated that more than one million human cases occur worldwide annually, including almost 60,000 deaths. […] It is most prevalent in tropical regions but also occurs in temperate regions. Regions with the highest incidence of infections include South and Southeast Asia, Oceania, the Caribbean, parts of sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Latin America. […] In the United States, the incidence of leptospirosis is relatively low (approximately 100 to 150 cases are reported annually). Puerto Rico and Hawaii consistently report the most cases. […] Disease in humans is usually sporadic, although outbreaks may occur from common source exposures.

• #53 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis/print

  Leptospirosis is thought to be the most widespread zoonosis in the world. It is an under-reported infection, and there are no reliable global incidence figures. A systematic review and modeling exercise estimated that more than one million human cases occur worldwide annually, including almost 60,000 deaths. […] It is most prevalent in tropical regions but also occurs in temperate regions. Regions with the highest incidence of infections include South and Southeast Asia, Oceania, the Caribbean, parts of sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Latin America. […] In the United States, the incidence of leptospirosis is relatively low (approximately 100 to 150 cases are reported annually). Puerto Rico and Hawaii consistently report the most cases. […] Disease in humans is usually sporadic, although outbreaks may occur from common source exposures.

• #54 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Specific risk factors for infection include occupational exposure, recreational activities, household exposure, low socioeconomic status, and travel to endemic areas. […] Large outbreaks affecting thousands of people and causing tens and hundreds of deaths have been reported. Outbreaks tend to occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in areas with poor housing and sanitation conditions.

• #55 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis/print

  Specific risk factors for infection include occupational exposure, recreational activities, household exposure, low socioeconomic status, and travel to endemic areas. […] In the tropics, endemic leptospirosis is mainly a disease of poverty. […] Large outbreaks affecting thousands of people and causing tens and hundreds of deaths have been reported. […] Outbreaks tend to occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in areas with poor housing and sanitation conditions.

• #56 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Specific risk factors for infection include occupational exposure, recreational activities, household exposure, low socioeconomic status, and travel to endemic areas. […] Large outbreaks affecting thousands of people and causing tens and hundreds of deaths have been reported. Outbreaks tend to occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in areas with poor housing and sanitation conditions.

• #57 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis/print

  Specific risk factors for infection include occupational exposure, recreational activities, household exposure, low socioeconomic status, and travel to endemic areas. […] In the tropics, endemic leptospirosis is mainly a disease of poverty. […] Large outbreaks affecting thousands of people and causing tens and hundreds of deaths have been reported. […] Outbreaks tend to occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in areas with poor housing and sanitation conditions.

• #58 Leptospirosis: An important zoonosis acquired through work, play and travel

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2018/march/leptospirosis

  International travel, particularly to tropical, developing countries, is an important source of occupational and recreational exposure. […] In tropical, developing countries, including Australia’s neighbours in the Asia Pacific region, environmental and climatic drivers are important. […] Many post-flooding outbreaks have therefore occurred in densely populated developing countries, including Brazil, India and the Philippines. […] Leptospirosis is a notifiable disease, and reporting to NNDSS is mandatory. […] Cases are investigated by the public health units of the specific state and territory, and risk factors and potential infection sources are explored.

• #59 Leptospirosis | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/infections-diseases/leptospirosis

  Participating in activities involving mud (e.g., adventure races) also increases a traveler’s risk for infection, as does working directly with animals in endemic areas, especially when exposed to their body fluids, and visiting or residing in areas with rodent infestation. […] Leptospirosis occurs most commonly in adult males. […] The estimated worldwide annual incidence is 1 million cases, including approximately 59,000 deaths. […] Outbreaks can occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in urban areas of low- and middle-income countries, where housing conditions and sanitation are poor and rodent infestation is common. […] Outbreaks of leptospirosis have occurred after flooding in popular U.S. travel destinations, including Florida, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. […] Most U.S. cases are reported outside the continental United States in the domestic travel destinations of Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

• #60 Leptospirosis | Health & Human Services

  https://hhs.iowa.gov/center-acute-disease-epidemiology/epi-manual/information-other-diseases-and-conditions-fact-sheets/leptospirosis

  In the United States, 100-200 cases of leptospirosis are identified annually, with about 50% of the cases occurring in Hawaii. The disease is considered to be under-diagnosed. […] Although the incidence of disease in the United States is relatively low, leptospirosis is considered to be the most widespread zoonotic disease in the world, particularly in tropical areas with heavy rainfall and neutral or alkaline soils. The greatest numbers of cases are seen in the summer months after heavy rainfalls or periods of flooding. […] Leptospirosis is an occupational hazard for people who work outdoors or with animals (for example, farmers, sewer workers, veterinarians, fish workers, dairy farmers, or military personnel). It is a recreational hazard for campers or those who participate in outdoor sports in contaminated areas, and it has been associated with swimming, wading, and whitewater rafting in contaminated lakes, farm ponds and rivers. Outbreaks have been associated with triathlons in the Midwest and extreme sports contests in Asia.

• #61 Factsheet about leptospirosis

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/leptospirosis/factsheet

  Leptospirosis is a zoonosis occurring worldwide, caused by pathogenic spirochaetes of the genus Leptospira. […] The disease is particularly prevalent in wet tropical and subtropical regions. […] Currently nearly 300 serovars have been identified, divided into 25 serogroups. […] Leptospirosis as a recreational disease in travellers is increasing in Western countries. […] The true spread and increase of leptospirosis remains unknown, as the quality and availability of diagnostic tests, testing facilities and surveillance systems are very variable and frequently not available.

• #62 Leptospirosis | Disease Outbreak Control Division

  https://health.hawaii.gov/docd/disease_listing/leptospirosis/

  Leptospirosis is currently circulating in Hawaii. […] It is estimated that 100200 cases of Leptospirosis are identified annually in the United States. […] Puerto Rico reports majority of the cases, followed by Hawaii. […] Leptospirosis has been reinstated as a nationally notifiable disease as of January 2013.

• #63 Factsheet – Health Protection Surveillance Centre

  https://www.hpsc.ie/a-z/zoonotic/leptospirosis/factsheet/

  Leptospirosis is a notifiable disease in Ireland. […] People at greatest risk of acquiring leptospirosis include those who fish, swim or use water for other recreational purposes. […] High risk water includes stagnant, dirty-looking or obviously polluted fresh water found in ditches, drains, ponds, lakes or rivers. […] A few people can develop meningitis and occasionally it can develop into the severe form (Weil’s Disease) with liver and kidney failure. […] If you get a flu-like illness within a three week period after engaging in any of these activities you should visit your doctor immediately, and tell her or him of your concerns and possible exposure to dirty or stagnant water.

• #64 Leptospirosis: An important zoonosis acquired through work, play and travel

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2018/march/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is one of the most common zoonotic diseases worldwide. […] Globally, leptospirosis is an emerging infectious disease with a rising incidence, increasing frequency and severity of outbreaks, and evolving climatic, sociodemographic and environmental drivers of transmission. […] Leptospirosis is responsible for about one million severe cases and 60,000 deaths per year worldwide. […] The incidence of leptospirosis is highest in tropical and subtropical areas, and disease burden is particularly high in Oceania. […] Summary statistics of cases reported to the National Notifiable Disease Surveillance System (NNDSS) in Australia are shown in Figure 2. […] In Australia, occupational exposure is the predominant source of infection, particularly in livestock and dairy farmers, abattoir and meat workers, and banana workers (through exposure to rodents).

• #65 Leptospirosis | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is an infection caused by the bacteria leptospira affecting both humans and animals. […] Leptospirosis occurs mainly in tropical areas with humid conditions, such as Northern Queensland or South-East Asia. […] Symptoms usually begin suddenly, about 5 to 14 days after infection. […] Sometimes, the infection can become more serious, causing an illness known as Weils disease. […] Leptospirosis is a nationally notifiable disease in Australia. This means that government health authorities must be informed about all cases of leptospirosis. […] Tracking cases of leptospirosis is important to limit its spread. […] Leptospirosis or Weils disease is spread by contact with fresh water, wet soil or vegetation contaminated by the urine of infected animals. […] Leptospirosis is a disease caused by the Leptospira bacteria. […] Find out how we define and monitor cases of leptospirosis, and where you can learn more about this disease.

• #66 Leptospirosis: symptoms, treatment, prevention – Institut Pasteur

  https://www.pasteur.fr/en/medical-center/disease-sheets/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease that occurs worldwide. It is transmitted from animals to humans via urine. The main animal reservoirs are rats, but any mammals can carry the bacteria. In humans, leptospirosis is often mild, but it can lead to kidney failure or even death in 5 to 20% of cases. […] More than a million people experience a severe form of leptospirosis every year worldwide, and more than 60,000 die from the disease. […] In mainland France, leptospirosis affects 600 to 700 people each year. It has been a notifiable disease since August 2023. […] Leptospirosis is a disease that occurs worldwide but especially in tropical regions. In mainland France, it affects 600 to 700 people each year, an annual incidence of 1/100,000 people. […] The incidence is 50 or 100 times higher in tropical regions, such as the French overseas territories or countries in Latin America or South-East Asia.

• #67 :: IC :: Infection & Chemotherapy

  https://icjournal.org/DOIx.php?id=10.3947/ic.2019.51.3.315

  Leptospirosis is a widespread worldwide zoonosis. […] Human leptospirosis was first identified in the Korea in 1984 as the cause of epidemic pulmonary hemorrhagic fever of unknown etiology that occurred sporadically or in outbreaks. […] Leptospirosis was designated a nationally notifiable disease in 1987. […] The reported incidence of leptospirosis has been low. […] Leptospirosis is currently considered in the differential diagnosis of acute febrile illnesses occurring in fall. […] The incidence of human leptospirosis, as a nationally notifiable disease, has decreased in recent years in the Korea, although the outbreaks of the disease were a serious public health challenge in the 1980s. […] While sporadic leptospirosis cases have occurred annually in endemic areas, concern about potential epidemics remains because of the persistence of animal leptospiral carriers as natural reservoirs, people at risk, and favorable environmental and climate conditions.

• #68 :: IC :: Infection & Chemotherapy

  https://icjournal.org/DOIx.php?id=10.3947/ic.2019.51.3.315

  Leptospirosis was designated as a notifiable communicable disease in 1987. […] In December 1993, leptospirosis was designated again as a group 2 legal communicable disease. […] In 2001, leptospirosis was further designated as a group 3 notifiable communicable disease, which requires continued surveillance and establishment of prevention strategies.

• #69 Leptospirosis 2019

  https://en.ssi.dk/surveillance-and-preparedness/surveillance-in-denmark/annual-reports-on-disease-incidence/l/leptospirosis-2019

  Leptospirosis is individually notifiable, and the diagnostics are performed at Statens Serum Institut exclusively. […] In serious cases, coined Weils disease, pulmonary infection and organ failure occur thereafter, relatively rapidly, EPI-NEWS 28-33/16. […] 2019 saw a total of 14 notified cases of leptospirosis; two women and 12 men aged 20-66 years. […] Among the leptospirosis patients who had become infected in Denmark, one person was from Zealand, five from the island of Funen and three from West and South Jutland. […] Eight of the nine leptospirosis cases that were acquired in Denmark are believed to be occupational infections. […] In Denmark, diagnostic tests for leptospirosis are performed at the SSI exclusively, which also serves as reference laboratory for leptospirosis diagnostics in the Nordic countries. […] A negative PCR result does not exclude leptospirosis and should always be performed in conjunction with an antibody test. […] Antibody measurement remains the better diagnostic method for leptospirosis.

• #70 Leptospirosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptospirosis

  It is estimated that one million severe cases of leptospirosis occur annually, with 58,900 deaths, with the highest disease burden occurring in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in South and Southeast Asia, Latin America, and parts of Africa. Severe cases account for 515% of all leptospirosis cases. […] The convergence of climate change impacts such as rising temperatures, flooding and natural disasters, mass migration, poverty, and public health challenges with insufficient health and sanitation infrastructure heightens the risk of leptospirosis. […] Leptospirosis is considered a neglected tropical disease (NTD), and its incidence may be significantly underreported due to diagnostic challenges and low awareness among healthcare providers. […] The global rates of leptospirosis have been underestimated because most affected countries lack notification or notification is not mandatory.

• #71 Leptospirosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptospirosis

  It is estimated that one million severe cases of leptospirosis occur annually, with 58,900 deaths, with the highest disease burden occurring in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in South and Southeast Asia, Latin America, and parts of Africa. Severe cases account for 515% of all leptospirosis cases. […] The convergence of climate change impacts such as rising temperatures, flooding and natural disasters, mass migration, poverty, and public health challenges with insufficient health and sanitation infrastructure heightens the risk of leptospirosis. […] Leptospirosis is considered a neglected tropical disease (NTD), and its incidence may be significantly underreported due to diagnostic challenges and low awareness among healthcare providers. […] The global rates of leptospirosis have been underestimated because most affected countries lack notification or notification is not mandatory.

• #72 Leptospirosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441858/

  Leptospirosis, also called Weil disease, is the most common zoonotic infection in the world. […] Leptospirosis typically occurs in a temperate climate, during the late summer or early fall in Western countries, and during the rainy season in the tropics. The incidence in the tropics is almost 10 times that of more temperate climates. This tends to be an unreported disease because its symptoms mimic many other disease processes; however, the World Health Organization has estimated that there are 873,000 cases annually with over 40,000 deaths. […] In the United States, there are 100 to 200 identified cases annually, and most are documented in Hawaii. However, when testing people in urban centers such as Detroit, many tested positive for past infection.

• #73 Leptospira weil’s disease | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/leptospira-weils-disease/249804382

  Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease caused by Leptospira bacteria transmitted through contact with infected animal urine. […] Globally, leptospirosis is a leading zoonotic cause of morbidity and mortality affects MORE rural subsistence farmers and urban slum dwellers. […] In developing countries with poor urban housing standards, leptospirosis outbreaks occur regularly after heavy rainfall and flooding. […] Morbidity and mortality are greatest in the poorest regions of the world and in areas where surveillance is not routinely performed. […] Leptospirosis patients are commonly misdiagnosed with dengue, malaria, and other infections. […] Estimates suggest that globally ~2.90 million of disability adjusted life-years (DALYs) are lost per annum from the approximately 1.03 million cases.

• #74 Leptospirosis | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/infections-diseases/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis has a worldwide distribution; however, incidence is greater in tropical climates. […] Regions with the highest estimated morbidity and mortality include parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, parts of Latin America, the Caribbean, South and Southeast Asia, and Oceania. […] Specific country incidence rates are usually not available because leptospirosis is not reportable in many countries and there are gaps in diagnostic access. […] Travelers to endemic areas are at increased risk when participating in recreational freshwater activities (e.g., white water rafting, kayaking, boating, camping, hiking, swimming, fishing), particularly after heavy rainfall or flooding. […] Prolonged exposure to contaminated water and activities that involve head immersion or swallowing water increase the risk for infection.

• #75 Role of Diagnostics in Epidemiology, Management, Surveillance, and Control of Leptospirosis

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/4/395

  Diagnostic tests for leptospirosis can be widely applied to both humans and animals, although the purpose and methods may differ. […] A comprehensive approach to leptospirosis diagnosis that applies multiple types of test methods increases the power of accurate diagnostics. […] Widespread availability of testing that complies with regulatory and quality requirements for diagnosis is required to increase and encourage testing in both humans and animals to bring greater awareness of leptospirosis worldwide. […] Serologic tests for leptospirosis are subject to a number of limitations. […] Serosurveys have revealed the amount of exposure to leptospirosis and have identified high-risk populations and geographies. […] Culture and identification of isolates provides information on circulating strains that contribute to human illness. […] Surveillance and characterization of isolates is critical to preventing further illness by monitoring circulating strains causing leptospirosis in humans.

• #76 Role of Diagnostics in Epidemiology, Management, Surveillance, and Control of Leptospirosis

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/4/395

  Leptospirosis is a globally distributed disease of humans and animals caused by spirochetal bacteria belonging to the genus Leptospira. […] Human infection is a leading yet neglected source of morbidity and mortality, with more than 1 million cases and ~60,000 deaths per year; this is likely to be a gross underestimate of the burden of disease given the nonspecific symptoms in many cases. […] Leptospirosis epidemiology, management, surveillance, and control is best understood from a One Health perspective, given the complex interplay of pathogenic organisms and animals that can become infected, mediate transmission zoonotically, and maintain pathogenic leptospires in the environment. […] Improvements in diagnostics are urgently needed to better understand the complex epidemiology of leptospirosis, manage acute infection, and enable surveillance and control of transmission from subclinically-infected reservoir hosts.

• #77 Role of Diagnostics in Epidemiology, Management, Surveillance, and Control of Leptospirosis

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/4/395

  Diagnostic tests for leptospirosis can be widely applied to both humans and animals, although the purpose and methods may differ. […] A comprehensive approach to leptospirosis diagnosis that applies multiple types of test methods increases the power of accurate diagnostics. […] Widespread availability of testing that complies with regulatory and quality requirements for diagnosis is required to increase and encourage testing in both humans and animals to bring greater awareness of leptospirosis worldwide. […] Serologic tests for leptospirosis are subject to a number of limitations. […] Serosurveys have revealed the amount of exposure to leptospirosis and have identified high-risk populations and geographies. […] Culture and identification of isolates provides information on circulating strains that contribute to human illness. […] Surveillance and characterization of isolates is critical to preventing further illness by monitoring circulating strains causing leptospirosis in humans.

• #78 Leptospirosis | House Wiki | Fandom

  https://house.fandom.com/wiki/Leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is among the world’s most common diseases transmitted to people from animals. […] Leptospirosis is transmitted by the urine of an infected animal and is contagious as long as it is still moist. […] There is a direct correlation between the amount of rainfall and the incidence of leptospirosis, making it seasonal in temperate climates and year-round in tropical climates. […] Annual rates of infection vary from 0.02 per 100,000 in temperate climates to 10 to 100 per 100,000 in tropical climates.

• #79 Leptospirosis | Cornell Wildlife Health Lab

  https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/disease/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis, also known as Weils disease in humans, is a zoonotic disease caused by several species of spiral-shaped bacteria in the genus Leptospira. […] Almost all mammals are susceptible to leptospirosis and clinical syndromes are well known in seals, sea lions, and black rhinoceros. […] More than 250 pathogenic serovars have been identified, many of which are specific to different regions of the world. […] Rats are common sources for human infections because they are the maintenance hosts for the serovars that cause disease in people. […] Leptospires can survive in the environment up to three months with favorable conditions, mainly high moisture alkaline (basic) soil or stagnant or slow-moving freshwater bodies of water. Leptospirosis outbreaks occur under favorable conditions such as following floods and monsoons. In the temperate regions, outbreaks are more common in the summer and fall. In the tropics, outbreaks are more common following the rainy seasons.

• #80 Leptospirosis | Cornell Wildlife Health Lab

  https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/disease/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis, also known as Weils disease in humans, is a zoonotic disease caused by several species of spiral-shaped bacteria in the genus Leptospira. […] Almost all mammals are susceptible to leptospirosis and clinical syndromes are well known in seals, sea lions, and black rhinoceros. […] More than 250 pathogenic serovars have been identified, many of which are specific to different regions of the world. […] Rats are common sources for human infections because they are the maintenance hosts for the serovars that cause disease in people. […] Leptospires can survive in the environment up to three months with favorable conditions, mainly high moisture alkaline (basic) soil or stagnant or slow-moving freshwater bodies of water. Leptospirosis outbreaks occur under favorable conditions such as following floods and monsoons. In the temperate regions, outbreaks are more common in the summer and fall. In the tropics, outbreaks are more common following the rainy seasons.

• #81 Leptospirosis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/220563-overview

  Leptospirosis is an infectious disease of humans and animals that is caused by pathogenic spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. It is considered the most common zoonosis in the world and is associated with settings of poor sanitation and agricultural occupations involving contact with animals or water. […] Leptospirosis is endemic in most areas where dengue virus is transmitted and may be mistaken for dengue, which typically is more common. Co-infection occurs in up to 8% of cases. […] Furthermore, as climate change disrupts regional rainfall and temperatures, Leptospirosis should be considered in the setting of potential exposures. […] Leptospirosis, as a clinical entity, is underdiagnosed and underreported. From 1985-1994, the reported annual incidence ranged from 0.02-0.04 cases per 100,000 persons.

• #82 Leptospirosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptospirosis

  It is estimated that one million severe cases of leptospirosis occur annually, with 58,900 deaths, with the highest disease burden occurring in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in South and Southeast Asia, Latin America, and parts of Africa. Severe cases account for 515% of all leptospirosis cases. […] The convergence of climate change impacts such as rising temperatures, flooding and natural disasters, mass migration, poverty, and public health challenges with insufficient health and sanitation infrastructure heightens the risk of leptospirosis. […] Leptospirosis is considered a neglected tropical disease (NTD), and its incidence may be significantly underreported due to diagnostic challenges and low awareness among healthcare providers. […] The global rates of leptospirosis have been underestimated because most affected countries lack notification or notification is not mandatory.

• #83 Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis/print

  Specific risk factors for infection include occupational exposure, recreational activities, household exposure, low socioeconomic status, and travel to endemic areas. […] In the tropics, endemic leptospirosis is mainly a disease of poverty. […] Large outbreaks affecting thousands of people and causing tens and hundreds of deaths have been reported. […] Outbreaks tend to occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in areas with poor housing and sanitation conditions.

• #84 Leptospirosis | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/infections-diseases/leptospirosis

  Participating in activities involving mud (e.g., adventure races) also increases a traveler’s risk for infection, as does working directly with animals in endemic areas, especially when exposed to their body fluids, and visiting or residing in areas with rodent infestation. […] Leptospirosis occurs most commonly in adult males. […] The estimated worldwide annual incidence is 1 million cases, including approximately 59,000 deaths. […] Outbreaks can occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in urban areas of low- and middle-income countries, where housing conditions and sanitation are poor and rodent infestation is common. […] Outbreaks of leptospirosis have occurred after flooding in popular U.S. travel destinations, including Florida, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. […] Most U.S. cases are reported outside the continental United States in the domestic travel destinations of Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

• #85 Leptospirosis: epidemiology and preventive measures

  https://www.itmedicalteam.pl/articles/leptospirosis-epidemiology-and-preventive-measures-105723.html

  This can be confirmed from the fact that several incidences of human and animal leptospirosis in over forty countries were attributed to the rodents. […] Leptospirosis should be considered a disease of the environment. […] Recently, it has been mentioned that leptospirosis has become an urban public health problem as the rural poor population has moved into the cities. […] An association between prevalence of leptospirosis and gender has been reported in many studies. […] Understanding the epidemiological features of leptospirosis is a critical step in designing interventions for diminishing the risk of the disease transmission. […] Currently, there is no human vaccine available against leptospirosis. […] Prevention and control measures should be focused on the infection source. […] More importantly, policy makers and public health officials should be convinced that addressing the principal conditions of poverty such as poor sanitation could lead to disease elimination.

• #86 Fulminant Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) in an urban setting as an overlooked cause of multiorgan failure: a case report | Journal of Medical Case Reports | Full Text

  https://jmedicalcasereports.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1752-1947-5-7

  In conclusion, leptospirosis has recently come to international attention as a globally important reemerging infectious disease in not only developing countries but in industrialized nations as well. […] Leptospirosis remains a great burden of infection in third world countries, and mortality remains significant related to lack of a rapid, reliable diagnostic test and the need for a high degree of clinical suspicion. […] Recognition of fulminant leptospirosis is especially important because antimicrobial agents can reduce its severity and duration as well as lead to a favorable outcome of this potentially lethal condition.

• #87 – Epidemiology Unit

  https://www.epid.gov.lk/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is a disease associated with agriculture-related occupations such as paddy cultivation, Cattle farming and piggeries as well as occupations like Gem mining, sewage and canal work. People involved in recreational activities in marshy lands and water bodies could potentially be at risk of contracting this disease as well. […] Preventive measures are based on local epidemiological and behavioural practices of high-risk groups. As this disease is mainly related to occupations such as agriculture, farming, gem-mining, sewage and canal cleaning, raising awareness on precautions and availing the prophylactic medication under the guidance of Healthcare workers when indicated is important. General preventive measures such as good hygiene and appropriate waste management practices especially around fields and waterbodies and farms, keeping animals away from childrens play areas such as gardens, playgrounds and sandboxes, avoiding potentially contaminated water for rinsing the mouth and washing face should be practiced. It is also advisable to avoid unnecessarily playing/wading in flood waters as it could be potentially contaminated. It is also important to cover all wounds/abrasions on the skin with a waterproof covering prior to contact with any potentially infected environmental sources. Whenever appropriate protective clothing including knee-high boots, gloves should be worn. Currently, occupational groups at high-risk of leptospirosis as well as communities affected by floods and landslides are recommended for weekly antibiotic prophylaxis under the guidance of the area Medical Officer of Health (MOH) or Public Health Inspector (PHI). Intersectoral collaboration and networking between health, agriculture, and the veterinary sector are needed for the prevention of disease through vector control and environmental management.

• #88 Leptospirosis | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/infections-diseases/leptospirosis

  Participating in activities involving mud (e.g., adventure races) also increases a traveler’s risk for infection, as does working directly with animals in endemic areas, especially when exposed to their body fluids, and visiting or residing in areas with rodent infestation. […] Leptospirosis occurs most commonly in adult males. […] The estimated worldwide annual incidence is 1 million cases, including approximately 59,000 deaths. […] Outbreaks can occur after heavy rainfall or flooding in endemic areas, especially in urban areas of low- and middle-income countries, where housing conditions and sanitation are poor and rodent infestation is common. […] Outbreaks of leptospirosis have occurred after flooding in popular U.S. travel destinations, including Florida, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. […] Most U.S. cases are reported outside the continental United States in the domestic travel destinations of Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

• #89 Leptospirosis: An important zoonosis acquired through work, play and travel

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2018/march/leptospirosis

  International travel, particularly to tropical, developing countries, is an important source of occupational and recreational exposure. […] In tropical, developing countries, including Australia’s neighbours in the Asia Pacific region, environmental and climatic drivers are important. […] Many post-flooding outbreaks have therefore occurred in densely populated developing countries, including Brazil, India and the Philippines. […] Leptospirosis is a notifiable disease, and reporting to NNDSS is mandatory. […] Cases are investigated by the public health units of the specific state and territory, and risk factors and potential infection sources are explored.

• #90 Factsheet about leptospirosis

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/leptospirosis/factsheet

  Leptospirosis is a zoonosis occurring worldwide, caused by pathogenic spirochaetes of the genus Leptospira. […] The disease is particularly prevalent in wet tropical and subtropical regions. […] Currently nearly 300 serovars have been identified, divided into 25 serogroups. […] Leptospirosis as a recreational disease in travellers is increasing in Western countries. […] The true spread and increase of leptospirosis remains unknown, as the quality and availability of diagnostic tests, testing facilities and surveillance systems are very variable and frequently not available.

• #91 Leptospirosis | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/infections-diseases/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis has a worldwide distribution; however, incidence is greater in tropical climates. […] Regions with the highest estimated morbidity and mortality include parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, parts of Latin America, the Caribbean, South and Southeast Asia, and Oceania. […] Specific country incidence rates are usually not available because leptospirosis is not reportable in many countries and there are gaps in diagnostic access. […] Travelers to endemic areas are at increased risk when participating in recreational freshwater activities (e.g., white water rafting, kayaking, boating, camping, hiking, swimming, fishing), particularly after heavy rainfall or flooding. […] Prolonged exposure to contaminated water and activities that involve head immersion or swallowing water increase the risk for infection.

• #92 Canine leptospirosis: Improving diagnostics and understanding of the epidemiology of disease in UK dogs (In Progress) – Projects – Research Projects and Opportunities – VetCompass – Royal Veterinary College, RVC

  https://www.rvc.ac.uk/vetcompass/research-projects-and-opportunities/projects/canine-leptospirosis-improving-diagnostics-and-understanding-of-the-epidemiology-of-disease-in-uk-dogs

  Leptospirosis is globally an important re-emerging zoonotic disease. […] The aim of this study is to improve the diagnostics of Leptospirosis in canids through novel bacterial outer membrane targets and to utilise VetCompass data to characterise aspects of the epidemiology of Leptospirosis disease and vaccine trends in dogs attending UK practices. […] There have not been any large epidemiological studies undertaken to ascertain serovars present amongst dogs in the UK, therefore it is unclear whether the serovars present in vaccine are indeed representative of UK canine leptospirosis. […] It is likely that there are emerging serovars in the UK due to pet movement and that there will be geographical variance in local serovars. […] The objectives are: 1) To evaluate which serovars are being formally diagnosed 2) To evaluate which diagnostics are being utilised for canine leptospirosis 3) To evaluate any risk factors and hot-spots for leptospirosis 4) To evaluate vaccine uptake trends.

• #93 – Epidemiology Unit

  https://www.epid.gov.lk/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is a disease associated with agriculture-related occupations such as paddy cultivation, Cattle farming and piggeries as well as occupations like Gem mining, sewage and canal work. People involved in recreational activities in marshy lands and water bodies could potentially be at risk of contracting this disease as well. […] Preventive measures are based on local epidemiological and behavioural practices of high-risk groups. As this disease is mainly related to occupations such as agriculture, farming, gem-mining, sewage and canal cleaning, raising awareness on precautions and availing the prophylactic medication under the guidance of Healthcare workers when indicated is important. General preventive measures such as good hygiene and appropriate waste management practices especially around fields and waterbodies and farms, keeping animals away from childrens play areas such as gardens, playgrounds and sandboxes, avoiding potentially contaminated water for rinsing the mouth and washing face should be practiced. It is also advisable to avoid unnecessarily playing/wading in flood waters as it could be potentially contaminated. It is also important to cover all wounds/abrasions on the skin with a waterproof covering prior to contact with any potentially infected environmental sources. Whenever appropriate protective clothing including knee-high boots, gloves should be worn. Currently, occupational groups at high-risk of leptospirosis as well as communities affected by floods and landslides are recommended for weekly antibiotic prophylaxis under the guidance of the area Medical Officer of Health (MOH) or Public Health Inspector (PHI). Intersectoral collaboration and networking between health, agriculture, and the veterinary sector are needed for the prevention of disease through vector control and environmental management.

• #94 Leptospirosis (Weil’s disease)

  https://health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/leptospirosis/fact_sheet.htm

  Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease associated with wild and domestic animals. Only a few cases are reported each year in New York State. […] Leptospirosis is primarily an occupational disease that affects farmers, veterinarians, sewer workers or others whose occupation involves contact with animals, especially rats. […] Leptospirosis is spread mainly by the urine of infected animals and is generally not transmitted from person to person. […] The disease is diagnosed using specific blood tests available through public health laboratories. […] Disease prevention consists of good sanitation. The use of boots and gloves in hazardous places, and rodent control can also minimize the risk of spread.

• #95 Leptospirosis: epidemiology and preventive measures

  https://www.itmedicalteam.pl/articles/leptospirosis-epidemiology-and-preventive-measures-105723.html

  This can be confirmed from the fact that several incidences of human and animal leptospirosis in over forty countries were attributed to the rodents. […] Leptospirosis should be considered a disease of the environment. […] Recently, it has been mentioned that leptospirosis has become an urban public health problem as the rural poor population has moved into the cities. […] An association between prevalence of leptospirosis and gender has been reported in many studies. […] Understanding the epidemiological features of leptospirosis is a critical step in designing interventions for diminishing the risk of the disease transmission. […] Currently, there is no human vaccine available against leptospirosis. […] Prevention and control measures should be focused on the infection source. […] More importantly, policy makers and public health officials should be convinced that addressing the principal conditions of poverty such as poor sanitation could lead to disease elimination.

• #96 – Epidemiology Unit

  https://www.epid.gov.lk/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is a disease associated with agriculture-related occupations such as paddy cultivation, Cattle farming and piggeries as well as occupations like Gem mining, sewage and canal work. People involved in recreational activities in marshy lands and water bodies could potentially be at risk of contracting this disease as well. […] Preventive measures are based on local epidemiological and behavioural practices of high-risk groups. As this disease is mainly related to occupations such as agriculture, farming, gem-mining, sewage and canal cleaning, raising awareness on precautions and availing the prophylactic medication under the guidance of Healthcare workers when indicated is important. General preventive measures such as good hygiene and appropriate waste management practices especially around fields and waterbodies and farms, keeping animals away from childrens play areas such as gardens, playgrounds and sandboxes, avoiding potentially contaminated water for rinsing the mouth and washing face should be practiced. It is also advisable to avoid unnecessarily playing/wading in flood waters as it could be potentially contaminated. It is also important to cover all wounds/abrasions on the skin with a waterproof covering prior to contact with any potentially infected environmental sources. Whenever appropriate protective clothing including knee-high boots, gloves should be worn. Currently, occupational groups at high-risk of leptospirosis as well as communities affected by floods and landslides are recommended for weekly antibiotic prophylaxis under the guidance of the area Medical Officer of Health (MOH) or Public Health Inspector (PHI). Intersectoral collaboration and networking between health, agriculture, and the veterinary sector are needed for the prevention of disease through vector control and environmental management.

• #97 – Epidemiology Unit

  https://www.epid.gov.lk/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is a disease associated with agriculture-related occupations such as paddy cultivation, Cattle farming and piggeries as well as occupations like Gem mining, sewage and canal work. People involved in recreational activities in marshy lands and water bodies could potentially be at risk of contracting this disease as well. […] Preventive measures are based on local epidemiological and behavioural practices of high-risk groups. As this disease is mainly related to occupations such as agriculture, farming, gem-mining, sewage and canal cleaning, raising awareness on precautions and availing the prophylactic medication under the guidance of Healthcare workers when indicated is important. General preventive measures such as good hygiene and appropriate waste management practices especially around fields and waterbodies and farms, keeping animals away from childrens play areas such as gardens, playgrounds and sandboxes, avoiding potentially contaminated water for rinsing the mouth and washing face should be practiced. It is also advisable to avoid unnecessarily playing/wading in flood waters as it could be potentially contaminated. It is also important to cover all wounds/abrasions on the skin with a waterproof covering prior to contact with any potentially infected environmental sources. Whenever appropriate protective clothing including knee-high boots, gloves should be worn. Currently, occupational groups at high-risk of leptospirosis as well as communities affected by floods and landslides are recommended for weekly antibiotic prophylaxis under the guidance of the area Medical Officer of Health (MOH) or Public Health Inspector (PHI). Intersectoral collaboration and networking between health, agriculture, and the veterinary sector are needed for the prevention of disease through vector control and environmental management.

• #98 – Epidemiology Unit

  https://www.epid.gov.lk/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is a disease associated with agriculture-related occupations such as paddy cultivation, Cattle farming and piggeries as well as occupations like Gem mining, sewage and canal work. People involved in recreational activities in marshy lands and water bodies could potentially be at risk of contracting this disease as well. […] Preventive measures are based on local epidemiological and behavioural practices of high-risk groups. As this disease is mainly related to occupations such as agriculture, farming, gem-mining, sewage and canal cleaning, raising awareness on precautions and availing the prophylactic medication under the guidance of Healthcare workers when indicated is important. General preventive measures such as good hygiene and appropriate waste management practices especially around fields and waterbodies and farms, keeping animals away from childrens play areas such as gardens, playgrounds and sandboxes, avoiding potentially contaminated water for rinsing the mouth and washing face should be practiced. It is also advisable to avoid unnecessarily playing/wading in flood waters as it could be potentially contaminated. It is also important to cover all wounds/abrasions on the skin with a waterproof covering prior to contact with any potentially infected environmental sources. Whenever appropriate protective clothing including knee-high boots, gloves should be worn. Currently, occupational groups at high-risk of leptospirosis as well as communities affected by floods and landslides are recommended for weekly antibiotic prophylaxis under the guidance of the area Medical Officer of Health (MOH) or Public Health Inspector (PHI). Intersectoral collaboration and networking between health, agriculture, and the veterinary sector are needed for the prevention of disease through vector control and environmental management.

• #99 Weil’s Disease: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments

  https://www.healthline.com/health/weils-disease

  Weils disease is a severe form of leptospirosis. This is a type of bacterial infection. Its caused by Leptospira bacteria. […] Leptospirosis and Weils disease are found worldwide, but theyre more common in tropical regions than temperate zones. […] Leptospirosis is primarily an occupational disease. This means its usually work-related. It most commonly affects people who work in close proximity to animals, animal tissues, or animal waste products. […] If left untreated, Weils disease can lead to kidney failure, liver failure, or heart failure. In rare cases, it may result in death. […] Scientists have developed vaccines that seem to provide some protection against leptospirosis. Vaccines for humans are only available in some countries, such as Cuba and France. However, these vaccines may only protect against certain forms of Leptospira bacteria, and they may not provide long-term immunity.

• #100 Leptospirosis: epidemiology and preventive measures

  https://www.itmedicalteam.pl/articles/leptospirosis-epidemiology-and-preventive-measures-105723.html

  This can be confirmed from the fact that several incidences of human and animal leptospirosis in over forty countries were attributed to the rodents. […] Leptospirosis should be considered a disease of the environment. […] Recently, it has been mentioned that leptospirosis has become an urban public health problem as the rural poor population has moved into the cities. […] An association between prevalence of leptospirosis and gender has been reported in many studies. […] Understanding the epidemiological features of leptospirosis is a critical step in designing interventions for diminishing the risk of the disease transmission. […] Currently, there is no human vaccine available against leptospirosis. […] Prevention and control measures should be focused on the infection source. […] More importantly, policy makers and public health officials should be convinced that addressing the principal conditions of poverty such as poor sanitation could lead to disease elimination.

• #101 – Epidemiology Unit

  https://www.epid.gov.lk/leptospirosis

  Leptospirosis is a disease associated with agriculture-related occupations such as paddy cultivation, Cattle farming and piggeries as well as occupations like Gem mining, sewage and canal work. People involved in recreational activities in marshy lands and water bodies could potentially be at risk of contracting this disease as well. […] Preventive measures are based on local epidemiological and behavioural practices of high-risk groups. As this disease is mainly related to occupations such as agriculture, farming, gem-mining, sewage and canal cleaning, raising awareness on precautions and availing the prophylactic medication under the guidance of Healthcare workers when indicated is important. General preventive measures such as good hygiene and appropriate waste management practices especially around fields and waterbodies and farms, keeping animals away from childrens play areas such as gardens, playgrounds and sandboxes, avoiding potentially contaminated water for rinsing the mouth and washing face should be practiced. It is also advisable to avoid unnecessarily playing/wading in flood waters as it could be potentially contaminated. It is also important to cover all wounds/abrasions on the skin with a waterproof covering prior to contact with any potentially infected environmental sources. Whenever appropriate protective clothing including knee-high boots, gloves should be worn. Currently, occupational groups at high-risk of leptospirosis as well as communities affected by floods and landslides are recommended for weekly antibiotic prophylaxis under the guidance of the area Medical Officer of Health (MOH) or Public Health Inspector (PHI). Intersectoral collaboration and networking between health, agriculture, and the veterinary sector are needed for the prevention of disease through vector control and environmental management.

• #102 Role of Diagnostics in Epidemiology, Management, Surveillance, and Control of Leptospirosis

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/4/395

  Leptospirosis is a globally distributed disease of humans and animals caused by spirochetal bacteria belonging to the genus Leptospira. […] Human infection is a leading yet neglected source of morbidity and mortality, with more than 1 million cases and ~60,000 deaths per year; this is likely to be a gross underestimate of the burden of disease given the nonspecific symptoms in many cases. […] Leptospirosis epidemiology, management, surveillance, and control is best understood from a One Health perspective, given the complex interplay of pathogenic organisms and animals that can become infected, mediate transmission zoonotically, and maintain pathogenic leptospires in the environment. […] Improvements in diagnostics are urgently needed to better understand the complex epidemiology of leptospirosis, manage acute infection, and enable surveillance and control of transmission from subclinically-infected reservoir hosts.

• #103 Leptospirosis | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-025-00614-5

  Leptospirosis is a zoonotic bacterial infection that is prevalent across all continents and is caused by pathogenic spirochaetes of the genus Leptospira. […] An estimated one million cases of leptospirosis occur globally each year, resulting in ~60,000 deaths. […] Future research is needed to accurately estimate leptospirosis disease burden across the globe, to understand the pathophysiology of severe leptospirosis to inform the design of targeted immunotherapies and vaccines, and to develop cost-effective and accurate point-of-care diagnostics. […] Allan, K. J. et al. Epidemiology of leptospirosis in Africa: a systematic review of a neglected zoonosis and a paradigm for One Health in Africa. […] Costa, F. et al. Global morbidity and mortality of leptospirosis: a systematic review.

• #104 Leptospirosis | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-025-00614-5

  Leptospirosis is a zoonotic bacterial infection that is prevalent across all continents and is caused by pathogenic spirochaetes of the genus Leptospira. […] An estimated one million cases of leptospirosis occur globally each year, resulting in ~60,000 deaths. […] Future research is needed to accurately estimate leptospirosis disease burden across the globe, to understand the pathophysiology of severe leptospirosis to inform the design of targeted immunotherapies and vaccines, and to develop cost-effective and accurate point-of-care diagnostics. […] Allan, K. J. et al. Epidemiology of leptospirosis in Africa: a systematic review of a neglected zoonosis and a paradigm for One Health in Africa. […] Costa, F. et al. Global morbidity and mortality of leptospirosis: a systematic review.

• #105 Leptospirosis | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-025-00614-5

  Leptospirosis is a zoonotic bacterial infection that is prevalent across all continents and is caused by pathogenic spirochaetes of the genus Leptospira. […] An estimated one million cases of leptospirosis occur globally each year, resulting in ~60,000 deaths. […] Future research is needed to accurately estimate leptospirosis disease burden across the globe, to understand the pathophysiology of severe leptospirosis to inform the design of targeted immunotherapies and vaccines, and to develop cost-effective and accurate point-of-care diagnostics. […] Allan, K. J. et al. Epidemiology of leptospirosis in Africa: a systematic review of a neglected zoonosis and a paradigm for One Health in Africa. […] Costa, F. et al. Global morbidity and mortality of leptospirosis: a systematic review.

• #106 Role of Diagnostics in Epidemiology, Management, Surveillance, and Control of Leptospirosis

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/4/395

  Diagnostic tests for leptospirosis can be widely applied to both humans and animals, although the purpose and methods may differ. […] A comprehensive approach to leptospirosis diagnosis that applies multiple types of test methods increases the power of accurate diagnostics. […] Widespread availability of testing that complies with regulatory and quality requirements for diagnosis is required to increase and encourage testing in both humans and animals to bring greater awareness of leptospirosis worldwide. […] Serologic tests for leptospirosis are subject to a number of limitations. […] Serosurveys have revealed the amount of exposure to leptospirosis and have identified high-risk populations and geographies. […] Culture and identification of isolates provides information on circulating strains that contribute to human illness. […] Surveillance and characterization of isolates is critical to preventing further illness by monitoring circulating strains causing leptospirosis in humans.

• #107 Leptospirosis: epidemiology and preventive measures

  https://www.itmedicalteam.pl/articles/leptospirosis-epidemiology-and-preventive-measures-105723.html

  This can be confirmed from the fact that several incidences of human and animal leptospirosis in over forty countries were attributed to the rodents. […] Leptospirosis should be considered a disease of the environment. […] Recently, it has been mentioned that leptospirosis has become an urban public health problem as the rural poor population has moved into the cities. […] An association between prevalence of leptospirosis and gender has been reported in many studies. […] Understanding the epidemiological features of leptospirosis is a critical step in designing interventions for diminishing the risk of the disease transmission. […] Currently, there is no human vaccine available against leptospirosis. […] Prevention and control measures should be focused on the infection source. […] More importantly, policy makers and public health officials should be convinced that addressing the principal conditions of poverty such as poor sanitation could lead to disease elimination.

• #108 Leptospirosis: epidemiology and preventive measures

  https://www.itmedicalteam.pl/articles/leptospirosis-epidemiology-and-preventive-measures-105723.html

  This can be confirmed from the fact that several incidences of human and animal leptospirosis in over forty countries were attributed to the rodents. […] Leptospirosis should be considered a disease of the environment. […] Recently, it has been mentioned that leptospirosis has become an urban public health problem as the rural poor population has moved into the cities. […] An association between prevalence of leptospirosis and gender has been reported in many studies. […] Understanding the epidemiological features of leptospirosis is a critical step in designing interventions for diminishing the risk of the disease transmission. […] Currently, there is no human vaccine available against leptospirosis. […] Prevention and control measures should be focused on the infection source. […] More importantly, policy makers and public health officials should be convinced that addressing the principal conditions of poverty such as poor sanitation could lead to disease elimination.

• #109 Role of Diagnostics in Epidemiology, Management, Surveillance, and Control of Leptospirosis

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/4/395

  Leptospirosis is a globally distributed disease of humans and animals caused by spirochetal bacteria belonging to the genus Leptospira. […] Human infection is a leading yet neglected source of morbidity and mortality, with more than 1 million cases and ~60,000 deaths per year; this is likely to be a gross underestimate of the burden of disease given the nonspecific symptoms in many cases. […] Leptospirosis epidemiology, management, surveillance, and control is best understood from a One Health perspective, given the complex interplay of pathogenic organisms and animals that can become infected, mediate transmission zoonotically, and maintain pathogenic leptospires in the environment. […] Improvements in diagnostics are urgently needed to better understand the complex epidemiology of leptospirosis, manage acute infection, and enable surveillance and control of transmission from subclinically-infected reservoir hosts.

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