Materiały źródłowe

• #1

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics although increasing resistance to different types of antibiotics is making treatment more complicated. […] The typhoid conjugate vaccine is recommended for use in children from 6 months of age and in adults up to 45 years or 65 years (depending on the vaccine). […] Access to safe water and adequate sanitation, hygiene among food handlers and typhoid vaccination are all effective in preventing typhoid fever. […] Typhoid conjugate vaccine, consisting of the purified Vi antigen linked to a carrier protein, is given as a single injectable dose in children from 6 months of age and in adults up to 45 years or 65 years (depending on the vaccine). […] Two typhoid conjugate vaccines have been prequalified by WHO since December 2017 and are being introduced into childhood immunization programmes in typhoid endemic countries.

• #1 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Healthcare professionals should know how to diagnose, treat, and prevent typhoid and paratyphoid fever in international travelers. […] Follow safe food and water precautions. […] Typhoid fever is a vaccine-preventable disease. […] Safe food and water precautions and frequent handwashing, especially before meals, are important in preventing both typhoid and paratyphoid fever. […] The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommends typhoid immunization for those 2 years and older traveling to areas with a recognized risk of exposure. […] However, typhoid vaccines are not 100% effective, and a large bacterial inoculum can overwhelm vaccine-induced immunity. […] Therefore, vaccinated travelers should follow recommended food and water precautions to prevent enteric fever and other infections.

• #1 Typhoid fever – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/typhoid-fever/symptoms-causes/syc-20378661

  People can get a vaccination against typhoid fever. This is an option if you live where typhoid fever is common. It is also an option if you plan to travel to a place where the risk is high. […] Where typhoid fever is common, access to treated water helps avoid contact with the Salmonella enterica serotype typhi bacteria. Management of human waste also helps people avoid the bacteria. And careful hand-washing for people who prepare and serve food is also important. […] Two vaccines are available in the United States for people age 2 and older. […] The effectiveness of these vaccines wears off over time. So repeat immunization is needed. […] Because the vaccine won’t provide complete protection, follow these guidelines when traveling to high-risk areas: […] Frequent hand-washing in hot, soapy water is the best way to control infection.

• #1 Consumer & Patient Information | Vivotif® Oral Typhoid Vaccine

  https://vivotif.com/consumer/

  VIVOTIF may help provide protection against typhoid fever for at least 5 years.1 […] Vaccinated individuals should continue to take personal precautions to avoid contact or ingestion of potentially contaminated food or water1. […] It is recommended that a re-immunization dose consisting of 4 vaccine capsules taken on alternate days be given every 5 years under conditions of repeated or continued exposure to typhoid fever1. […] Take precautions even after vaccination because the vaccine does not completely protect against typhoid fever. While traveling, follow good hygiene practices and ensure the food and water you consume is as safe as possible.1 […] Not all recipients of VIVOTIF will be fully protected against typhoid fever. Vaccinated individuals should continue to take personal precautions against exposure to typhoid organisms.

• #1 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/typhoid-fever

  Drinking water should be purified, and sewage should be disposed of effectively. […] Chronic carriers should avoid handling food and should not provide care for patients or young children until they are proved free of the organism; adequate patient isolation precautions should be implemented. Special attention to enteric precautions is important. […] Travelers in endemic areas should avoid ingesting raw leafy vegetables, other foods stored or served at room temperature, and untreated water (including ice cubes). Unless water is known to be safe, it should be boiled or chlorinated before drinking. […] A live-attenuated oral typhoid vaccine is available (Ty21a strain); it is used for travelers to endemic regions and is about 40 to 80% effective. […] The Ty21a typhoid vaccine is given orally every other day for a total of 4 doses, which should be completed 1 week before travel. A booster is required after 5 years for people who remain at risk. […] An alternative is the single-dose, IM Vi capsular polysaccharide typhoid vaccine (ViCPS), given 2 weeks before travel. This vaccine is 50 to 80% effective and is well-tolerated.

• #1 Preventing Typhoid Fever and Paratyphoid Fever | Typhoid Fever | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/typhoid-fever/prevention/index.html

  You can take steps to stay safe when traveling to countries where these diseases are common. […] Before travel: Get vaccinated against typhoid fever. […] During travel: Practice safe eating and drinking habits. […] Two basic steps can help keep you safe. […] Get a typhoid vaccination before your trip. […] Practice safe eating and drinking habits during your trip. […] Vaccination can help prevent typhoid fever. […] Typhoid vaccines lose effectiveness (strength) over time. If you were vaccinated in the past, ask your doctor if you need a booster vaccine. […] Always practice safe eating and drinking habits during travel. […] Typhoid vaccines are not 100% effective. […] Available vaccines do not protect against paratyphoid fever. […] Safe eating and drinking habits also help protect you from other illnesses, including travelers’ diarrhea, cholera, and hepatitis A.

• #1 Preventing Typhoid Fever and Paratyphoid Fever | Typhoid Fever | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/typhoid-fever/prevention/index.html

  Drink bottled water or boil water for at least 1 minute before using it. […] Eat only well-cooked foods that are still hot and steaming. […] Avoid raw vegetables and fruits that can’t be peeled. […] Avoid food and drinks from street vendors unless they are steaming hot. […] Drink pasteurized milk from a sealed bottle.

• #1 Typhoid: Symptoms, treatment, causes, and prevention

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/156859

  The following are some general rules to follow in locations where typhoid is common to help minimize the likelihood of typhoid infection: […] Drink bottled water, preferably carbonated. […] If there is no access to bottled water, boil available water for at least 1 minute before consumption. […] Be wary of eating anything that someone else has handled. […] Avoid eating at street food stands, and only eat food that is still hot. […] Do not have ice in drinks. […] Avoid raw fruit and vegetables, peel fruit yourself, and do not eat the peel.

• #1 Typhoid and paratyphoid | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/typhoid-and-paratyphoid

  Suggestions include: Avoid buying food from street vendors. Eat only hot foods and avoid meals that are served cold or at room temperature. Avoid seafood, particularly shellfish. Do not eat raw fruits or vegetables including fresh fruit juice and salads. Fruit or vegetables that can be peeled and that you peel yourself are usually safe. Avoid raw or runny eggs. Avoid unpasteurised milk and dairy products, including ice-cream. Do not have ice in your drinks. Drink bottled water. Use bottled water to brush your teeth. Wash your hands thoroughly with soap after going to the toilet, before preparing food, and before eating. Carry a bottle of alcohol-based hand sanitiser for those times when soap and clean water are unavailable. Keep your hands away from your face and mouth.

• #1 Typhoid fever – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/typhoid-fever/symptoms-causes/syc-20378661

  Contaminated drinking water is a problem in areas where typhoid fever is common. […] Avoid fruits and vegetables that you can’t peel, especially lettuce. […] Avoid food that’s stored or served at room temperature. […] If you’re recovering from typhoid fever, these measures can help keep others safe: […] This is the single most important thing you can do to keep from spreading the infection to others. […] Avoid preparing food for others until your health care provider says you’re no longer contagious.

• #1 Typhoid Fever: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17730-typhoid-fever

  The best way to reduce your risk of typhoid fever is to get vaccinated if you live in or are traveling to an area where it’s common. There are oral and injectable (shot) versions. Depending on which type you get, you’ll need to get them one to two weeks before you travel. […] You should also take steps to avoid eating or drinking things that could be contaminated with S. Typhi or other bacteria. This is true both at home and when you’re traveling. Safe food handling practices include: […] Don’t make food for others if you’re sick. […] Wash your hands with soap and water before and after preparing food or eating and after going to the bathroom. […] Wash surfaces and utensils used for food prep and eating before and after use. […] If you’re unsure whether the food you’re eating is safe, eat mostly well-cooked or packaged food.

• #1 Prevención de la Fiebre Tifoidea | PortalCLÍNIC

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/assistance/diseases/typhoid-fever/prevention

  To prevent the disease, the following hygiene and dietary measures are recommended: Wash hands with water and a bar of soap. Washing hands before meals. Brushing teeth with bottled water. Drinking bottled water, and also using it for brushing your teeth. Wash the fruit and peel it with a knife. Peeling fruit with clean hands. Avoiding raw, marinated or smoked foods. Not consuming ice in drinks, artisanal dairy products or fresh fruit juices. […] There are two types of vaccines against Salmonella typhi which reduce the probability of catching the disease by up to approximately 80%. One of them is a live attenuated vaccine that is administered orally, and the other is an inactivated vaccine injection. They are recommended for travellers going to endemic or risk zones. It is important to remember that the protection generated by the vaccine does not last in the long term, which means that booster vaccinations are needed every three years if there is continued exposure to the disease.

• #1 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Typhoid-Prevention.aspx

  Wash hands frequently in hot, soapy water before eating or preparing food, as well as after using the toilet. […] Avoid drinking contaminated water by ensuring water is bottled or boiled. […] If a person is recovering from infection with typhoid fever, they can take the following measures to prevent infecting others: Follow the doctors instructions for taking antibiotics and be sure to complete the whole course. […] Avoid preparing food for others until it is confirmed that you are no longer contagious.

• #1 Typhoid and paratyphoid – including symptoms, treatment and prevention | SA Health

  https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/conditions/infectious+diseases/typhoid+and+paratyphoid/typhoid+and+paratyphoid+-+including+symptoms+treatment+and+prevention

  Typhoid and paratyphoid are notifiable conditions1 […] Prevention of typhoid and paratyphoid […] Cases, household contacts and other contacts will be followed up by SA Health’s Communicable Disease Control Branch (CDCB). A contact is any person who has been close enough to an infected person to be at risk of having acquired the infection from that person. […] Exclude people with typhoid or paratyphoid from childcare, preschool, school and work until approval to return has been given by a doctor or the CDCB. This decision will be made depending on the risk of spreading the infection to others. […] Commercial food handlers or those in childcare, health care or other residential care settings cannot return to work until approval has been given by a doctor or the CDCB. […] Some close contacts of a person with the infection may also require exclusion and testing and will be contacted by the CDCB.

• #1 Typhoid and paratyphoid – including symptoms, treatment and prevention | SA Health

  https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/conditions/infectious+diseases/typhoid+and+paratyphoid/typhoid+and+paratyphoid+-+including+symptoms+treatment+and+prevention

  People with typhoid or paratyphoid should not prepare food for others and avoid swimming until their doctor has declared they are free of the disease. […] Infants, children and adults with typhoid or paratyphoid infection should not swim until there has been no diarrhoea for 48 hours. […] Vaccines are available and are recommended for travellers to certain areas. These vaccines are not completely effective, so it is still important to take care with food and drinks. See your doctor or a travel medicine expert before you travel for advice on protecting yourself from typhoid and other diseases. […] When travelling to areas where typhoid and paratyphoid are common, avoid high risk food and drinks. Drink only boiled or treated water (with iodine or chlorine tablets) or bottled drinks, with no ice. These measures will also help protect you against other foodborne illnesses. […] Always wash your hands after using the toilet and before eating, drinking and smoking. […] Antibiotic treatment helps reduce the time a person is infectious.

• #1 Controlling Spread of Typhoid Fever | Health & Human Services

  https://hhs.iowa.gov/center-acute-disease-epidemiology/epi-manual/reportable-diseases/typhoid-fever-1

  Administration of typhoid vaccine is of limited value for family, household and nursing contacts who have been or will be exposed to active cases. Vaccine should be considered for those exposed to carriers of typhoid. […] Proper sanitation of public and private facilities is critical to prevent typhoid fever. Routine sanitation measures should include: […] Education of the public regarding proper handwashing, which includes providing suitable handwashing facilities in public places, especially in food service, child care, or health care settings. […] Always wash their hands thoroughly with soap and water before eating or preparing food, after using the toilet, and after changing diapers. This is important for the entire household of a case as household members can become transient or long term carriers.

• #1 Typhoid vaccine, live (oral route) – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/typhoid-vaccine-live-oral-route/description/drg-20066578

  Typhoid vaccine taken by mouth helps prevent typhoid fever, but does not provide 100% protection. Therefore, it is very important to avoid infected persons and food and water that may be infected, even if you have taken the vaccine. […] To get the best possible protection against typhoid, you should complete the vaccine dosing schedule (all 4 doses of the vaccine) at least 1 week before travel to areas where you may be exposed to typhoid. […] If you will be traveling regularly to parts of the world where typhoid is a problem, you should get a booster (repeat) dose of the vaccine every 5 years. […] It is important that all 4 doses of the vaccine be taken exactly as directed. If all the doses are not taken or if doses are not taken at the correct times, the vaccine may not work properly.

• #1 Typhoid fever primary prevention – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Typhoid_fever_primary_prevention

  Effective measures for the primary prevention of typhoid fever include vaccination, improving personal hygiene and sanitation, […] ensuring proper sewage disposal, avoiding overcrowding, and avoiding close contact or sharing utensils with people already suffering from typhoid. […] Effective measures for the primary prevention of typhoid fever include: […] The following preventive measures help decrease incidence of typhoid in endemic areas: […] Improving personal hygiene and sanitation […] Implementing proper sewage disposal […] Avoiding overcrowding […] Avoiding close contact or sharing utensils with people already suffering from typhoid. […] The following preventive measures help prevent disease in people traveling to endemic areas: […] Avoiding consumption of foods and beverages purchased from street vendors […] Avoiding consumption of raw fruits and vegetables that cannot be peeled […] Avoiding consumption of ice cream […] Eating food which is properly cooked and served hot […] Using hard cooked eggs […] Using pasteurized milk products […] Using boiled or bottled water.

• #1 Global Policy for Typhoid – Take on Typhoid

  https://www.coalitionagainsttyphoid.org/resource-tools/global-policy-for-typhoid-fever/

  Although the global burden of typhoid remains high, it has often been overlooked as a health priority. […] new global policies have been put into place to help countries prioritize effective and efficient typhoid prevention and control. […] it outlines key prevention tools including safe water, food safety, sanitation, and health education, alongside vaccines as elements of a comprehensive prevention approach. […] WHO also recommends prioritizing the introduction of TCV in countries with the highest burden of typhoid and/or a high burden of drug-resistant typhoid. The position paper reemphasizes the importance of an integrated approach to typhoid prevention and control. It recommends using vaccines alongside improvements in water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions. […] Countries may also consider the routine use of the older WHO-recommended vaccines.

• #1 Prevention of Typhoid Fever by Existing Improvements in Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, and the Use of the Vi Polysaccharide Typhoid Vaccine in Poor Urban Slums: Results from a Cluster-Randomized Trial in: The American Journal of Tropical Medici

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/106/4/article-p1149.xml

  Modest improvements in household water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) and typhoid vaccination can reduce typhoid risk in endemic settings. […] A better WASH household was defined based on criteria using the following variables: having a drinking water source from a private tap, well, or pump; always washing hands with soap after defecation; having a private or shared flush toilet; and using filtered or boiled water for daily household use. […] Overall, ViPS vaccination was associated with a 55% reduction of typhoid risk and was similar regardless of better WASH in the residence. […] Living in a better WASH household was associated with a typhoid risk reduction of 31% overall. […] These findings demonstrate a preventive association of better household WASH in the non-ViPS population, but, unexpectedly, an absence of additional protection from ViPS by better WASH in the ViPS population.

• #1

  https://journals.publishing.umich.edu/umurj/article/id/5505/

  Vaccination is at the forefront of efforts attempting to combat XDR-typhoid fever cases in Pakistan. […] Public education systems and schools should prioritize health classes that pertain to the spread of disease, and what steps individuals can take to be safe, as well as social media infographics circulated through Instagram and Facebook with popular hashtags to reach target audiences. […] A robust and forward-thinking approach needs to be taken by the Pakistani government to use its budget and international funding in the sectors of health and education to ensure disease prevention. […] The efficacy of the vaccines is also undoubtedly evident, as the number of cases of typhoid fever in unvaccinated children was over double that in vaccinated children. […] The success of these efforts being championed by the WHO in tandem with the Pakistani government is undoubted, as multidrug-resistant typhoid cases have decreased by two-thirds-fold in Sindh and rates of vaccination in Punjab accelerated.

• #1

  https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-public-health-operational-guidelines/public-health-operational-guidelines-for-typhoid-and-paratyphoid-enteric-fever

  This guidance is to support public health practitioners in England in identifying the sources of typhoid or paratyphoid infection (also known as enteric fever) and reduce the risks of secondary transmission. […] Typhoid and paratyphoid are spread from person to person by the faecal-oral route. Therefore, their prevention and control is dependent on good sanitation, clean water and scrupulous personal hygiene. Emphasis needs to be placed on hand washing and sanitary disposal of faeces, hygienic food preparation and proper arrangements for safe water supplies. […] Typhoid vaccine is indicated for active immunisation against typhoid fever. Two types of typhoid vaccine are available in the UK: a polysaccharide vaccine and an oral, live, attenuated vaccine. […] The typhoid vaccines are recommended for: travellers visiting typhoid-endemic regions whose planned activities put them at higher risk […] Typhoid vaccine is not recommended for household or other contacts of either cases or carriers, or during an outbreak of typhoid fever in the UK.

• #1 Typhoid and paratyphoid fever: symptoms, treatment, prevention – Institut Pasteur

  https://www.pasteur.fr/en/medical-center/disease-sheets/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever

  Prevention is based on epidemiological surveillance and efforts to eliminate fecal contamination. The spread of Salmonella bacteria can be prevented by ensuring widespread availability of clean, bacteriologically safe water, effective wastewater treatment, generalized sewage services, controls in shellfish harvesting areas, pasteurization of food (especially butter and milk) and strict compliance with hygiene regulations for all restaurant industry workers. […] Typhoid vaccines administered by injection (single-dose) or orally (three doses) may be recommended for travelers. The vaccine lasts for approximately three years and provides around 60% protection in endemic areas. Vaccination should however go hand in hand with essential hygiene measures regarding water, food and hand washing.

• #1 Prevention of typhoid fever – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/typhoid-fever/prevention.html

  There is a vaccine that protects against typhoid fever. […] Talk to a health care provider or visit a travel health clinic 6 weeks before you travel. The health care provider may recommend the vaccine depending on where you are travelling. […] You can lower your risk by: […] eating and drinking safely […] washing your hands often […] staying in places with higher standards of cleanliness.

• #1 Typhoid fever | The Australian Immunisation Handbook

  https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccine-preventable-diseases/typhoid-fever

  Vaccination against this disease is not funded under the National Immunisation Program, nor by states and territories. […] Typhoid vaccination is recommended for: military personnel, laboratory workers who routinely work with Salmonella Typhi, travellers aged ≥2 years travelling to typhoid-endemic regions. […] Military personnel are recommended to receive 1 dose of parenteral typhoid vaccine, or 3 or 4 doses of oral typhoid vaccine. […] Laboratory workers who routinely work with Salmonella Typhi are recommended to receive 1 dose of parenteral typhoid vaccine, or 3 or 4 doses of oral typhoid vaccine. […] Children aged ≥2 years and adults travelling to typhoid-endemic regions are recommended to receive either 1 dose of parenteral typhoid vaccine, or 3 or 4 doses of oral typhoid vaccine, depending on their age.

• #1 Typhoid Fever Causes, Symptoms, Treatment and Vaccine

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/typhoid-fever

  Plan for medical care before you travel. The CDC has a web page on getting health care while traveling, which includes a list of recommendations for making a plan before you travel and a list of resources for international travelers. For instance, if you are a U.S. citizen, you can call the local consulate or embassy, and they can help you find doctors in your area.

• #1

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  In October 2017, the Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization (SAGE), which advises WHO on vaccine use, issued a recommendation for the typhoid conjugate vaccine to be added to routine childhood immunization programmes in typhoid endemic countries. […] As at March 2023, WHO has prequalified two conjugate vaccines for the prevention of typhoid. Typhoid conjugate vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than the older typhoid vaccines and can be given as a single dose to children from the age of 6 months.

• #1 Treatment and Prevention of Typhoid Fever: The Threat for Global

  https://www.longdom.org/open-access/treatment-and-prevention-of-typhoid-fever-the-threat-for-global-health-crisis-101302.html

  Typhoid fever requires a multi-faceted approach to prevention. Improving sanitation and hygiene practices, including access to clean water and proper sewage disposal, is crucial in reducing the risk of contamination. […] Promoting handwashing with soap, especially before food preparation and after using the toilet, is essential in minimizing the spread of the bacteria. […] Vaccination against typhoid fever is an effective preventive measure. Two types of vaccines are available: the injectable Vi polysaccharide vaccine and the oral live attenuated Ty21a vaccine. These vaccines provide varying levels of protection and are recommended for travelers to endemic regions or individuals at high risk of exposure. […] Public health interventions, such as surveillance, outbreak response, and health education, play a vital role in preventing and controlling typhoid fever. Timely identification of outbreaks and rapid response measures, including proper sanitation and targeted vaccination campaigns, can help contain the spread of the disease. […] Enhancing sanitation infrastructure, promoting hygiene practices, and implementing vaccination programs are critical steps in reducing the burden of this infectious disease.

• #1 Typhoid Outbreaks, 1989–2018: Implications for Prevention and Control in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 102 Issue 6 (2020)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/102/6/article-p1296.xml

  The few reactive vaccination campaigns reviewed (five with ViPS vaccine and one with TCV), vaccination was reported to be effective, when paired with WASH interventions and education, in curtailing outbreaks. […] The reviewers suggested the following potential indications for vaccination during global typhoid outbreaks: sustained, high-incidence outbreaks; waterborne outbreaks with evidence of multiple point sources of water contamination; outbreaks with drug-resistant Typhi strains; and settings in humanitarian crisis without immediate resources to implement effective water and sewage infrastructure improvements.

• #1 Global Policy for Typhoid – Take on Typhoid

  https://www.coalitionagainsttyphoid.org/resource-tools/global-policy-for-typhoid-fever/

  In December 2018, GACVS reviewed new data on more than 340,000 children and adolescents vaccinated in TCV introduction studies in Bangladesh, India, Malawi, Nepal, and Pakistan. […] Following the SAGE recommendation for TCVs, in November 2017, the Gavi Board approved US$85 million in funding to support TCV introduction in Gavi-eligible countries. […] Pakistan became the first country to introduce TCV into its routine immunization program in November 2019. […] Liberia and Zimbabwe introduced TCV into their routine immunization programs in 2021. […] Nepal introduced TCV into its routine immunization program in 2022. […] Many other countries are in various stages of the decision-making process for TCV introduction.

• #1 Typhoid and paratyphoid fever: a call to action

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6319573/

  The contribution of unsafe drinking water has been recognized as central to the spread of typhoid fever for over 150 years. Access to clean, safe drinking water combined with investment in sanitation and hygiene interventions will be key to reducing the global burden of typhoid fever. […] The sustained high burden of disease, coupled with the emergence of drug-resistant strains of S. Typhi, makes prevention via vaccination a priority in the short-to-medium term. The Ty21a and Vi-polysaccharide vaccines have demonstrated efficacy at 2 years of 58% (95% CI 4071%) and 59% (95% CI 4569%), respectively, but have limited use in the youngest age-group of children due to inconvenience in vaccine administration and poor immunogenicity, respectively. […] TCVs, in which Vi-polysaccharide is covalently linked to carrier proteins, offer several potential advantages over earlier generation typhoid vaccines. The appeal of Vi-conjugate vaccines, relates to their capacity to induce immune responses in infants, enhanced immunogenicity in terms of antibody magnitude, quality and duration, and the potential for boosting of immune responses with revaccination.

• #1 Typhoid and paratyphoid fever: a call to action

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6319573/

  In October 2017, the WHO Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on immunization recommended programmatic use of TCVs in typhoid endemic countries. The recommendations focussed on the use of TCV from the age of 6 months onward, administered as a single dose, and combined with programmatic administration in combination with other childhood vaccines. […] The development and impending roll-out, of cost-effective, scalable TCVs represents a major advance in typhoid control and could have a major impact on the global burden of disease.

• #1 Enteric (typhoid and paratyphoid) fever: Treatment and prevention – UpToDate

  http://www.uptodate.com/contents/treatment-and-prevention-of-typhoid-fever

  PREVENTION […] Food and water safety […] Vaccination […] – In endemic areas […] – In nonendemic areas […] – Licensed vaccines […] – Investigational bivalent vaccine

• #1 Typhoid Outbreaks, 1989–2018: Implications for Prevention and Control in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 102 Issue 6 (2020)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/102/6/article-p1296.xml

  Furthermore, randomized, controlled clinical trials in Vietnam and India have demonstrated that typhoid conjugate vaccines (TCVs) confer durable immunological protection among infants and young children. […] Based on this and other evidence, in 2017, the WHO Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on immunization recommended the routine use of TCVs in children aged 6 months in typhoid-endemic countries and reemphasized the role of vaccination in response to confirmed typhoid fever outbreaks. […] In view of more frequent outbreaks of drug-resistant Typhi, there is an urgent need for optimized typhoid fever control, integrating new vaccination strategies with proven water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), and food safety interventions. […] Although typhoid vaccination is recommended for outbreak control, data that could inform decision-making on the effective use and timing of vaccination campaigns are limited; such data would include typhoid outbreak characteristics (e.g., size, duration, and cost), and the effectiveness of vaccination, WASH, or other interventions alone or in combination.

• #2 Typhoid fever – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid_fever

  Sanitation and hygiene are important to prevent typhoid. It can spread only in environments where human feces can come into contact with food or drinking water. Careful food preparation and washing of hands are crucial to prevent typhoid. […] A typhoid vaccine can prevent about 40–90% of cases during the first two years. The vaccine may have some effect for up to seven years. For those at high risk or people traveling to areas where it is common, vaccination is recommended. Other efforts to prevent it include providing clean drinking water, good sanitation, and handwashing. […] Two typhoid vaccines are licensed for use in the prevention of typhoid: the live, oral Ty21a vaccine and the injectable typhoid polysaccharide vaccine. Both are efficacious and recommended for travelers to areas where typhoid is endemic.

• #2 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Typhoid vaccine is recommended for travelers 2 years and older going to areas where risk for exposure to Typhi is recognized. […] Both vaccines are unconjugated, which means the polysaccharide antigens are not paired with a protein to elicit a strong response from the immune system. […] Because these vaccines protect 50%80% of recipients, remind travelers that typhoid immunization is not 100% effective and take the opportunity to reinforce safe food and water precautions. […] Neither vaccine is licensed to prevent paratyphoid fever, although limited data from efficacy trials suggest that the Ty21a vaccine might provide some cross-protection against Paratyphi B.

• #2 Typhoid vaccine, live (oral route) – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/typhoid-vaccine-live-oral-route/description/drg-20066578

  Typhoid vaccine taken by mouth helps prevent typhoid fever, but does not provide 100% protection. Therefore, it is very important to avoid infected persons and food and water that may be infected, even if you have taken the vaccine. […] To get the best possible protection against typhoid, you should complete the vaccine dosing schedule (all 4 doses of the vaccine) at least 1 week before travel to areas where you may be exposed to typhoid. […] If you will be traveling regularly to parts of the world where typhoid is a problem, you should get a booster (repeat) dose of the vaccine every 5 years. […] It is important that all 4 doses of the vaccine be taken exactly as directed. If all the doses are not taken or if doses are not taken at the correct times, the vaccine may not work properly.

• #2 Typhoid Fever – Infections – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/bacterial-infections-gram-negative-bacteria/typhoid-fever

  To prevent infection, people traveling to areas where typhoid fever is common should be vaccinated and, when there, should avoid certain foods and not drink unbottled water. […] People who travel to areas where typhoid fever is common should avoid eating raw vegetables and other foods served or stored at room temperature. […] People should assume that ice and water (unless it is boiled or chlorinated before use) are unsafe. Sealed bottled water should be used for brushing teeth. […] A typhoid vaccine given by mouth (orally) and a polysaccharide vaccine given by injection into a muscle can help prevent typhoid fever. The oral vaccine is about 40 to 80% effective. It can be given to people 6 years old and older. The injected vaccine is about 50 to 80% effective. It can be given to people 2 years old and older. Both vaccines have few side effects.

• #2

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  In October 2017, the Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization (SAGE), which advises WHO on vaccine use, issued a recommendation for the typhoid conjugate vaccine to be added to routine childhood immunization programmes in typhoid endemic countries. […] As at March 2023, WHO has prequalified two conjugate vaccines for the prevention of typhoid. Typhoid conjugate vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than the older typhoid vaccines and can be given as a single dose to children from the age of 6 months.

• #2 Typhoid vaccines: Canadian Immunization Guide – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/canadian-immunization-guide-part-4-active-vaccines/page-23-typhoid-vaccine.html

  Typhoid immunization is recommended for individuals with ongoing or intimate exposure (for example, family member) to a chronic carrier of S. typhi. […] Periodic booster doses in persons at continued risk of typhoid may be expected to increase antibody titres and to maintain protection. […] For Typh-I vaccine, a booster dose should be administered every 3 years. […] For Typh-O vaccine, a booster of 4 doses should be administered every 7 years. […] Typhoid vaccine is recommended for laboratory personnel regularly working with S. typhi.

• #2 Typhoid: Symptoms, treatment, causes, and prevention

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/156859

  The following are some general rules to follow in locations where typhoid is common to help minimize the likelihood of typhoid infection: […] Drink bottled water, preferably carbonated. […] If there is no access to bottled water, boil available water for at least 1 minute before consumption. […] Be wary of eating anything that someone else has handled. […] Avoid eating at street food stands, and only eat food that is still hot. […] Do not have ice in drinks. […] Avoid raw fruit and vegetables, peel fruit yourself, and do not eat the peel.

• #2

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever vaccination should be offered to travellers to destinations where the risk of typhoid fever is high. […] The following recommendations will help ensure safety while travelling: Ensure food is properly cooked and still hot when served. Avoid raw milk and products made from raw milk. Drink only pasteurized or boiled milk. Avoid ice unless it is made from safe water. When the safety of drinking water is questionable, boil it, or if this is not possible, disinfect it with a reliable, slow-release disinfectant agent (usually available at pharmacies). Wash hands thoroughly and frequently using soap, in particular after contact with pets or farm animals, or after having been to the toilet. Wash fruits and vegetables carefully, particularly if they are eaten raw. If possible, vegetables and fruits should be peeled.

• #2 Typhoid Fever Causes, Symptoms, Treatment and Vaccine

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever prevention […] To avoid getting typhoid fever, you should: […] Wash your hands often with warm soap and water. Do this especially before you make or eat food and after you go to the bathroom. If warm soap and water aren’t available, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer. […] Avoid raw fruits and vegetables. If you do eat them, peel them first or wash them with bottled water. […] Eat packaged or fresh, hot food. These are the safest options when you’re not sure if your food is contaminated. […] Drink only bottled or canned liquids. Use bottled water to brush your teeth. Avoid ice cubes because they may have been made with contaminated water. Also, avoid unpasteurized juice and milk. […] Get vaccinated before you travel. Vaccines are about 50%-80% effective in preventing an S. Typhi infection. Since the vaccine isn’t 100% effective, you should still take care to avoid exposure to the bacteria.

• #2 Typhoid fever – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/typhoid-fever/symptoms-causes/syc-20378661

  Contaminated drinking water is a problem in areas where typhoid fever is common. […] Avoid fruits and vegetables that you can’t peel, especially lettuce. […] Avoid food that’s stored or served at room temperature. […] If you’re recovering from typhoid fever, these measures can help keep others safe: […] This is the single most important thing you can do to keep from spreading the infection to others. […] Avoid preparing food for others until your health care provider says you’re no longer contagious.

• #2 Health: Infectious Disease Epidemiology & Prevention Division: Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever

  https://www.in.gov/health/idepd/diseases-and-conditions-resource-page/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever/

  Typhoid and paratyphoid infections should be treated with supportive therapy, such as hydration. Antibiotics can also be given depending on how sick the person is. […] How can typhoid and paratyphoid fever be prevented? […] Follow food safety guidelines […] Be careful when consuming raw or undercooked seafood […] Consider consuming only fully cooked seafood […] People with diarrhea and/or vomiting should not prepare food or provide health care for others and should limit direct contact with others as much as possible […] Avoid swallowing water when swimming or playing in lakes, ponds, streams, swimming pools, or other bodies of water […] Do not enter bodies of water when you have open cuts (or cover them up fully).

• #2 Prevención de la Fiebre Tifoidea | PortalCLÍNIC

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/assistance/diseases/typhoid-fever/prevention

  To prevent the disease, the following hygiene and dietary measures are recommended: Wash hands with water and a bar of soap. Washing hands before meals. Brushing teeth with bottled water. Drinking bottled water, and also using it for brushing your teeth. Wash the fruit and peel it with a knife. Peeling fruit with clean hands. Avoiding raw, marinated or smoked foods. Not consuming ice in drinks, artisanal dairy products or fresh fruit juices. […] There are two types of vaccines against Salmonella typhi which reduce the probability of catching the disease by up to approximately 80%. One of them is a live attenuated vaccine that is administered orally, and the other is an inactivated vaccine injection. They are recommended for travellers going to endemic or risk zones. It is important to remember that the protection generated by the vaccine does not last in the long term, which means that booster vaccinations are needed every three years if there is continued exposure to the disease.

• #2 What’s New

  https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CID/DCDC/Pages/Typhoidfever.aspx

  Typhoid fever is a serious infectious disease caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi). A person with acute typhoid fever needs medical attention and antibiotic treatment. […] If you plan to travel to an area where typhoid fever is endemic, talk to your health care provider about getting a typhoid fever vaccine. The typhoid fever vaccine is only 50-80 percent effective, however, so it is important to avoid risky food and drinks while traveling, even if you’ve been vaccinated. When traveling to typhoid endemic areas: […] Health care providers are required to report suspected cases of typhoid fever and typhoid carriers to the local health departments (LHDs). The LHDs, in turn, report cases to CDPH. The LHD restricts persons with typhoid fever and typhoid carriers from certain work or activities (such as food preparation and handling, patient, child or elder care) until they have been treated with antibiotics and have been cleared by the LHD.

• #2 Typhoid: Symptoms, Transmission, And Prevention

  https://www.ajhospital.in/news/typhoid-symptoms-transmission-and-prevention

  Typhoid is predominantly transmitted via the faecal-oral route. This means the bacteria spread through ingestion of food or water contaminated with faeces from an infected person. […] Preventing typhoid involves a combination of personal hygiene practices, public health initiatives, and vaccination. […] Vaccination is a highly effective preventive measure, especially for individuals travelling to or living in high-risk areas. […] Access to clean and safe drinking water is essential to prevent typhoid. […] Enhancing sanitation infrastructure can significantly reduce the spread of typhoid. […] Adopting safe food handling practices is crucial to prevent contamination. […] Good personal hygiene can help prevent the spread of typhoid. […] Community engagement in health initiatives is vital for controlling typhoid. […] Vaccination, safe drinking water, improved sanitation, food safety practices, and personal hygiene are key strategies in preventing typhoid fever.

• #2

  https://journals.publishing.umich.edu/umurj/article/id/5505/

  Vaccination is at the forefront of efforts attempting to combat XDR-typhoid fever cases in Pakistan. […] Public education systems and schools should prioritize health classes that pertain to the spread of disease, and what steps individuals can take to be safe, as well as social media infographics circulated through Instagram and Facebook with popular hashtags to reach target audiences. […] A robust and forward-thinking approach needs to be taken by the Pakistani government to use its budget and international funding in the sectors of health and education to ensure disease prevention. […] The efficacy of the vaccines is also undoubtedly evident, as the number of cases of typhoid fever in unvaccinated children was over double that in vaccinated children. […] The success of these efforts being championed by the WHO in tandem with the Pakistani government is undoubted, as multidrug-resistant typhoid cases have decreased by two-thirds-fold in Sindh and rates of vaccination in Punjab accelerated.

• #2

  https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-public-health-operational-guidelines/public-health-operational-guidelines-for-typhoid-and-paratyphoid-enteric-fever

  This guidance is to support public health practitioners in England in identifying the sources of typhoid or paratyphoid infection (also known as enteric fever) and reduce the risks of secondary transmission. […] Typhoid and paratyphoid are spread from person to person by the faecal-oral route. Therefore, their prevention and control is dependent on good sanitation, clean water and scrupulous personal hygiene. Emphasis needs to be placed on hand washing and sanitary disposal of faeces, hygienic food preparation and proper arrangements for safe water supplies. […] Typhoid vaccine is indicated for active immunisation against typhoid fever. Two types of typhoid vaccine are available in the UK: a polysaccharide vaccine and an oral, live, attenuated vaccine. […] The typhoid vaccines are recommended for: travellers visiting typhoid-endemic regions whose planned activities put them at higher risk […] Typhoid vaccine is not recommended for household or other contacts of either cases or carriers, or during an outbreak of typhoid fever in the UK.

• #2 Typhoid Outbreaks, 1989–2018: Implications for Prevention and Control in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 102 Issue 6 (2020)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/102/6/article-p1296.xml

  Furthermore, randomized, controlled clinical trials in Vietnam and India have demonstrated that typhoid conjugate vaccines (TCVs) confer durable immunological protection among infants and young children. […] Based on this and other evidence, in 2017, the WHO Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on immunization recommended the routine use of TCVs in children aged 6 months in typhoid-endemic countries and reemphasized the role of vaccination in response to confirmed typhoid fever outbreaks. […] In view of more frequent outbreaks of drug-resistant Typhi, there is an urgent need for optimized typhoid fever control, integrating new vaccination strategies with proven water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), and food safety interventions. […] Although typhoid vaccination is recommended for outbreak control, data that could inform decision-making on the effective use and timing of vaccination campaigns are limited; such data would include typhoid outbreak characteristics (e.g., size, duration, and cost), and the effectiveness of vaccination, WASH, or other interventions alone or in combination.

• #2 Global Policy for Typhoid – Take on Typhoid

  https://www.coalitionagainsttyphoid.org/resource-tools/global-policy-for-typhoid-fever/

  In December 2018, GACVS reviewed new data on more than 340,000 children and adolescents vaccinated in TCV introduction studies in Bangladesh, India, Malawi, Nepal, and Pakistan. […] Following the SAGE recommendation for TCVs, in November 2017, the Gavi Board approved US$85 million in funding to support TCV introduction in Gavi-eligible countries. […] Pakistan became the first country to introduce TCV into its routine immunization program in November 2019. […] Liberia and Zimbabwe introduced TCV into their routine immunization programs in 2021. […] Nepal introduced TCV into its routine immunization program in 2022. […] Many other countries are in various stages of the decision-making process for TCV introduction.

• #2 Prevention of Typhoid Fever by Existing Improvements in Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, and the Use of the Vi Polysaccharide Typhoid Vaccine in Poor Urban Slums: Results from a Cluster-Randomized Trial

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8991341/

  Modest improvements in household water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) and typhoid vaccination can reduce typhoid risk in endemic settings. […] Several effective typhoid vaccines are now licensed and available, including two that are WHO prequalified: a vaccine consisting of Vi polysaccharide (ViPS) and one that is ViPS conjugated chemically to a tetanus toxoid. […] Recognizing that current recommendations for control of typhoid in low- and middle-income countries emphasize the use of both effective typhoid vaccines and improvement of WASH, we asked whether protection by an effective typhoid vaccine acted independently of protection conferred by better existing WASH, and whether these independent effects were complementary when implemented together in an urban slum where typhoid is endemic.

• #2

  https://journals.publishing.umich.edu/umurj/article/id/5505/

  Basic hygiene practices are emphasized at the individual level, promoting personal responsibility in preventing transmission. […] Collaboration with state governments and hospitals is suggested to disseminate awareness about typhoid and its preventive measures, indicating a more community-oriented approach. […] These recommendations collectively underscore the need for a multifaceted approach, with contributions from various entities, to combat XDR-typhoid effectively and are the first steps toward a longer strategy aimed to combat and reduce the burden of disease spread found in Pakistan. […] A robust and forward-thinking approach needs to be taken by the Pakistani government to use its budget and international funding in the sectors of health and education to ensure disease prevention.

• #2 Treatment and Prevention of Typhoid Fever: The Threat for Global

  https://www.longdom.org/open-access/treatment-and-prevention-of-typhoid-fever-the-threat-for-global-health-crisis-101302.html

  Typhoid fever requires a multi-faceted approach to prevention. Improving sanitation and hygiene practices, including access to clean water and proper sewage disposal, is crucial in reducing the risk of contamination. […] Promoting handwashing with soap, especially before food preparation and after using the toilet, is essential in minimizing the spread of the bacteria. […] Vaccination against typhoid fever is an effective preventive measure. Two types of vaccines are available: the injectable Vi polysaccharide vaccine and the oral live attenuated Ty21a vaccine. These vaccines provide varying levels of protection and are recommended for travelers to endemic regions or individuals at high risk of exposure. […] Public health interventions, such as surveillance, outbreak response, and health education, play a vital role in preventing and controlling typhoid fever. Timely identification of outbreaks and rapid response measures, including proper sanitation and targeted vaccination campaigns, can help contain the spread of the disease. […] Enhancing sanitation infrastructure, promoting hygiene practices, and implementing vaccination programs are critical steps in reducing the burden of this infectious disease.

• #2 5 ways to prevent and control Typhoid fever – CityMed

  https://citymed.co.za/5-ways-to-prevent-and-control-typhoid-fever/

  The measures to prevent and control enteric fever have long been known, and proven to be very effective. They include: […] Water and sanitation infrastructure: safe drinking water and improved sanitation […] Public health measures: correctly diagnosing and treating cases, finding and treating carriers […] Food safety […] Health education: hand washing, food safety practices […] Vaccination: the World Health Organization recommends that countries with very high burdens of disease or high burdens of antibiotic resistant S. Typhi include typhoid vaccination in their vaccination programmes. Typhoid vaccination can also be one of the tools used for controlling outbreaks, along with providing safe water and improved sanitation and other public health measures. […] Preventive measures for the public include:

• #2 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Healthcare professionals should know how to diagnose, treat, and prevent typhoid and paratyphoid fever in international travelers. […] Follow safe food and water precautions. […] Typhoid fever is a vaccine-preventable disease. […] Safe food and water precautions and frequent handwashing, especially before meals, are important in preventing both typhoid and paratyphoid fever. […] The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommends typhoid immunization for those 2 years and older traveling to areas with a recognized risk of exposure. […] However, typhoid vaccines are not 100% effective, and a large bacterial inoculum can overwhelm vaccine-induced immunity. […] Therefore, vaccinated travelers should follow recommended food and water precautions to prevent enteric fever and other infections.

• #2 Typhoid Vaccination for International Travel | Passport Health

  https://www.passporthealthusa.com/vaccinations/typhoid/

  If you plan to visit a region with typhoid, get a typhoid vaccine from your local Passport Health. […] The best form of protection is vaccination. […] While not required, typhoid vaccination is recommended for travel to most countries. Travelers to areas with outbreaks or poor sanitation are at higher risk. […] Vaccination is highly recommended for travel to these regions. […] Travelers should get the typhoid vaccine at least one week before travel. This allows time for the vaccine to work before entering a region with typhoid. […] Typhoid vaccines last between two and five years, depending on the type of vaccine. […] A booster dose is recommended. Those who got the injectable typhoid vaccine need re-vaccination after two years. Individuals who used the oral vaccine would need to be re-vaccinated after five years. […] Passport Health offers typhoid vaccinations throughout the US. Meet with a travel health specialist today to discuss your trip and vaccine options.

• #2 Typhoid fever disease awareness – Bavarian Nordic

  https://loweringtherisk.com/typhoid/

  There are effective vaccines available to protect you against typhoid fever. Prevention is becoming more important as antibiotic resistance is increasing. […] Your typhoid vaccine may be given to you orally in capsule form or as an injection. […] A booster dose is recommended every 5 years for those who remain at risk. […] The injectable vaccine can be given to people at least 2 years old, at least 2 weeks before travel. A dose is recommended every 2 years for those who remain at risk.

• #2 Typhoid Fever and Vivotif® Frequently Asked Questions

  https://vivotif.com/faq/

  You should follow the CDC guidelines for safe eating and drinking overseas, where typhoid fever is common. These precautions include: Eating food that is cooked and served hot, Drinking bottled water, Avoiding ice, Avoiding raw vegetables and fruits that cannot be peeled. […] Not all people will be fully protected from typhoid fever following vaccination. While you travel to areas where typhoid fever is common, you should take care to ensure the food you eat and water you drink are safe. […] VIVOTIF will not protect you from other kinds of Salmonella bacteria besides Salmonella typhi and will not treat typhoid fever if you have been infected. […] It is essential that you take all 4 doses of VIVOTIF, every other day until you complete the series, to ensure that you get the full protective effect of the vaccine.

• #2 Typhoid: Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://ssbhealthcare.com/blog/typhoid-symptoms-treatment-prevention/

  Raising awareness about typhoid is of paramount importance due to its significant impact on public health and the potential for preventable suffering and complications. […] By educating individuals and communities about the risks, transmission methods, and preventive measures, we empower them to protect themselves and their loved ones. […] Improving sanitation and access to clean water is a critical component of typhoid prevention efforts, as it reduces the environmental reservoir of the bacterium. […] Preventing typhoid infection is essential, especially in areas where the disease is endemic or for individuals travelling to high-risk regions. Implementing various preventive measures can significantly reduce the risk of contracting typhoid. […] Vaccination is one of the most effective methods to prevent typhoid infection. Several typhoid vaccines are available, and their use is recommended for individuals at risk of exposure.

• #2 Typhoid: Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://ssbhealthcare.com/blog/typhoid-symptoms-treatment-prevention/

  Practising safe food and water hygiene is crucial to prevent infection. […] Maintaining good personal hygiene is another vital component of typhoid prevention. […] Improving sanitation infrastructure and practices in communities can significantly reduce the transmission of typhoid. […] Raising awareness and providing education about typhoid prevention is essential for community-wide efforts. […] Stay informed about typhoid outbreaks and follow local health advisories and recommendations.

• #2 Global Policy for Typhoid – Take on Typhoid

  https://www.coalitionagainsttyphoid.org/resource-tools/global-policy-for-typhoid-fever/

  Although the global burden of typhoid remains high, it has often been overlooked as a health priority. […] new global policies have been put into place to help countries prioritize effective and efficient typhoid prevention and control. […] it outlines key prevention tools including safe water, food safety, sanitation, and health education, alongside vaccines as elements of a comprehensive prevention approach. […] WHO also recommends prioritizing the introduction of TCV in countries with the highest burden of typhoid and/or a high burden of drug-resistant typhoid. The position paper reemphasizes the importance of an integrated approach to typhoid prevention and control. It recommends using vaccines alongside improvements in water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions. […] Countries may also consider the routine use of the older WHO-recommended vaccines.

• #2 Typhoid Fever (Human) | PreventionWeb

  https://www.preventionweb.net/understanding-disaster-risk/terminology/hips/bi0037

  WHO response for typhoid. In December 2017, the World Health Organization (WHO) pre-qualified the first conjugate vaccine for typhoid. This new vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than older vaccines, requires fewer doses and can be given to children from the age of 6 months. This vaccine will be prioritised for countries with the highest burden of typhoid disease. This will help reduce the frequent use of antibiotics for typhoid treatment, which will slow the rise in antibiotic resistance in Salmonella Typhi.

• #2 Prevention of Typhoid Fever by Existing Improvements in Household Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene, and the Use of the Vi Polysaccharide Typhoid Vaccine in Poor Urban Slums: Results from a Cluster-Randomized Trial

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8991341/

  Living in a better WASH household was associated with a typhoid risk reduction of 31% (P=0.16; 95% CI, 16 to 59) overall. […] These findings demonstrate a preventive association of better household WASH in the non-ViPS population, but, unexpectedly, an absence of additional protection from ViPS by better WASH in the ViPS population. […] Our findings support the concept that better WASH in the household occurring spontaneously without external intervention was associated with a reduced risk of typhoid in the slums participating in the trial. […] However, these improvements failed to reduce further the risk of typhoid in a population that had received an effective typhoid vaccine. […] Our unexpected results underscore the importance of evaluating the combined and independent effects of WASH and effective typhoid vaccines in particular, Vi conjugate vaccines which are now approved and recommended for use in endemic settings.

• #2 Typhoid and paratyphoid fever: a call to action

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6319573/

  In October 2017, the WHO Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on immunization recommended programmatic use of TCVs in typhoid endemic countries. The recommendations focussed on the use of TCV from the age of 6 months onward, administered as a single dose, and combined with programmatic administration in combination with other childhood vaccines. […] The development and impending roll-out, of cost-effective, scalable TCVs represents a major advance in typhoid control and could have a major impact on the global burden of disease.

• #3 Typhoid and paratyphoid fever: a call to action

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6319573/

  The contribution of unsafe drinking water has been recognized as central to the spread of typhoid fever for over 150 years. Access to clean, safe drinking water combined with investment in sanitation and hygiene interventions will be key to reducing the global burden of typhoid fever. […] The sustained high burden of disease, coupled with the emergence of drug-resistant strains of S. Typhi, makes prevention via vaccination a priority in the short-to-medium term. The Ty21a and Vi-polysaccharide vaccines have demonstrated efficacy at 2 years of 58% (95% CI 4071%) and 59% (95% CI 4569%), respectively, but have limited use in the youngest age-group of children due to inconvenience in vaccine administration and poor immunogenicity, respectively. […] TCVs, in which Vi-polysaccharide is covalently linked to carrier proteins, offer several potential advantages over earlier generation typhoid vaccines. The appeal of Vi-conjugate vaccines, relates to their capacity to induce immune responses in infants, enhanced immunogenicity in terms of antibody magnitude, quality and duration, and the potential for boosting of immune responses with revaccination.

• #3 Typhoid: Symptoms, treatment, causes, and prevention

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/156859

  Countries with less access to clean water and washing facilities typically have a higher number of typhoid cases. […] Sometimes, a doctor may treat a person preemptively with antibiotics if they know the person will be in an area where the condition is endemic. Typically, they will prescribe ceftriaxone (Rocephin) or cefixime (Suprax) along with azithromycin. […] Before traveling to a high risk area, a person should receive a vaccine against typhoid fever. […] The typhoid vaccine is available as an oral medication or a one-off injection: […] The typhoid vaccine is only 50-80% effective, so a person should still exercise caution when eating, drinking, and coming into contact with people. […] Even when the symptoms of typhoid have passed, it is still possible to be carrying the bacteria.

• #3 Typhoid fever | The Australian Immunisation Handbook

  https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccine-preventable-diseases/typhoid-fever

  Children aged ≥2 years and adults who received parenteral typhoid vaccine for their 1st vaccination and have ongoing exposure to Salmonella Typhi are recommended to be revaccinated every 3 years with a dose of parenteral typhoid vaccine. […] Children aged ≥6 years and adults who received oral typhoid vaccine for their 1st vaccination and have ongoing exposure to Salmonella Typhi are recommended to be revaccinated with oral typhoid vaccine either: 3 years after a 3-dose course, or 5 years after a 4-dose course. […] Revaccination is recommended for those travelling for a long time or living in an endemic region. […] Advise travellers about the importance of: personal hygiene, food safety, drinking boiled or bottled water only. […] Advise travellers that high-risk foods and drinks include: raw (or undercooked) shellfish, salads, cold meats, untreated water and ice (in drinks).

• #3 Typhoid fever disease awareness – Bavarian Nordic

  https://loweringtherisk.com/typhoid/

  You can get typhoid fever by consuming water or food contaminated by feces of an infected person or carrier due to a lack of proper hand hygiene. […] Increasing resistance to antibiotics is making it easier for typhoid to spread in communities that lack access to safe drinking water or adequate sanitation. […] Urbanization and climate change have the potential to increase the spread of typhoid. […] All travelers to endemic areas are at risk of typhoid fever, but following preventative measures, like getting vaccinated and following other safety measures, significantly reduces the risk. […] Before you travel, consider visiting a travel medicine specialist at least two weeks before you leave to get vaccinated against typhoid fever. […] During your visit, consider following these recommendations to ensure safety: Cook food properly and serve while still hot; Avoid raw milk and raw milk products; Avoid ice unless you are sure it is from safe drinking water; Boil water if you aren’t sure that it’s safe. If that’s not possible, you can disinfect it with a slow-release agent (usually available at pharmacies); Wash hands often and thoroughly with soap; Wash fruits and vegetables carefully if they are eaten raw, or peel them.

• #3 Global Policy for Typhoid – Take on Typhoid

  https://www.coalitionagainsttyphoid.org/resource-tools/global-policy-for-typhoid-fever/

  Although the global burden of typhoid remains high, it has often been overlooked as a health priority. […] new global policies have been put into place to help countries prioritize effective and efficient typhoid prevention and control. […] it outlines key prevention tools including safe water, food safety, sanitation, and health education, alongside vaccines as elements of a comprehensive prevention approach. […] WHO also recommends prioritizing the introduction of TCV in countries with the highest burden of typhoid and/or a high burden of drug-resistant typhoid. The position paper reemphasizes the importance of an integrated approach to typhoid prevention and control. It recommends using vaccines alongside improvements in water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions. […] Countries may also consider the routine use of the older WHO-recommended vaccines.

• #3 Global Policy for Typhoid – Take on Typhoid

  https://www.coalitionagainsttyphoid.org/resource-tools/global-policy-for-typhoid-fever/

  In December 2018, GACVS reviewed new data on more than 340,000 children and adolescents vaccinated in TCV introduction studies in Bangladesh, India, Malawi, Nepal, and Pakistan. […] Following the SAGE recommendation for TCVs, in November 2017, the Gavi Board approved US$85 million in funding to support TCV introduction in Gavi-eligible countries. […] Pakistan became the first country to introduce TCV into its routine immunization program in November 2019. […] Liberia and Zimbabwe introduced TCV into their routine immunization programs in 2021. […] Nepal introduced TCV into its routine immunization program in 2022. […] Many other countries are in various stages of the decision-making process for TCV introduction.

• #3 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Healthcare professionals should know how to diagnose, treat, and prevent typhoid and paratyphoid fever in international travelers. […] Follow safe food and water precautions. […] Typhoid fever is a vaccine-preventable disease. […] Safe food and water precautions and frequent handwashing, especially before meals, are important in preventing both typhoid and paratyphoid fever. […] The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommends typhoid immunization for those 2 years and older traveling to areas with a recognized risk of exposure. […] However, typhoid vaccines are not 100% effective, and a large bacterial inoculum can overwhelm vaccine-induced immunity. […] Therefore, vaccinated travelers should follow recommended food and water precautions to prevent enteric fever and other infections.

• #3

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics although increasing resistance to different types of antibiotics is making treatment more complicated. […] The typhoid conjugate vaccine is recommended for use in children from 6 months of age and in adults up to 45 years or 65 years (depending on the vaccine). […] Access to safe water and adequate sanitation, hygiene among food handlers and typhoid vaccination are all effective in preventing typhoid fever. […] Typhoid conjugate vaccine, consisting of the purified Vi antigen linked to a carrier protein, is given as a single injectable dose in children from 6 months of age and in adults up to 45 years or 65 years (depending on the vaccine). […] Two typhoid conjugate vaccines have been prequalified by WHO since December 2017 and are being introduced into childhood immunization programmes in typhoid endemic countries.

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