Materiały źródłowe

• #1

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  As of 2019, an estimated 9 million people get sick from typhoid and 110 000 people die from it every year. […] Typhoid risk is higher in populations that lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation, and children are at highest risk. […] Improved living conditions and the introduction of antibiotics resulted in a drastic reduction of typhoid fever morbidity and mortality in industrialized countries. However, the disease continues to be a public health problem in many developing areas of the WHO African, Eastern Mediterranean, South-East Asia and Western Pacific Regions. […] As of 2019 estimates, there are 9 million cases of typhoid fever annually, resulting in about 110 000 deaths per year. […] In October 2017, the Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization (SAGE), which advises WHO on vaccine use, issued a recommendation for the typhoid conjugate vaccine to be added to routine childhood immunization programmes in typhoid endemic countries. SAGE also called for the introduction of typhoid conjugate vaccine to be prioritized for countries with the highest burden of typhoid disease or high levels of antibiotic resistance to Salmonella Typhi. […] In addition to decreasing the disease burden in endemic countries and saving lives, widespread use of the typhoid conjugate vaccine in affected countries is expected to reduce the need for antibiotics for typhoid treatment and slow the increase in antibiotic resistance in Salmonella Typhi.

• #2

  https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/vaccine-preventable-diseases-surveillance-standards-typhoid

  Enteric fever (typhoid and paratyphoid fever) is caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi) and Salmonella enterica serovar Paratyphi (S. Paratyphi). […] There are an estimated 1121 million cases of typhoid fever and approximately 128 000161 000 deaths annually, compared to an estimated 6 million cases of paratyphoid fever and 54 000 deaths annually. […] The majority of cases occur in South and South-East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.

• #3 Typhoid Fever Surveillance, Incidence Estimates, and Progress Toward Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine Introduction — Worldwide, 2018–2022

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9949843/

  Typhoid fever, an acute febrile illness caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi), is endemic in many low- and middle-income countries (1). In 2015, an estimated 1121 million typhoid fever cases and 148,000161,000 associated deaths occurred worldwide (2). Effective prevention strategies include improved access to and use of infrastructure supporting safe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH); health education; and vaccination (1). The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends programmatic use of typhoid conjugate vaccines for typhoid fever control and prioritization of vaccine introduction in countries with the highest typhoid fever incidence or high prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant S. Typhi (1). This report describes typhoid fever surveillance, incidence estimates, and the status of typhoid conjugate vaccine introduction during 20182022.

• #4 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  The 2019 Global Burden of Disease Study models rates using existing epidemiological data and case counts from population-based studies. […] The vast majority of enteric fever cases worldwide are due to S Typhi. In 2019, an estimated 9.2 million typhoid fever cases and 110,000 deaths occurred worldwide. […] The 2019 Global Burden of Disease Report identifies 44 countries with a high estimated typhoid burden. […] The highest estimated incidences of enteric fever occur in Southeast Asia, Eastern Mediterranean, and African World Health Organization superregions. […] The US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Global Disease Detection Operation Center reported 7 confirmed outbreaks globally between 2017 and 2022. […] In low- to middle-income countries, antimicrobial resistance patterns often follow the pattern of antibiotic use and the acquisition and spread of mutations.

• #5 Typhoid Fever Surveillance, Incidence Estimates, and Progress Toward Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine Introduction — Worldwide, 2018–2022

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9949843/

  Because routine surveillance for typhoid fever has low sensitivity, population-based studies have guided estimates of case counts and incidence in 10 countries since 2016 (36). In 2019, an updated modeling study estimated that 9.2 million (95% CI = 5.914.1) typhoid fever cases and 110,000 (95% CI = 53,000191,000) deaths occurred worldwide, with the highest estimated incidence in the WHO South-East Asian (306 cases per 100,000 persons), Eastern Mediterranean (187), and African (111) regions (7). Since 2018, five countries (Liberia, Nepal, Pakistan, Samoa [based on self-assessment], and Zimbabwe) with estimated high typhoid fever incidence (100 cases per 100,000 population per year) (8), high antimicrobial resistance prevalence, or recent outbreaks introduced typhoid conjugate vaccines into their routine immunization programs (2). To guide vaccine introduction decisions, countries should consider all available information, including surveillance of laboratory-confirmed cases, population-based and modeling studies, and outbreak reports. Establishing and strengthening typhoid fever surveillance will be important to measure vaccine impact.

• #6 Typhoid Fever: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/231135-overview

  Typhoid fever occurs worldwide, primarily in developing nations whose sanitary conditions are poor. Typhoid fever is endemic in Asia, Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean, and Oceania, but 80% of cases come from Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Nepal, Pakistan, or Vietnam. […] Typhoid fever infects roughly 21.6 million people (incidence of 3.6 per 1,000 population) and kills an estimated 200,000 people every year. […] Since 1900, improved sanitation and successful antibiotic treatment have steadily decreased the incidence of typhoid fever in the United States. In 1920, 35,994 cases of typhoid fever were reported. In 2006, there were 314. […] Between 1999 and 2006, 79% of typhoid fever cases occurred in patients who had been outside of the country within the preceding 30 days. Two thirds of these individuals had just journeyed from the Indian subcontinent.

• #7 Enteric (typhoid and paratyphoid) fever: Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/enteric-typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever-epidemiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis

  Enteric fever is characterized by severe systemic illness with fever and abdominal pain. The epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis of enteric fever will be reviewed here. Worldwide, enteric fever is most prevalent in impoverished areas that are overcrowded with poor access to sanitation. Incidence estimates suggest that south-central Asia, Southeast Asia, and southern Africa are regions with high incidence of S. Typhi infection (more than 100 cases per 100,000 person-years). As an example, in a prospective study performed in India between 2017 and 2020, weekly surveillance for acute febrile illness was performed among more than 24,000 children ages 6 months to 14 years in three urban sites and one rural site. The risk of typhoid fever (confirmed by blood culture) was greater in urban areas; at the three urban sites, the incidence ranged from 576 to 1173 cases per 100,000 child-years; at the rural site, the incidence was 35 cases per 100,000 child-years. The risk was greater in larger households with fewer assets and without a sanitary toilet. Other regions of Asia and Africa, some parts of Latin America, the Caribbean, and Oceania have a medium incidence of 10 to 100 cases per 100,000 person-years. These estimates, though, are limited by lack of consistent reporting from all areas of the world and are based on extrapolation of data across regions and age groups. Contemporary population-based studies from Latin America, in particular, are lacking, and surveillance suggests that rates have declined substantially over the past 30 years, though intermittent outbreaks continue to occur. Furthermore, subsequent data from Africa have revealed substantial heterogeneity between countries, with some Southern and Northern African countries having very low rates (<5 cases per 100,000 person-years) while several countries in Eastern and West Africa have rates >100 per 100,000. S. Paratyphi A remains uncommon in Africa, but accounts for a substantial proportion of enteric fever cases in areas of South Asia.

• #8 Frontiers | Prevalence of typhoid fever and its associated factors among febrile patients visiting Arerti Primary Hospital, Amhara Region, north east Ethiopia

  https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/public-health/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1357131/full

  Understanding associated risk factors facilitates understanding the mechanisms underlying the transmission of typhoid fever. […] The burden of the disease was more pronounced in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with 7.2 million cases of typhoid fever annually and an incidence rate of 762 per 100,000 person-years. […] The estimated case fatality rate among non-surgical patients was 5.4% for the Africa region, which is six times higher than that of the Asia region. […] The reported figures on typhoid fever cases show that the trend of typhoid-related morbidity is in rapid increment over time in Africa. […] Typhoid and paratyphoid fever was endemic in many countries in South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and East Asia and the Pacific. […] In general, the estimated pooled prevalence of typhoid fever from blood and stool culture diagnosis was 3% and Widal test examination 33%. […] The study was aimed at assessing the prevalence of typhoid fever and its associated factors among febrile patients attending Arerti Primary Hospital.

• #9 Major typhoid fever surveillance study in sub-Saharan Africa indicates need for the introduction of typhoid conjugate vaccines in endemic countries – IVI

  https://www.ivi.int/major-typhoid-fever-surveillance-study-in-sub-saharan-africa-indicates-need-for-the-introduction-of-typhoid-conjugate-vaccines-in-endemic-countries/

  Major typhoid fever surveillance study in sub-Saharan Africa indicates need for the introduction of typhoid conjugate vaccines in endemic countries […] There is a high burden of typhoid fever in sub-Saharan African countries, according to a new study published today in The Lancet Global Health. […] This high burden combined with the threat of typhoid strains resistant to antibiotic treatment calls for stronger prevention strategies, including the use and implementation of typhoid conjugate vaccines (TCVs) in endemic settings along with improvements in access to safe water, sanitation, and hygiene. […] The findings from this 4-year study, the Severe Typhoid in Africa (SETA) program, offers new typhoid fever burden estimates from six countries: Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Ethiopia, Ghana, Madagascar, and Nigeria, with four countries recording more than 100 cases for every 100,000 person-years of observation, which is considered a high burden.

• #10 National Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever Surveillance | Typhoid Fever | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/typhoid-fever/php/surveillance/index.html

  State and local health departments report cases of typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever to CDC. […] CDC uses information from the reports to determine incidence and trends, make recommendations, and guide prevention efforts. […] CDC collects surveillance data for typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever, both of which are nationally notifiable conditions. […] Data from NTPFS and other surveillance systems inform our understanding of typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever in the United States. […] In the United States each year, about 350 people are diagnosed with typhoid fever […] 90 people are diagnosed with paratyphoid fever. […] The true number of cases is likely much higher. CDC estimates that 5,700 of cases of typhoid fever occur in the United States each year. […] Almost all cases occur among international travelers.

• #11 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  An estimated 9.2 million cases of typhoid fever and 3.8 million cases of paratyphoid fever occur worldwide each year, causing an estimated 133,000 deaths. […] Approximately 85% of typhoid fever and 80% of paratyphoid fever cases in the United States occur among international travelers; of those, more than 70% are in travelers returning from South Asia, primarily Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan. […] Mass gatherings in endemic areas have been linked to outbreaks of enteric fever. […] Travelers visiting friends and relatives are at increased risk because they might be less careful with food and water while abroad than other travelers and might not seek pre-travel health consultation or typhoid vaccination. […] Although the risk of acquiring illness increases with the duration of stay, travelers have acquired typhoid fever during visits of 1 week to countries where the disease is highly endemic. […] Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are nationally notifiable diseases in the United States. […] Identification of a domestically acquired case should prompt a public health investigation to prevent other cases.

• #12 Typhoid and paratyphoid fever – Annual Epidemiological Report for 2019

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever-annual-epidemiological-report-2019

  Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers are severe systemic diseases which are relatively rare in the EU/EEA and mainly acquired during travel to countries outside the EU/EEA, particularly South Asia. In 2019, 24 EU/EEA countries reported a total of 1 439 cases of typhoid and paratyphoid fever. The EU/EEA notification rate was 0.37 cases per 100 000 population. Of the 1 114 cases with available information, 92.4% were related to travel, with Pakistan and India as the two main travel destinations. […] In 2019, 10 countries reported travel-associated cases with an extremely drug-resistant Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi). These were related to the typhoid fever outbreak ongoing in Pakistan since 2016. This poses an issue for treatment, as the strain is resistant to all the antimicrobials which are normally used in the treatment of typhoid fever. It only remains susceptible to azithromycin, carbapenems, and tigecycline. Cases in the EU/EEA showed clear seasonal trends, with a pronounced peak in September and a small peak in late spring, likely related to travel patterns. Although vaccines against typhoid fever are available, it was still more frequently reported than paratyphoid fever, for which no vaccines are yet available.

• #13 Typhoid and paratyphoid fever – Annual Epidemiological Report for 2021

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever-annual-epidemiological-report-2021

  Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers are relatively rare in the European Union/European Economic Area (EU/EEA) and are mainly acquired during travel to countries outside the EU/EEA, particularly southern Asia. […] For 2021, 19 EU/EEA countries reported a total of 304 laboratory-confirmed cases. […] Since the substantial drop in 2020, which was most likely due to the travel restrictions implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of case reports has remained low. However, in the second half of 2021, an increase in cases was observed, with the usual seasonal peak in September, albeit at a much lower level than the average for 2017-2020. […] Of the 182 cases with available information, 67.9% were travel-related, which was unusually low. A large part of the domestically-acquired cases were infected in the EU outermost regions. […] Multidrug resistance is an increasing problem, more so with S. Typhi than S. Paratyphi. However, vaccination against typhoid fever is available and should be considered by those planning to stay in high-endemicity countries for prolonged periods.

• #14

  https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-laboratory-confirmed-cases-in-england-wales-and-northern-ireland/enteric-fever-typhoid-and-paratyphoid-england-wales-and-northern-ireland-2019

  Enteric fever (also known as typhoid and paratyphoid) is an illness caused by the bacteria Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi (typhoid) or serovars Paratyphi A, B or C (paratyphoid). Typhoid fever is a serious disease and can be life-threatening unless treated promptly with antibiotics. […] This report summarises the epidemiology of laboratory-confirmed cases of S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi reported in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (EWNI) in 2018. It includes both reference laboratory and enhanced enteric fever surveillance data. […] In 2019, 507 laboratory-confirmed symptomatic cases of S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi were reported by the UKHSA SRS in EWNI, which is an increase of 46% when compared to the 348 cases reported in 2018. […] Since November 2016, Pakistan has had an ongoing outbreak of extensively drug-resistant (XDR) strain of S. Typhi in Sindh, with resistance seen to most antibiotics used to treat enteric fever, including ampicillin, third generation cepaholsporins, fluroquinolones, chloramphenicol and, co-trimoxazole. This outbreak may have contributed to an increasing trend of enteric fever cases seen in the overall UK data.

• #15 Typhoid fever – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid_fever

  In 2000, typhoid fever caused an estimated 21.7 million illnesses and 217,000 deaths. […] It occurs most often in children and young adults between 5 and 19 years old. […] In 2013, it resulted in about 161,000 deaths – down from 181,000 in 1990. […] Infants, children, and adolescents in south-central and Southeast Asia have the highest rates of typhoid. […] Outbreaks are also often reported in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia. […] In 2000, more than 90% of morbidity and mortality due to typhoid fever occurred in Asia. […] In the U.S., about 400 cases occur each year, 75% of which are acquired while traveling internationally. […] Before the antibiotic era, the case fatality rate of typhoid fever was 10–20%. Today, with prompt treatment, it is less than 1%, but 3–5% of people who are infected develop a chronic infection in the gall bladder.

• #16 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  Different factors determine the risk of enteric fever in endemic versus non-endemic countries. In non-endemic countries, the acquisition of enteric fever is related to travel, contact with a traveler from an endemic country, or exposure to food prepared by a chronic carrier. In contrast, risk factors in endemic countries include individual host factors, environmental exposures, and climate and geographic factors. […] Enteric fever is a prime example of the „infectious divide” between high-income countries and those with low and middle incomes. In high-income countries, where improvements to sanitation started in the early 1900s, enteric fever is now seen primarily in travelers returning from endemic areas. Incidence remains high in many low- and middle-income countries with poor WASH. […] Due to diagnostic challenges, underdeveloped surveillance systems, and the lack of access to universal health care in many areas, the true incidence of S Typhi and S Paratyphi in much of the world can only be estimated.

• #17 Typhoid Fever Surveillance, Incidence Estimates, and Progress Toward Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine Introduction — Worldwide, 2018–2022

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9949843/

  WHO recommends that countries with endemic typhoid fever establish health facilitybased surveillance with laboratory confirmation to determine disease burden, monitor antimicrobial resistance patterns, facilitate rapid outbreak detection, and assess vaccine impact (3). […] Countries report data on selected vaccine-preventable diseases to WHO and UNICEF annually using the electronic Joint Reporting Form (eJRF). During 20182021, 5962 countries reported laboratory-confirmed typhoid fever through eJRF. Reported cases increased from approximately 8,800 in 2018, when typhoid fever surveillance was first added to eJRF, to 1 million in 2021. […] Since 2018, WHO has recommended that typhoid conjugate vaccine introduction be prioritized in countries with the highest typhoid fever incidence or a high prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant S. Typhi. Vaccine introduction should be implemented in combination with health education, WASH improvements, and health care worker training on typhoid fever diagnosis and treatment (1). […] Countries are encouraged to report laboratory-confirmed typhoid fever case data through eJRF to facilitate the monitoring of global typhoid fever incidence.

• #18 National Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever Surveillance | Typhoid Fever | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/typhoid-fever/php/surveillance/index.html

  To prevent the spread of resistance, take all antibiotics as prescribed. […] Several other systems at CDC conduct surveillance for infection with Salmonella serotypes Typhi, Paratyphi A, Paratyphi B, and Paratyphi C. […] National Notifiable Diseases System collects and compiles reports of laboratory confirmed and probable cases of typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever. […] Laboratory-based Enteric Disease Surveillance System conducts national surveillance for laboratory-confirmed Salmonella infections. […] National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS) monitors antimicrobial resistance among Salmonella. […] National Outbreak Reporting System collects data on domestic outbreaks of typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever from local, state, and territorial health departments. […] Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network conducts active, population-based surveillance in 10 states for laboratory-confirmed Salmonella infections.

• #19 Typhoid – IVI

  https://www.ivi.int/what-we-do/research-areas/typhoid/

  Typhoid fever is a bacterial disease spread through food or drink that is contaminated with the waste of an infected person. […] There are 12-21 million cases of typhoid fever and up to 223,000 deaths annually, with the highest burden in South Asia. […] IVIs Typhoid Program encompasses an array of activities across the vaccine value chain, including disease surveillance for typhoid fever. […] From 2010 to 2014, IVI conducted the Typhoid Surveillance in Africa Program (TSAP) which included ten sub-Saharan African countries, providing the foundational data on the burden of typhoid fever across the region. […] In 2015, IVI launched a multicountry study called the Severe Typhoid in Africa (SETA) project (2015-2019) to assess the burden of typhoid fever in six sub-Saharan African countries with high incidence of typhoid fever.

• #20 Typhoid – IVI

  https://www.ivi.int/what-we-do/research-areas/typhoid/

  The study transitioned to SETA Plus (2020-2023) and has evolved into the Surveillance for TCV Impact Assessment in Africa (STIA) project, currently focusing on Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Madagascar, and Nigeria. […] The Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine Introduction in Africa (THECA) project addresses key research questions about rolling out typhoid conjugate vaccines in Africa. […] The Mozambique Typhoid Fever Surveillance (MOTiF) project evaluates the burden of typhoid fever in the country, aiming to provide decision-makers with evidence to support the introduction of typhoid conjugate vaccines. […] In 2024, IVI launched three projects to estimate the seroincidence of Salmonella Typhi and Salmonella Paratyphi A infections in Peru, Brazil, and Ethiopia.

• #21 Revisiting typhoid fever surveillance in low and middle income countries: lessons from systematic literature review of population-based longitudinal studies | BMC Infectious Diseases | Full Text

  https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-016-1351-3

  The control of typhoid fever being an important public health concern in low and middle income countries, improving typhoid surveillance will help in planning and implementing typhoid control activities such as deployment of new generation Vi conjugate typhoid vaccines. […] For targeted vaccination strategies, it is essential to have a robust surveillance to understand the distribution of typhoid fever by geography and population groups. […] Besides quantifying disease burden, surveillance is helpful in tracking changes in level of incidence, anti-microbial resistance and the impact of typhoid fever control interventions. […] The importance of surveillance has increased with imminent availability of new generation typhoid conjugate vaccines, which may necessitate revisiting of WHO policies on vaccination strategies.

• #22 Wastewater surveillance for Salmonella Typhi and its association with seroincidence of enteric fever in Vellore, India | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

  https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0012373

  Blood culture-based surveillance for typhoid fever has limited sensitivity, and operational challenges are encountered in resource-limited settings. […] Environmental surveillance targeting Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi) shed in wastewater (WW), coupled with cross-sectional serosurveys of S. Typhi-specific antibodies estimating exposure to infection, emerges as a promising alternative. […] We assessed the feasibility and effectiveness of wastewater (WW) and sero-surveillance for S. Typhi in Vellore, India, from May 2022 to April 2023. […] Estimated seroincidence was 10.4/100 person-years (py) (95% CI: 9.61 – 11.5/100 py). […] These findings underscore the utility and effectiveness of alternate surveillance approaches to estimating the incidence of S. Typhi infection in resource-limited settings, offering valuable insights for public health interventions and disease monitoring strategies where conventional methods are challenging to implement.

• #23 Testing the waters – New surveillance methods for typhoid detection in Côte d’Ivoire – Take on Typhoid

  https://www.coalitionagainsttyphoid.org/testing-the-waters-new-surveillance-methods-for-typhoid-detection-in-cote-divoire/

  On Sunday, November 17, the Sabin Vaccine Institute hosted a symposium titled Closing the Typhoid Surveillance Gap: Operationalizing Novel Surveillance Methods to Describe Enteric Fever Burden and Support Vaccine Decision-Making during the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Annual Meeting. The symposium highlighted advancements in typhoid surveillance and the use of low-cost, scalable tools to estimate disease burden in settings where blood-culture-based methods are not feasible. […] Traditionally, enteric fever surveillance relies on blood-culture and many typhoid-endemic countries lack the resources and capacity to make high-quality blood-culture testing widely available. Without blood-culture-confirmed typhoid case data, it is difficult to measure typhoid burden, leading to many cases going undiagnosed and underreported. To overcome these challenges, researchers are turning to novel surveillance methods.

• #24

  https://journals.lww.com/ijmr/fulltext/2019/50050/typhoid_fever__control___challenges_in_india.4.aspx

  However, these are long-term processes and require substantial financial implications. […] The challenge of controlling typhoid is often compounded by the lack of adequate nationwide surveillance in the affected countries. […] These are useful to provide vital input for targeted prevention programmes of the disease, as the new immunization programmes rely upon the data from surveillance networks to estimate the disease burden to prioritize risk groups. […] Although some of the initiatives have been undertaken globally on the typhoid fever surveillance, much is left to be desired. […] The Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) is one of the major national health programmes of India falling under the National Health Mission for all States and Union Territories, which was initiated in 2004.

• #25 National Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever Surveillance | Typhoid Fever | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/typhoid-fever/php/surveillance/index.html

  These diseases are common in many areas of the world, affecting an estimated 13 million people yearly. […] Most travelers with these diseases in the United States have returned from South Asia, primarily Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan. […] The number of cases varies annually and is affected by changes in international travel. […] CDC has received reports of as few as 150 cases to as many as 450 cases of typhoid fever per year during the past few years. […] During 2020-2021, CDC received fewer reports of cases. […] Decreases in international travel and other factors connected to the COVID-19 pandemic likely influenced the transmission, detection, and reporting of enteric illnesses. […] Antibiotic-resistant typhoid fever is on the rise. […] Treatment should be guided by travel history and resistance testing.

• #26 Typhoid fever surveillance, incidence estimates, and progress toward typhoid conjugate vaccine introduction—worldwide, 2018–2022

  https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/antimicrobial-stewardship/typhoid-fever-surveillance-incidence-estimates-and-progress-toward

  Global estimates of typhoid fever incidence hover around 11 million to 21 million cases and 148,000 to 161,000 per year, with the greatest burden of disease in children. […] Surveillance for typhoid, however, is difficult, and global case numbers are estimated via a composite of different data sources. […] Despite issues with confirming typhoid cases globally, data from about 60 countries reporting to a World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF system revealed that confirmed case reports increased from about 8,800 in 2018 to about 1 million in 2021. […] Current estimates place the percentage of multidrug-resistant typhoid (typhoid resistant to chloramphenicol, ampicillin, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) at about 35% of cases in Asia and 75% of cases in Africa. […] The WHO recommends their use in routine immunization in countries with a high incidence of typhoid, also noting that vaccination programs should ideally be accompanied by improvements in sanitation, education, and typhoid case diagnosis and treatment.

• #27 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  Accurate surveillance and reporting are critical to enteric fever control to assess disease burden, rapidly detect outbreaks, determine emerging AMR patterns, and evaluate vaccine impact. However, the capacity for surveillance and the precision and accuracy of estimates vary significantly between nations.

• #28 Typhoid Fever Surveillance, Incidence Estimates, and Progress Toward Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine Introduction — Worldwide, 2018–2022

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9949843/

  Because routine surveillance for typhoid fever has low sensitivity, population-based studies have guided estimates of case counts and incidence in 10 countries since 2016 (36). In 2019, an updated modeling study estimated that 9.2 million (95% CI = 5.914.1) typhoid fever cases and 110,000 (95% CI = 53,000191,000) deaths occurred worldwide, with the highest estimated incidence in the WHO South-East Asian (306 cases per 100,000 persons), Eastern Mediterranean (187), and African (111) regions (7). Since 2018, five countries (Liberia, Nepal, Pakistan, Samoa [based on self-assessment], and Zimbabwe) with estimated high typhoid fever incidence (100 cases per 100,000 population per year) (8), high antimicrobial resistance prevalence, or recent outbreaks introduced typhoid conjugate vaccines into their routine immunization programs (2). To guide vaccine introduction decisions, countries should consider all available information, including surveillance of laboratory-confirmed cases, population-based and modeling studies, and outbreak reports. Establishing and strengthening typhoid fever surveillance will be important to measure vaccine impact.

• #29

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  As of 2019, an estimated 9 million people get sick from typhoid and 110 000 people die from it every year. […] Typhoid risk is higher in populations that lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation, and children are at highest risk. […] Improved living conditions and the introduction of antibiotics resulted in a drastic reduction of typhoid fever morbidity and mortality in industrialized countries. However, the disease continues to be a public health problem in many developing areas of the WHO African, Eastern Mediterranean, South-East Asia and Western Pacific Regions. […] As of 2019 estimates, there are 9 million cases of typhoid fever annually, resulting in about 110 000 deaths per year. […] In October 2017, the Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization (SAGE), which advises WHO on vaccine use, issued a recommendation for the typhoid conjugate vaccine to be added to routine childhood immunization programmes in typhoid endemic countries. SAGE also called for the introduction of typhoid conjugate vaccine to be prioritized for countries with the highest burden of typhoid disease or high levels of antibiotic resistance to Salmonella Typhi. […] In addition to decreasing the disease burden in endemic countries and saving lives, widespread use of the typhoid conjugate vaccine in affected countries is expected to reduce the need for antibiotics for typhoid treatment and slow the increase in antibiotic resistance in Salmonella Typhi.

• #30 Reporting & Investigation of Typhoid Fever | Health & Human Services

  https://hhs.iowa.gov/center-acute-disease-epidemiology/epi-manual/reportable-diseases/typhoid-fever-0

  To identify whether the case may be a high risk for spread to others (e.g., a diapered child, child care attendee, healthcare provider, or food handler) and, if so, to prevent further transmission. […] To identify transmission sources of public health concern (e.g. a restaurant or a commercially distributed food product) and to stop transmission from such sources. […] It is the LPHA responsibility to complete an investigation by interviewing the case or legal guardian of the case and others who may be able to provide pertinent information. […] Using IDSS is the preferred method of conducting the investigation. […] When asking about exposure history (food, travel, activities, etc.), use the usual incubation-range for typhoid fever (8 14 days). […] Ask questions about water supply because typhoid fever may be acquired through water consumption.

• #31 Risk factors for typhoid fever: A desk review | medRxiv

  https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.09.10.24313440v2.full-text

  Typhoid fever can be prevented and controlled concurrently with vaccinations and advancements in food safety, water quality, hygiene and sanitation. […] The susceptibility of typhoid fever disease depends on a myriad of factors with distinct modes of transmission. In endemic countries, knowledge of typhoid fever risk factors is critical for developing effective control strategies and allocating resources. […] Our desk review has allowed us to synthesize the evidence on typhoid fever risk factors from 1928 to 2023. We have identified specific risk factors suggesting waterborne and foodborne transmissions, socio-demographic, economic and housing factors, hygiene and sanitation, host risk factors, antimicrobial agents and typhoid carriers that could influence typhoid fever transmission. […] Approximately 72% of the reviewed articles collected data from Asia and Africa continents, where most of the developing countries are located. This is in accordance with the global burden of typhoid fever estimation, which shows that Asian and African countries bear the greatest burden.

• #32 Testing the waters – New surveillance methods for typhoid detection in Côte d’Ivoire – Take on Typhoid

  https://www.coalitionagainsttyphoid.org/testing-the-waters-new-surveillance-methods-for-typhoid-detection-in-cote-divoire/

  By testing finger-prick blood samples for antibodies to S. Typhi, this method estimates the number of individuals recently exposed to the bacteria, regardless of whether they exhibit any symptoms. […] Using phage-based environmental surveillance alongside community-based serosurveillance offers a compelling method to better understand typhoid transmission and estimate disease burden. […] As countries like Cte dIvoire implement these innovative surveillance methods, they offer a hopeful outlook for other communities where blood-culture-based surveillance is not feasible. They further highlight the innovative approaches that are available to piece together a more comprehensive understanding of local typhoid burden and to identify disease hotspots.

• #33 Estimating the incidence of enteric fever in children in India: a multi-site, active fever surveillance of pediatric cohorts | BMC Public Health | Full Text

  https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-018-5498-2

  Active, community-based surveillance will estimate the true incidence of typhoid fever and provide a better understanding of transmission of typhoid in the population than available data from hospital based extrapolations. […] The incidence of acute typhoid fever in children aged 6 months to 15 years in India was previously estimated to be between 6 and 12 per 1000 child years (CY) with the highest rates in 14 year olds. […] Efficacious, licensed conjugate typhoid vaccine are currently available in India. Uncertainty about disease burden and distribution fueled by hospital-based literature suggesting declining burden in recent years has hindered the adoption of typhoid vaccines as a public health intervention. Examining the incidence, age distribution and transmission dynamics of typhoid fever through active surveillance studies in geographically distinct sites will enable us to uncover disease that remains undetected in hospital-based reports because of varying health seeking characteristics and the rampant use of antibiotic early in febrile illness prior to seeking healthcare in facilitates that perform appropriate diagnostics.

• #34 Estimating the incidence of enteric fever in children in India: a multi-site, active fever surveillance of pediatric cohorts | BMC Public Health | Full Text

  https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-018-5498-2

  Active surveillance studies are resource intensive and challenging to perform. However, in the absence of alternative diagnostic methods that are uninfluenced by health utilization patterns and prior antibiotics, these remain the gold standard to ascertain the transmission and age-specific incidence of typhoid in the community.

• #35 Revisiting typhoid fever surveillance in low and middle income countries: lessons from systematic literature review of population-based longitudinal studies | BMC Infectious Diseases | Full Text

  https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-016-1351-3

  This indicates typhoid fever surveillance is not a priority despite millions of people affected. […] Future longitudinal typhoid fever studies should consider the methodological limitation presented in this review at their study design. […] A precise estimation of typhoid fever incidence accounting for methodological under estimation has policy, financing and advocacy implications.

• #36 Typhoid fever surveillance, incidence estimates, and progress toward typhoid conjugate vaccine introduction—worldwide, 2018–2022

  https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/antimicrobial-stewardship/typhoid-fever-surveillance-incidence-estimates-and-progress-toward

  Because a lack of surveillance data may also hamper countries abilities to decide whether or not to implement TCV mass vaccination or routine immunization, the authors recommend informing these policy decisions with a combination of data on TCV safety and effectiveness, regional incidence or trend data from neighboring countries if available, population-based studies and/or published studies and models, outbreak reports, laboratory-confirmed case incidence if available, and case reports of issues that may be associated with severe typhoid (e.g., intestinal perforation).

• #37

  https://journals.lww.com/ijmr/fulltext/2019/50050/typhoid_fever__control___challenges_in_india.4.aspx

  Enteric fever is a common but serious disease that affects mostly children and adolescents in the developing countries. […] The control measures for the disease must encompass early diagnosis, surveillance and vaccine to protect against the disease. […] The current status of diagnostics, the surveillance practices in the recent past and the vaccine development efforts have been taken into account for suggesting effective prevention and control measures. […] However, the challenges in all these aspects persist and cause hindrance in the implementation of the available tools. […] Hence, an integrative approach and a comprehensive policy framework are required to be in place for the prevention, control and elimination of typhoid fevers. […] The control of typhoid fever entails a robust surveillance system for assessing the disease burden followed by measures such as water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and advocacy for personal hygiene.

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