Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Auditory Hallucinations – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557633/

  Auditory hallucinations are the sensory perceptions of hearing noises without an external stimulus. This symptom is particularly associated with schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders but is not specific to them. […] This activity provides an overview of the current understanding of auditory hallucinations in terms of etiology, pathophysiology, and treatment options, with further explanation of approaches to enhance the interprofessional team’s integrity in improving the outcome of individuals with this condition. […] Because auditory hallucinations manifest in a variety of disorders, the etiology is thought to be heterogeneous. Hallucinations most often precipitate in the setting of psychosis. Imaging studies using positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging of patients with schizophrenia demonstrate increased activity in the striatal and thalamic subcortical nuclei, paralimbic regions, and hypothalamus. Further analysis reveals deficits in left temporal lobe functioning. […] The precise mechanism by which paracusias occur remains elusive. However, several postulations have been suggested. Functional magnetic resonance imaging findings have demonstrated the spontaneous activation of the auditory network, consisting of the left superior temporal gyrus, transverse temporal gyri (Heschl gyri), and the left temporal lobe. A neurocognitive model called the VOICE model has been offered, which attributes the paracusias to an unbalanced bottom-up limbic hyperexcitation mismatched against a hypoactive prefrontal inhibitory system. This mismatch results in the spontaneous firing of sensory neurons without appropriate inhibitory mechanisms.

• #2 Mechanisms Underlying Auditory Hallucinations—Understanding Perception without Stimulus

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4061847/

  Auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH) are a common phenomenon, occurring in the healthy population as well as in several mental illnesses, most notably schizophrenia. Current thinking supports a spectrum conceptualisation of AVH: several neurocognitive hypotheses of AVH have been proposed, including the feed-forward model of failure to provide appropriate information to somatosensory cortices so that stimuli appear unbidden, and an aberrant memory model implicating deficient memory processes. […] Disappointingly many AVH remain resistant to standard treatments and persist for many years. There is a need to develop novel therapies to augment existing pharmacological and psychological therapies: transcranial magnetic stimulation has emerged as a potential treatment, though more recent clinical data has been less encouraging. Our understanding of AVH remains incomplete though much progress has been made in recent years.

• #3 Auditory Hallucinations: Causes, Symptoms, Types & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/23233-auditory-hallucinations

  Auditory hallucinations happen when you hear voices or noises that dont exist in reality. […] Auditory hallucinations are often associated with schizophrenia and other mental health conditions, but they can happen for several other reasons, such as hearing loss, and arent always a sign of a mental health condition. […] Scientists dont yet know the exact mechanisms in your brain that cause auditory hallucinations, but they have a few theories, including: Spontaneous activation of the auditory network in your brain, which consists of the left superior temporal gyrus, transverse temporal gyri (Heschl’s gyri) and the left temporal lobe. […] An imbalance of dopamine and serotonin, which are neurotransmitters. […] Approximately 75% of people with schizophrenia experience auditory hallucinations usually hearing voices.

• #4 Auditory hallucination – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_hallucination

  It is assumed through research that the neural pathways involved in normal speech perception and production, which are lateralized to the left temporal lobe, also underlie auditory hallucinations. […] Auditory hallucinations correspond with spontaneous neural activity of the left temporal lobe, and the subsequent primary auditory cortex. The perception of auditory hallucinations corresponds to the experience of actual external hearing, despite the absence of any sound itself. […] The causal basis of hallucinations has been explored on the cellular receptor level. The glutamate hypothesis, proposed as a possible cause for schizophrenia, may also have implications in auditory hallucinations, which are suspected to be triggered by altered glutamatergic transmission. […] Studies using dichotic listening methods suggest that people with schizophrenia have major deficits in the functioning of the left temporal lobe by showing that patients do not generally exhibit what is a functionally normal right ear advantage. […] It is suspected that deficits in the left temporal lobe attribute that lead to spontaneous neural activity cause speech misrepresentations that account for auditory hallucinations.

• #5 Auditory hallucinations activate language and verbal short-term memory, but not auditory, brain regions | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-98269-1

  Auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH, hearing voices) are an important symptom of schizophrenia but their biological basis is not well understood. […] Here, using a novel variant of the symptom capture technique, we show that the experience of AVH does not induce auditory cortex activation, even while real speech does, something that effectively rules out all theories that propose a perceptual component to AVH. Instead, we find that the experience of AVH activates language regions and/or regions that are engaged during verbal short-term memory. […] This failure, coupled with the fact that perception of formally similar real speech strongly activated a large expanse of the superior temporal cortex, would seem to exclude theoretical approaches to AVH in schizophrenia that invoke abnormal neuronal activity in the auditory cortex.

• #6 Auditory hallucinations activate language and verbal short-term memory, but not auditory, brain regions | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-98269-1

  We did find activations outside the temporal lobe during experience of AVH: these involved Wernickes area and its right homologue, Brocas area and its right homologue, and the precentral gyrus and supplementary motor area bilaterally. […] Given the lack of accompanying auditory cortex activation, this would presumably be at the level of decoding of the linguistic properties of speech rather than its initial detection and analysis of its auditory perceptual qualities. […] Since verbal short-term memory equates to some extent with the concept of inner speech, our findings could therefore be interpreted as providing support for Friths mislabelled inner speech theory of AVH.

• #7 Auditory Hallucinations – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557633/

  At a neurochemical level, dopamine (D2) and serotonin (5HT2a) receptors are particularly important. Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated increased D2 receptor occupancy in the striatal system and 5HT2a receptor occupancy in the caudate nucleus. […] If the hallucinations precipitated as a result of a primary psychiatric disorder, then neuroleptics become the mainstay of treatment. Neuroleptics, colloquially referred to as antipsychotics, are a class of psychotropics that block dopamine receptors. The putative mechanism by which neuroleptics mitigate auditory hallucinations is by blocking dopamine D2 receptors in the mesolimbic tract. […] Generally, factors that increase the risk of poor treatment response include early age of onset, male gender, and multiple inpatient hospitalizations. […] The outcome of auditory hallucinations depends upon each caregiver’s coordination and promptness during the care process. As such, it requires the coordinated activities of an interprofessional healthcare team.

• #8 Auditory Hallucinations: 6 Ways to Cope | Psych Central

  https://psychcentral.com/disorders/auditory-hallucinations

  Auditory hallucinations involve the sensory experience of hearing sounds or voices when theres no external source for these sounds. They can occur in both psychiatric and non-psychiatric conditions. […] Understanding the potential causes and triggers of auditory hallucinations can help you identify the underlying condition and implement effective strategies to manage the symptoms. […] The exact mechanism behind auditory hallucinations remains unclear. But researchers have proposed several possibilities. […] Dopamine (D2) and serotonin (5HT2a) receptors are believed to play a crucial role in auditory hallucinations. […] A neurocognitive model called the VOICE proposes that auditory hallucinations occur due to a mismatch between an overactive emotional system and an underactive inhibitory system in the brain. This imbalance leads to the spontaneous firing of sensory neurons without proper inhibition, causing the hallucinations.

• #9 Link Between Hallucinations and Dopamine Not Such a Mystery, Finds Study | Columbia University Department of Psychiatry

  https://www.columbiapsychiatry.org/news/link-between-hallucinations-and-dopamine-not-such-mystery-finds-study

  New York, NY (February 16, 2018) Researchers at Columbia University Irving Medical Center (CUIMC) and New York State Psychiatric Institute (NYSPI) found that people with schizophrenia who experience auditory hallucinations tend to hear what they expect, an exaggerated version of a perceptual distortion that is common among other people without hallucinations. […] Those with hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms are known to have elevated dopamine, the main area of focus for available treatments for psychosis, but it was unclear how this could lead to hallucinations. […] The researchers found that elevated dopamine could make some patients rely more on expectations, which could then result in hallucinations. […] In individuals with schizophrenia, this process appears to be altered, leading to extreme perceptual distortions, such as hearing voices that are not there.

• #10 Link Between Hallucinations and Dopamine Not Such a Mystery, Finds Study | Columbia University Department of Psychiatry

  https://www.columbiapsychiatry.org/news/link-between-hallucinations-and-dopamine-not-such-mystery-finds-study

  Furthermore, while such hallucinations are often successfully treated by antipsychotic drugs that block the neurotransmitter dopamine in a brain structure known as the striatum, the reason for this has been a mystery since this neurotransmitter and brain region are not typically associated with sensory processing. […] Patients with hallucinations tended to perceive sounds in a way that was more similar to what they had been cued to expect, even when sensory expectations were less reliable and illusions weakened in healthy participants. […] This tendency to inflexibly hear what was expected was worsened after giving a dopamine-releasing drug, and more pronounced in participants with elevated dopamine release, and more apparent in participants with a smaller dorsal anterior cingulate (a brain region previously shown to track reliability of environmental cues).

• #11 Auditory Hallucinations: 6 Ways to Cope | Psych Central

  https://psychcentral.com/disorders/auditory-hallucinations

  Another important aspect is the role of abnormal glutamate signaling, which aligns with the hypothesis that dysfunction in glutamate receptors may contribute to the development of psychosis. […] Finally, fMRI findings have shown spontaneous activation of the auditory network, consisting of the left superior temporal gyrus, transverse temporal gyri (Heschls gyri), and the left temporal lobe.

• #12 Mechanisms Underlying Auditory Hallucinations—Understanding Perception without Stimulus

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4061847/

  Several possible neurocognitive models of AVH have been proposed, with the two most consistently supported noted below. It remains unclear if a single model will emerge as correct, or if varying pathologies may account for these symptoms in different people, particularly between various clinical and non-clinical groups. […] An aberrant feed-forward mechanism has remained an influential neurocognitive model underlying passivity experiences in psychosis, such as delusions of control and AVH, for over two decades. […] A second model postulates that AVH result from aberrant memory activation and monitoring, particularly from past traumatic experiences, potentially due to both a failure in inhibition of recall and unintended memory activation. […] Current neurocognitive models of AVH are incomplete.

• #13 Mechanisms Underlying Auditory Hallucinations—Understanding Perception without Stimulus

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/3/2/642

  Several possible neurocognitive models of AVH have been proposed, with the two most consistently supported noted below. It remains unclear if a single model will emerge as “correct”, or if varying pathologies may account for these symptoms in different people, particularly between various clinical and non-clinical groups. […] An aberrant “feed-forward” mechanism has remained an influential neurocognitive model underlying passivity experiences in psychosis, such as delusions of control and AVH, for over two decades. […] A second model postulates that AVH result from aberrant memory activation and monitoring, particularly from past traumatic experiences, potentially due to both a failure in inhibition of recall and unintended memory activation. […] Current neurocognitive models of AVH are incomplete.

• #14 How Does the Brain Hear Voices That Aren’t Really There? | NYU Shanghai

  https://shanghai.nyu.edu/news/how-does-brain-hear-voices-arent-really-there

  Auditory hallucinations can be experienced by healthy individuals, but they are also often a serious symptom for those with mental disorders, particularly schizophrenia. […] A new study by Associate Professor of Neural and Cognitive Sciences Tian Xing and colleagues published in open-access journal PLOS Biology presents a theory that challenges 150 years of traditional neuroscience and points to new treatment directions for schizophrenia. […] Based on these years of research, the team proposes that auditory hallucinations likely result from dysfunctions in two brain signals: a broken corollary discharge (CD) and a noisy efference copy (EC). […] With a broken CD, patients cant tell that the sounds they hear are coming from their own brain, explained Tian. […] Our theory points to a noisy EC, which is hyperactive and triggers the brains auditory system even when there are no external sounds, he said.

• #15 How Does the Brain Hear Voices That Aren’t Really There? | NYU Shanghai

  https://shanghai.nyu.edu/news/how-does-brain-hear-voices-arent-really-there

  The results confirmed the lack of a suppression signal (the broken CD) in patients with auditory hallucinations when preparing to speak, as well as an enhanced but not precise response (the noisy EC) that made them hear sounds. […] Through our modeling, were the first to map out the differences between the two proposed brain signals, separating their roles in both time and function, and challenging long-standing neuroscience theory. […] Our study suggests a potential future research direction for a more comprehensive understanding of mental disorders. […] This study provides fresh insights, offering a more profound understanding that could shape therapeutic and intervention approaches. […] The researchers hope that as our understanding of these processes advances, new treatment options beyond the current mainstream use of drugs can be introduced for patients with schizophrenia.

• #16 Impaired motor-to-sensory transformation mediates auditory hallucinations | PLOS Biology

  https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002836

  Impaired motor-to-sensory transformation mediates auditory hallucinations. Distinguishing reality from hallucinations requires efficient monitoring of agency. It has been hypothesized that a copy of motor signals, termed efference copy (EC) or corollary discharge (CD), suppresses sensory responses to yield a sense of agency; impairment of the inhibitory function leads to hallucinations. […] We hypothesize that selective impairments in functionally distinct signals of CD and EC during motor-to-sensory transformation cause the positive symptoms of hallucinations. […] Impairment of the inhibitory functions in motor-to-sensory transformation may result in self-monitoring malfunction and lead to auditory hallucinations. […] The symptoms of AVHs are mediated by the impaired source monitoring function of CD that results in the absence of inhibition of auditory responses in the general speech preparation, as well as the imprecise activation function of EC that results in the varied enhancement and sensitization of auditory cortex during specific speech preparation. […] The combination of impairments on distinct functions between motor and sensory systems mediate the positive symptoms of auditory hallucination, which is consistent with the hypothesis of motor-to-sensory transformation as an origin of hallucinations.

• #17 The 'voices’ that people with schizophrenia hear could be echoes of their own vocalizations | Popular Science

  https://www.popsci.com/health/schizophrenia-voices-source/

  Auditory hallucinations could be caused by the brain struggling to correctly attribute sources of stimuli. […] At least 70% of people with schizophrenia experience hallucinations like hearing voices, and new research advances the theory that those voices are echoes of a persons own speech. […] They describe their findings in a new paper published October 3 in the journal PLoS Biology. […] The key point here is that it appears this system does not work correctly when people with schizophrenia hear themselves speak. In other words, Tian says, [People with schizophrenia] cannot suppress their echo of their own voices. […] A suppressive function cannot really provide the foundation of a positive symptom, Tian agrees. […] Tian explains that the former inhibit[s] neural responses to self induced sensory feedback telling the senses to suppress some of their responses to an action.

• #18 The 'voices’ that people with schizophrenia hear could be echoes of their own vocalizations | Popular Science

  https://www.popsci.com/health/schizophrenia-voices-source/

  In people with schizophrenia, neither signal appears to work properly. […] The result is a sort of feedback loop: in someone with schizophrenia, the brain is less able to distinguish between the persons own voice and that of others, and also prone to accidentally treating the latter as the former. […] The positive symptoms of audiovisual hallucinations are an emergent property of a broken CD misattributing the inducing sources of auditory neural representations that are activated by a noisy EC without external stimulations. […] Tian suggests that this research may go some way to explaining why auditory hallucinations are more prevalent in people with schizophrenia than other forms of hallucination. […] There is a tight relation between the action and its consequence in the auditory domain, he explains, [more so] than that in the visual domain. […] Our findings indicate that the motor and auditory systems are likely working together, he says, so targeting these nodes in the networkfor example, using non-invasive neural modulation methodscould [provide] potential treatments and intervention strategies for alleviating auditory hallucinations.

• #19 Evidence for a Primary Prior Deficit as a Mechanism of Auditory Hallucinations | Journal of Neuroscience

  https://www.jneurosci.org/content/43/50/8579

  Schizophrenia is a severe mental illness characterized by hallucinations and other perceptual distortions. These symptoms are most common in the auditory domain, with 75% of patients with schizophrenia experiencing auditory hallucinations. […] One possible cause of hallucinations is overreliance on prior beliefs. Indeed, it has become increasingly clear that perception, far from being a passive reception of sensory information, is a complex process influenced by our expectations, which can be formally described as Bayesian inference. […] If prior expectations are more precise (less uncertain) than the sensory evidence, they will dominate the inference process and exert an excessive influence on perception. […] In extreme cases, this may lead to the emergence of perceptions driven by prior expectations, even in the absence of corresponding external stimuli, that is, hallucinations.

• #20 Evidence for a Primary Prior Deficit as a Mechanism of Auditory Hallucinations | Journal of Neuroscience

  https://www.jneurosci.org/content/43/50/8579

  Overreliance on prior expectations can arise from uncertain sensory evidence, overly precise priors, or a combination of both. […] This suggests that increased sensory noise underlies hallucinations. However, more recent evidence points to a different explanation implicating unusually precise prior expectations. […] It has been argued that such an overreliance on priors may arise as a secondary response to an unusually noisy sensory system, providing an explanation for strong prior accounts within the context of established deficits in early sensory processing. […] Together, the findings from Duhamel et al. (2023) support a primary deficit in the representation of prior variance as a mechanism driving overreliance on priors in hallucination-prone individuals. […] At the neural level, an overreliance on prior expectations may involve excessive dopamine function in the striatum.

• #21 Evidence for a Primary Prior Deficit as a Mechanism of Auditory Hallucinations | Journal of Neuroscience

  https://www.jneurosci.org/content/43/50/8579

  This increases the reliance on, and importance of, prior expectations in auditory perception, perhaps resulting in highly tuned speech priors. […] The mechanism proposed by Duhamel et al. (2023) differs from previous explanations of strong priors put forth in the context of schizophrenia. […] This finding is an important step toward refining existing accounts of auditory hallucinations, and suggests that at least two distinct mechanisms may underlie prior overreliance.

• #22 Mechanisms Underlying Auditory Hallucinations—Understanding Perception without Stimulus

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4061847/

  Connectivity data show brain changes occur premorbidly in subclinical populations with AVH, in those at high risk who do not develop psychotic illnesses and in those who will develop schizophrenia. […] Overall these studies suggest a common theme of fronto-temporal dysconnectivity, which is the most consistently replicated finding in fcMRI work, and fits with AVH neurocognitive models, involving as it does key language production and comprehension centres.

• #23 Mechanisms Underlying Auditory Hallucinations—Understanding Perception without Stimulus

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/3/2/642

  Connectivity data show brain changes occur premorbidly in subclinical populations with AVH, in those at high risk who do not develop psychotic illnesses and in those who will develop schizophrenia. […] Longitudinal data on AVH are sparse, particularly in non-psychotic populations, and whilst “positive” symptoms of psychosis such as AVH tend to reduce with time, there is evidence of a significant persisting burden later in life for many.

• #24

  https://journals.lww.com/co-psychiatry/fulltext/2020/05000/deafferentation_as_a_cause_of_hallucinations.5.aspx

  The association between hallucinations and sensory loss, especially vision- and hearing-impairment, has been firmly established over the past years. The deafferentation theory, a decrease of the threshold for activation in the brain and the consequential imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory brain networks, is hypothesized to underly this relationship. […] A large cross-sectional study has recently confirmed the relationship between auditory impairment and deafferentation. However, the underlying mechanisms of deafferentation are still under debate, with hyperexcitability and deviations in bottom-up and top-down processes being the most likely explanations. […] Studies imply activity in higher order areas, corresponding to the functional mapping of sensory system, and a general state of higher excitability as neurobiological explanation.

• #25

  https://journals.lww.com/co-psychiatry/fulltext/2020/05000/deafferentation_as_a_cause_of_hallucinations.5.aspx

  Although a link between sensory impairment and hallucinations has been established, the underlying mechanisms are still under debate. […] The brain is assumed to react to the decreased input from sensory organs and the resulting deafferentation in a maladaptive way, by lowering the threshold for activation to restore homeostasis. […] However, this compensation mechanism might make the neural networks unstable, leading to changes in cortical excitability and causing either abnormal excitatory activity or interference with inhibitory networks of the sensory system. […] Because of this instability, networks connecting the primary sensory cortices to other cortical areas exhibit hyperexcitability. […] Similar mechanisms of imbalances of top-down and bottom-up processing are described in auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia.

• #26 Auditory Hallucinations: Causes, Symptoms, Types & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/23233-auditory-hallucinations

  Schizophrenia is characterized by: Psychosis (disconnection from reality). […] Auditory hallucinations occur in 16% of adults with hearing impairment, which can take two forms: simple hallucinations (tinnitus) and complex hallucinations (speech and music). […] Several neurological conditions can cause auditory hallucinations, including: Sleep disorders, such as narcolepsy and insomnia. […] The treatment for auditory hallucinations depends on the cause. […] Healthcare providers only prescribe medication to manage auditory hallucinations if theyre part of an underlying chronic condition. […] For people with mental health conditions who experience auditory hallucinations, psychotherapy (talk therapy) can help in conjunction with medication. […] If you experience auditory verbal hallucinations (hearing voices) due to a mental health or neurological condition, its important to talk to your healthcare provider about them.

• #27 Auditory hallucinations in adults with hearing impairment: a large prevalence study | Psychological Medicine | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/auditory-hallucinations-in-adults-with-hearing-impairment-a-large-prevalence-study/36CABDC0AE1FF750CF07C9C63C50E2E0

  Similar to visual hallucinations in visually impaired patients, auditory hallucinations are often suggested to occur in adults with hearing impairment. […] Our findings reveal that auditory hallucinations are common among patients with hearing impairment, and increase with impairment severity. […] Auditory hallucinations mostly consisted of voices (51%), music (36%), and doorbells or telephones (24%). […] Although more research on potential confounding factors is necessary, clinicians should be aware of this phenomenon, by inquiring after hallucinations in hearing-impaired patients and, conversely, assessing hearing impairment in patients with auditory hallucinations, since it may be a treatable factor.

• #28 British Journal of Nursing – Mental health: working with people who hear voices

  https://www.britishjournalofnursing.com/content/clinical/mental-health-working-with-people-who-hear-voices/

  Hearing voices can be described as the experience of hearing one or more voices in the absence of anyone in the immediate physical environment to whom the voice belongs (Hayward and May, 2007; Chadwick and Hemingway, 2017). […] Often referred to as auditory hallucinations, hearing voices is traditionally associated with diagnoses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder or affective psychoses (Chadwick et al, 1996). […] However, it is important to note that voice hearing itself is not an illness (Kingdon and Turkington 1994). […] Traditionally, based on a biomedical model of disease, such experiences have been understood as symptoms of psychiatric illness requiring treatment (Payne et al, 2017). […] However, a variety of frameworks have been used to describe voice-hearing experiences, with a growing interest in psychological explanations (Hayward and May, 2007). […] Traumatic life experiences, for example bereavement or sexual abuse, have been identified as triggers to voice hearing experiences, particularly in children.

• #29 Reconceptualizing Psychosis: The Hearing Voices Movement and Social Approaches to Health – Health and Human Rights Journal

  https://www.hhrjournal.org/2020/06/18/reconceptualizing-psychosis-the-hearing-voices-movement-and-social-approaches-to-health/

  The diverse phenomena gathered under the diagnostic umbrella of “psychosis” are often perceived as uniquely biological. […] Understanding experiences like hearing voices as part of a spectrum of human reactions to our environment remains a frontier within the mental health field. […] The HVM searches for the underlying meaning of experiences such as hearing voices or seeing visions. […] Stressors such as poverty, loss, and abuse are cited as potential loci around which voices might take root, and voices are assumed to be personally (and perhaps socially) significant experiences that are richly informed by and embedded in the external world, and can thus provide a valuable window of insight. […] Mechanisms implicated in the relationship between adversity and psychosis are varied and include heightened stress reactivity, negative belief systems about the self and the world, a tendency to perceive events as externally controlled, and the learned anticipation of threat.

• #30 Reconceptualizing Psychosis: The Hearing Voices Movement and Social Approaches to Health – Health and Human Rights Journal

  https://www.hhrjournal.org/2020/06/18/reconceptualizing-psychosis-the-hearing-voices-movement-and-social-approaches-to-health/

  Other authors suggest that psychotic symptoms may represent traumatic intrusions, akin to flashbacks and other “re-experiencing” symptoms in PTSD, or result from the misattribution of trauma-related affects and memories. […] This perspective is bolstered by subsequent reviews finding evidence of a connection between dissociation and voice hearing across a range of diagnoses. […] Integrative theories that draw together dissociation and psychosis as post-traumatic attempts to manage overwhelming or confusing memories, sensations, and affects have therefore achieved some prominence. […] Participants in “hearing voices groups” are encouraged to engage their voices (among other techniques—there is, by definition, no singular prescribed method) as disowned parts of the self that contain difficult emotions, embody core beliefs about the self and the world, or represent the phantoms of past survival strategies.

• #31 Auditory hallucinations, not necessarily a hallmark of psychotic disorder | Psychological Medicine | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/auditory-hallucinations-not-necessarily-a-hallmark-of-psychotic-disorder/FA5721C751DEE83F9A43C89AE6302429

  Auditory hallucinations (AH) are often considered a sign of a psychotic disorder. […] Many people who seek treatment for persistent AH have no other psychotic symptoms, have preserved reality-testing capacities, and will never develop a schizophrenia spectrum disorder. […] Instead, hallucinations may be the result of many different causes, including borderline personality disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), hearing loss, sleep disorders or brain lesions, and they may even occur outside the context of any demonstrable pathology. […] Given that persistent AH are not always associated with a loss of contact with reality, lack of insight, or compromised dopaminergic transmission, it is questionable whether these types of AH should be treated with antipsychotic medication. […] In this paper, we argue for a clearer distinction between AH as part of a psychotic disorder and those experienced in a different context, as the former may be an indication for antipsychotic drugs, while the latter may benefit from an alternative therapeutic approach.

• #32 Auditory hallucinations: Causes, types, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/auditory-hallucinations

  Auditory hallucinations involve hearing sounds that have no source or observable cause. It is common in several conditions. […] While this symptom occurs fairly often in people with schizophrenia, it can also occur in a range of other psychiatric conditions, such as depression. It may also stem from nonpsychiatric conditions, such as seizures. […] Auditory hallucinations have strong links to schizophrenia and related psychotic conditions, and 75% of people with these conditions experience them. The particular kind of auditory hallucinations they have is mostly verbal, meaning they involve voices. […] Research from 2017 notes that auditory hallucinations may also occur with alcohol or drug misuse. […] Treating and managing auditory hallucinations vary according to the underlying condition.

• #33 Hallucination – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucination

  A hallucination is a perception in the absence of an external stimulus that has the compelling sense of reality. […] Hallucinations can occur in any sensory modality: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, proprioceptive, equilibrioceptive, nociceptive, thermoceptive, and chronoceptive. […] Auditory hallucinations are very common in schizophrenia. […] In schizophrenia, voices are normally perceived coming from outside the person, but in dissociative disorders they are perceived as originating from within the person. […] One proposed model of hallucinations posits that over-activity in sensory regions, which is normally attributed to internal sources via feedforward networks to the inferior frontal gyrus, is interpreted as originating externally due to abnormal connectivity or functionality of the feedforward network. […] Hallucinations are associated with structural and functional abnormalities in primary and secondary sensory cortices. […] Abnormal assignment of salience to stimuli may be one mechanism of hallucinations.

• #34 Clinical Features of Auditory Hallucinations in Patients With Dementia With Lewy Bodies: A Soundtrack of Visual Hallucinations

  https://www.psychiatrist.com/jcp/auditory-hallucinations-in-dementia-with-lewy-bodies/

  Auditory hallucinations are an important symptom for diagnosing dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), yet they have received less attention than visual hallucinations. […] We investigated the clinical features of auditory hallucinations and the possible mechanisms by which they arise in patients with DLB. […] Auditory hallucinations are common neuropsychiatric symptoms in DLB and usually appear as a background soundtrack accompanying visual hallucinations. […] Auditory hallucinations in patients with DLB are more likely to occur in women and those with impaired hearing, depression, delusions, or visual hallucinations. […] The presence of auditory hallucinations was significantly associated with female sex (P = .04) and hearing impairment (P = .004). […] The analysis also revealed independent correlations between the presence of auditory hallucinations and visual hallucinations (P .001), phantom boarder delusions (P = .001), and depression (P = .038).

• #35 Clinical Features of Auditory Hallucinations in Patients With Dementia With Lewy Bodies: A Soundtrack of Visual Hallucinations

  https://www.psychiatrist.com/jcp/auditory-hallucinations-in-dementia-with-lewy-bodies/

  The contents of auditory hallucinations consisted mostly of human voices and usually accompany patients’ visual hallucinations, similar to a soundtrack. […] The biological mechanism of auditory hallucinations in DLB is unknown. […] Given that auditory hallucinations were common symptoms and were strongly associated with other neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with DLB in our study, more phenomenological and pathophysiologic studies should focus on auditory hallucinations in DLB.

• #36 Hallucinations: Definition, Causes, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/23350-hallucinations

  Neurological conditions that may cause hallucinations include: Parkinsons disease, Alzheimers disease, Lewy body dementia, epilepsy, and narcolepsy. […] Hallucinations caused by temporary conditions, such as high fever, severe dehydration or infection, will resolve once the underlying condition has been treated. […] Certain medications and therapies may help treat hallucinations in people with chronic conditions that cause them, including typical and atypical antipsychotic medications, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, and acetylcholinesterase inhibitors.

• #37 Auditory hallucinations due to central nervous system lesions | MedLink Neurology

  https://www.medlink.com/articles/auditory-hallucinations-due-to-central-nervous-system-lesions

  Auditory hallucinations associated with lesions of the central nervous system may be simple (as with subjective tinnitus) or complex (voices or music). […] Auditory hallucinations associated with lesions of the central nervous system may result from irritative or release processes. Those resulting from irritative processes (usually seizures) are typically brief (seconds or minutes), whereas those resulting from release mechanisms are typically prolonged (days to months). […] Auditory hallucinations associated with damage to brainstem structures involved in the central auditory pathways arise from release mechanisms and, consequently, tend to be prolonged and occur in association with central auditory processing disorders, including central hearing loss and impaired sound localization. […] Auditory hallucinations due to central nervous system lesions can result from lesions at any level of the central auditory pathways, including those in the pons and mesencephalon.

• #38 Auditory hallucinations due to central nervous system lesions | MedLink Neurology

  https://www.medlink.com/articles/auditory-hallucinations-due-to-central-nervous-system-lesions

  At a cerebrocortical level, auditory hallucinations can arise from an irritative process (eg, seizures), whereas more proximal lesions can interrupt ascending pathways and release spontaneous activity within cerebrocortical circuits, which is perceived as sound. […] Postlesional auditory (release) hallucinations can result from lesions anywhere along the auditory pathway from the cochlea to the auditory cortex, including the brainstem, akin to Bonnet hallucinations with visual loss. […] Persistent hallucinations over a period of weeks or months, with varied content, in association with hearing loss and in the absence of alcohol withdrawal, a thought disorder, alteration of consciousness, other positive motor or sensory phenomena, or epileptiform discharges on electroencephalography all support a release mechanism for such hallucinations.

• #39 Musical Hallucinations Associated With Adverse Childhood Events

  https://www.psychiatrist.com/pcc/musical-hallucinations-associated-with-adverse-childhood-events/

  Musical hallucinations are a rare nonverbal, complex subtype of auditory hallucinations, also known as Oliver Sacks syndrome and auditory Charles Bonnet syndrome. The pathophysiologic mechanism of musical hallucinations is not clearly understood but may include otologic, neurologic, psychiatric, and iatrogenic causes. […] Musical hallucinations are likely due to a complex interplay between central neurocircuitry, peripheral auditory structures and neurotransmitters, connecting auditory cortices, memory, and emotional processing. The pathophysiologic mechanism is not clearly understood. Multiple neurotransmitters including -aminobutyric acid, glutamate, acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine, opioid peptides, calcitonin, and substance P in auditory pathways have been implicated. […] Management should include a multidisciplinary assessment to identify underlying causes, followed by appropriate interventions. There is no definitive treatment for musical hallucinations. Interventions are aimed at treating the known underlying cause or withholding an offending agent. Nonpharmacologic treatment includes lifestyle advice, reassurance, and explanation of the nature of musical hallucinations, optimization of hearing, and behavioral modifications such as distraction techniques.

• #40 How common are hallucinations, and what are the underlying mechanisms?

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/hallucinations-what-explains-these-tricks-of-the-mind

  Hallucinations are sensory perceptions that appear in the absence of stimuli. […] Hallucinations are also associated with the use of mind-altering drugs, including LSD and DMT. […] A study that appeared in the British Journal of Psychiatry in 2017 suggests that hallucinations are far more common among people without psychotic disorders than scientists had previously thought. […] Dr. Kelleher and DeVylder found that visual and auditory hallucinations were almost equally prevalent among participants with borderline personality disorder and those with a nonpsychotic mental illness. […] According to the authors, this may be the effect of an error or short-circuit in processing internal speech and differentiating it from speaking out loud. […] The efference copy dampens the brains response to self-generated vocalizations, giving less mental resources to these sounds because they are so predictable, explains first author Prof. Thomas Whitford.

• #41 A key brain difference between voice-hearing patients and voice-hearing healthy controls challenges the “continuum model” | BPS

  https://www.bps.org.uk/research-digest/key-brain-difference-between-voice-hearing-patients-and-voice-hearing-healthy

  Hearing voices that don’t exist in the outside world is the most common form of hallucination experienced by people with a diagnosis of schizophrenia or related conditions and it can be very distressing. […] However, a new open-access paper in Schizophrenia Bulletin challenges the continuum model, finding an important brain difference between patients who hear voices and voice-hearing healthy controls. […] Garrison and her colleagues wanted to test the idea that a problem with reality monitoring contributes to the voice-hearing experience in patients with schizophrenia, but not in healthy people who hear voices. […] As they predicted, the researchers found that their patient volunteers had a shorter PCS than the healthy non-voice-hearing controls, and a shorter PCS than the voice-hearing healthy controls.

• #42 A key brain difference between voice-hearing patients and voice-hearing healthy controls challenges the “continuum model” | BPS

  https://www.bps.org.uk/research-digest/key-brain-difference-between-voice-hearing-patients-and-voice-hearing-healthy

  Garrison’s team believe this result is consistent with there being two routes to auditory hallucinations. […] For patients with schizophrenia, by contrast, they believe there is a sensory component combined with a problem with reality monitoring. […] „These findings, together with our previous work, corroborate a model in which part of the mechanism underlying hallucinations is shared between clinical and nonclinical individuals with hallucinations,” the researchers said, „while a second mechanism, compromising [in]adequate reality monitoring, is present in patients only.” […] This two-route model could explain some of the differences in the voice-hearing experience reported by patients and healthy voice-hearers, such as the lower frequency and shorter duration of the experience in the latter group.

• #43 A key brain difference between voice-hearing patients and voice-hearing healthy controls challenges the “continuum model” | BPS

  https://www.bps.org.uk/research-digest/key-brain-difference-between-voice-hearing-patients-and-voice-hearing-healthy

  For patients, by contrast, hyper-activation of sensory areas may not need to be so intense, and they may not have the necessary reality monitoring capabilities to inhibit or make sense of their hallucinations consequently their voice hearing is more frequent and long-lasting. […] The new findings also chime with past research that has suggested important differences between clinical and non-clinical voice hearers at a neurobiological level. […] However, it’s important to note that the new findings and the two-route model cannot account for some of the differences in the experiences of patients who hear voices and healthy people who hear voices, such as the more negative (angry, upsetting and controlling) content in the hallucinations reported by patients.

• #44 How robots make people hear voices

  https://www.snf.ch/en/TT4Y8OOLU2tLtKJo/news/how-robots-make-people-hear-voices

  Researchers have developed a method for triggering auditory hallucinations in healthy people. […] More than seventy per cent of people with schizophrenia hear voices, SNSF-funded neuroscientist Pavo Orepic tells us. […] Elucidating the mechanisms behind auditory hallucinations could lead to the development of specifically acting treatments. […] We still have no idea what happens in the brain when people have auditory hallucinations, Orepic tells us. […] According to the second theory, incorrectly perceiving a presence in this way can lead to hallucinations. […] The result shows that the two theories on how hallucinations occur are not mutually exclusive but might mesh with each other instead, Orepic says. […] Our study confirms that the mechanisms behind the hallucinations are actually in everyone’s brain, Orepic says.

• #45 How robots make people hear voices

  https://www.snf.ch/en/TT4Y8OOLU2tLtKJo/news/how-robots-make-people-hear-voices

  Orepic believes that the threshold between harmless and pathological hallucinations is fluid anyway: one criterion could be whether hearing voices impacts people’s lives negatively, making them self-harm, for example, or preventing them from leading autonomous lives. […] Orepic hopes that his research will ultimately help remove the stigma from people who hear voices.

• #46 Voluntary control of auditory hallucinations: phenomenology to therapeutic implications | Schizophrenia

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41537-020-0106-8

  Auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH) have traditionally been thought to be outside the influence of conscious control. […] Evidence suggests that this ability may be a key factor in determining health status, but little systematic examination of control in AVH has been carried out. […] Only recently have many researchers begun to recognize the possibility that phenomenologically rich, real-seeming auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH) can, in some cases, be voluntarily controlled. […] Non-treatment-seeking voice-hearing populations also consistently endorse a higher degree of control over their experiences than their treatment-seeking counterparts. […] Perhaps most strikingly, some individuals in non-treatment-seeking groups report an ability to control the onset and offset of their voices, which may make the experience of living with these voices significantly less disruptive and distressing.

• #47 Voluntary control of auditory hallucinations: phenomenology to therapeutic implications | Schizophrenia

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41537-020-0106-8

  Although control over AVH has been reported repeatedly in the literature, there has been little in-depth examination of its meaning, its development, or its cognitive, computational, and neural bases. […] Control of AVH may be defined as an ability to voluntarily influence one’s voice-hearing experience. […] The ability of some voice hearers to exercise indirect control by using cognitive strategies to manipulate the impact of voice hearing has served as the basis for cognitive-behavioral approaches to psychosis for several decades. […] Regardless of type, degree of perceived control over the voice-hearing experience appears to be critical for the level of distress or dysfunction experienced by the voice hearer. […] There have been several qualitative and quantitative studies directly comparing the experience of treatment-seeking and non-treatment-seeking populations with AVH in which control emerges as a distinguishing feature.

• #48 Voluntary control of auditory hallucinations: phenomenology to therapeutic implications | Schizophrenia

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41537-020-0106-8

  The degree to which one feels one has control over one’s life in general may play a role in the amount of control one experiences in regard to AVH. […] Engagement, a willingness to interact with voices rather than attempting to ignore them or block them out, may be predictive of control over AVH. […] The impact of voices on one’s sense of control, as well as overall functioning, may be influenced by voice hearers’ beliefs about these voices and the amount of power that they may exert. […] If voice hearers can exert some degree of control over their experiences with AVH, how might this work in the context of what we understand to be the potential cognitive, computational, and neural mechanisms underlying AVH? […] Many extant approaches to treatment of hallucinations may enhance indirect control.

• #49 Auditory Hallucinations in Schizophrenia – Psychiatry Advisor

  https://www.psychiatryadvisor.com/features/auditory-hallucinations-in-schizophrenia-dysfunction/

  Transcranial direct current stimulation is another approach for treating auditory hallucinations in patients who are refractory to treatment with antipsychotics. […] According to Dr Kantrowitz, There is some reasonably convincing evidence that transcranial direct current stimulation + antipsychotics is more effective than antipsychotics alone, but further studies are needed. […] As new research throws more light on the neuronal basis of auditory hallucinations and different pharmacological and psychological approaches are designed to treat auditory hallucinations, it is important to understand the individual differences of those with schizophrenia and plan treatment accordingly. […] Patients who are distressed by hearing voices often have a complex range of needs and mental health problems that require a biopsychosocial approach to care and treatment, explains Dr Hayward.

• #50 Auditory hallucinations: Causes, types, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/auditory-hallucinations

  If auditory hallucinations have associations with psychosis, treatment involves an antipsychotic medication. This treatment should alleviate the hallucinations within 1 week. […] The antipsychotic medication clozapine (Clozaril) is the most effective option for treating symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucinations. […] Researchers recommend treating any underlying cause of auditory hallucinations. […] A 2018 case study states that not everyone with auditory verbal hallucinations responds to drug treatment. Limited options are available for these people, but one is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which teaches someone to change how they experience the hallucinations. […] Health experts advise seeking medical help for any hallucinations. […] A person with auditory hallucinations hears voices, sounds, cries, or music that do not come from an external source. The kind involving voices is common in schizophrenia. However, auditory hallucinations may also stem from various other psychiatric and nonpsychiatric conditions. […] Treatment for auditory hallucinations depends on the cause.

• #51 Auditory Hallucinations in Schizophrenia – Psychiatry Advisor

  https://www.psychiatryadvisor.com/features/auditory-hallucinations-in-schizophrenia-dysfunction/

  For most schizophrenia patients, antipsychotics are the treatment of choice and are effective for most patients. […] However, about 30% of patients have treatment-resistant auditory hallucinations, for which the standard of care is to increase the dose of antipsychotics, which he believes may not be so effective. […] Cognitive behavioral approaches, in particular, are widely used, including distraction techniques (listening to music, reading, art) or focusing techniques (rational responding, generating compassion towards the voice, mindfulness). […] When the root cause of auditory hallucinations can be traced to trauma, Dr Hayward opines that for some patients, it can be important to revisit and generate new meanings around these root causes. […] Digital technologies are also facilitating novel approaches to the treatment of auditory hallucinations.

• #52

  https://arsiv.dusunenadamdergisi.org/ing/fArticledetails4ddb.html?MkID=1353

  Successful treatment of auditory hallucinations in a schizophrenia patient with clonidine. Many reports show evidence of the disruption of central noradrenergic activity in the etiology of schizophrenia. A few studies show positive effects of a specific α2-agonist, clonidine, on cognition and on positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. This is the first case report showing the efficacy of clonidine monotherapy on auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. However, the mechanism of action of clonidine remains hypothetical. There is evidence in the literature suggesting that a central mechanism in the etiology of schizophrenia is a dysfunction of noradrenergic activity. Comprehensive evidence demonstrates that selective α2 agonists like clonidine can restore the equilibrium of α1 and α2 activity in the prefrontal cortex by reducing noradrenalin levels through activation of postsynaptic α2A receptors in the prefrontal cortex and presynaptic α2A receptors in the locus coeruleus. In order to study the antipsychotic effects of clonidine, Freedman et al. compared the effects of placebo, clonidine, and standard neuroleptic drugs in 1 schizoaffective and 7 schizophrenic patients, using a double-blind cross-over design, finding the same mean degree of improvement with clonidine and neuroleptics. The effect mechanism of clonidine remains hypothetical. To our knowledge, this is the first case report to show the effectiveness of clonidine monotherapy for auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. […] Informed Consent: Written informed consent was obtained from the patient for the publication of the case report.

• #53 Reconceptualizing Psychosis: The Hearing Voices Movement and Social Approaches to Health – Health and Human Rights Journal

  https://www.hhrjournal.org/2020/06/18/reconceptualizing-psychosis-the-hearing-voices-movement-and-social-approaches-to-health/

  Trauma-focused interventions specifically have shown tentative but promising evidence of their effectiveness. […] In light of the abundance of research linking adversity and psychosis, the difficulty in differentiating between psychotic and post-traumatic or dissociative diagnoses has become a concern. […] The HVM takes a depathologizing approach to those experiences gathered under the term “psychosis,” arguing that phenomena such as voices and visions fall on the spectrum of human diversity and need not be understood through a disease lens.

• #54

  https://journals.lww.com/co-psychiatry/fulltext/2020/05000/deafferentation_as_a_cause_of_hallucinations.5.aspx

  Direct empirical support for the deafferentation theory, however, is sparse, in both the visual and auditory domains. […] The social deafferentation hypothesis, first described by Hoffman, states that social withdrawal can induce complex hallucinations resembling people to make up for the lack of social interaction. […] Increased isolation following sensory impairment can result in feelings of loneliness, depression, and anxiety. […] Many patients and even some healthcare workers are not aware of the link between sensory impairment and hallucinations. […] Even if deafferentation hallucinations are correctly diagnosed, there is still no agreement on the best treatment. […] Treatment for deafferentation hallucinations differs from treatment for hallucinations of a primary psychotic syndrome such as schizophrenia or delirium. […] In two recent large studies, the link between sensory impairment and hallucinations has been firmly established, showing deafferentation to be a relatively common cause of hallucinations in nonpsychotic patients, especially in elderly.

• #55 Auditory hallucinations, not necessarily a hallmark of psychotic disorder | Psychological Medicine | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/auditory-hallucinations-not-necessarily-a-hallmark-of-psychotic-disorder/FA5721C751DEE83F9A43C89AE6302429

  The roots of classification systems in conventional medical models require a diagnosis to rest on the presence and absence of several symptoms to determine whether the criteria for a specific syndrome or disorder may be fulfilled. […] In the sole presence of persistent hallucinations, we argue that the diagnostic criteria for Other Specified Schizophrenia Spectrum And Other Psychotic Disorder is not helpful. […] This may help to improve differential diagnosis, and in differentiating between individuals who may benefit from antipsychotic medication and those who may not.

• #56 Voluntary control of auditory hallucinations: phenomenology to therapeutic implications | Schizophrenia

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41537-020-0106-8

  Some treatment strategies also work on direct control through interaction with voices. […] The ability to exert some degree of control over aspects of one’s auditory hallucinations may be important for long-term outcomes and overall functioning. […] There is also clearly a need for a tool to quantify voice hearers’ abilities across the various domains of control.

• #57 What happens in the brain when people with schizophrenia hear voices

  https://www.statnews.com/2024/10/03/schizophrenia-hallucination-voices-brain-process-research/

  For people with schizophrenia, these expectations are skewed. Passivity experiences, another disease hallmark, lead many people to believe that an external agent is controlling them. This loss of agency lends credence to research showing disrupted motor signals in people with schizophrenia. […] While Tian and his colleagues agree this disruption leaves an opening for these auditory hallucinations to occur, their recent study suggests misfiring signals also add elements in addition to their dysregulated suppression. […] What they found was that every person with schizophrenia displayed broken and noisy motor signals, and that the interplay of these wonky signals fed into each other and led to hallucinations. […] Tian said the teams follow-up experiments with larger sample sizes that further probe these mechanisms have corroborated the findings. He hopes this research will help scientists provide non-pharmacological alternatives to schizophrenia treatment, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation. […] If our theory is right, then using a noninvasive neuromodulation technique can alleviate the hallucinations.

• #58 Exploring the associations between auditory hallucinations and psychopathological experiences in 10,933 patient narratives: moving beyond diagnostic categories and surveys | BMC Psychiatry | Full Text

  https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-023-04780-2

  The current study attempts to identify the strength of association between pairs of psychopathological experiences (with the constant being auditory hallucinations) while identifying their co-occurrence patterns. […] The current study served its purpose of finding out the correlates of auditory hallucinations. […] The next step would be a qualitative study that manually analyses the same dataset, reading through the narratives consisting of the correlations such as pain and traumatic reading them will inform the exact nature of the relationship between them and auditory hallucinations.

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