Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  Infections from Salmonella enterica serotypes Typhi and Paratyphi, collectively known as enteric fever, present a complex clinical challenge for clinicians worldwide. […] Typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever are clinically indistinguishable febrile multisystemic illnesses caused by Salmonella enterica serotypes Typhi (S Typhi) and Paratyphi (S Paratyphi) A, B, and C. […] Unlike many other Salmonella species, S Typhi and S Paratyphi are exclusively human pathogens. […] S Typhi and S Paratyphi serovars have been classified by phage typing since the early 1900s within an established, continuously evolving taxonomic structure as new variants arise. […] With the advent of genetic techniques, enteric fever classification is increasingly based on genotypes for research, surveillance, and clinical purposes.

• #2

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is usually spread through contaminated food or water. Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested, they multiply and spread into the bloodstream. […] Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics although increasing resistance to different types of antibiotics is making treatment more complicated. […] Typhoid risk is higher in populations that lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation, and children are at highest risk. […] Antimicrobial resistance is common with likelihood of more complicated and expensive treatment options required in the most affected regions. […] Typhoid fever is common in places with poor sanitation and a lack of safe drinking water. Access to safe water and adequate sanitation, hygiene among food handlers and typhoid vaccination are all effective in preventing typhoid fever. […] Typhoid conjugate vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than the older typhoid vaccines and can be given as a single dose to children from the age of 6 months.

• #3 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Salmonella enterica serotypes Typhi, Paratyphi A, Paratyphi B (tartrate negative), and Paratyphi C cause potentially severe and occasionally life-threatening bacteremic illnesses referred to as typhoid fever (for Typhi serotype) and paratyphoid fever (for Paratyphi serotypes), and collectively as enteric fever. […] Humans are the only source of the bacteria that cause enteric fever; no animal or environmental reservoirs have been identified. Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are acquired through consumption of water or food contaminated by feces of an acutely infected or convalescent person, or a person with chronic, asymptomatic carriage. […] An estimated 9.2 million cases of typhoid fever and 3.8 million cases of paratyphoid fever occur worldwide each year, causing an estimated 133,000 deaths.

• #4 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever (enteric fever) is a systemic disease caused by the gram-negative bacterium Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi (S. Typhi). […] In the United States, typhoid is uncommon and occurs mainly among travelers returning from endemic regions. […] Humans are the only natural host and reservoir. Typhoid bacilli are shed in stool of asymptomatic carriers or in stool or urine of people with active disease. The infection is transmitted by ingestion of food or water contaminated with feces. […] The organism enters the body via the gastrointestinal tract and gains access to the bloodstream via the lymphatic channels. […] About 3% of untreated patients, referred to as chronic enteric carriers, harbor organisms in their gallbladder and shed them in stool for 1 year. […] Without antibiotics, the case fatality rate is about 10 to 15%. With prompt therapy, the case fatality rate is 1%.

• #5 Typhoid fever

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever, also known as enteric fever, is an infection caused by Salmonella enterica enterica, serovar Typhi. […] The bacterial cause of typhoid fever is also known as Salmonella typhi and this is shortened to S. typhi. […] Typhoid fever is contracted through contact with infected individuals and chronic carriers of typhoid fever (who are in good health but salmonella bacteria can be found in their faeces). Salmonella bacteria primarily infect humans and are transmitted through ingestion of contaminated water or food. […] Both typhoid and paratyphoid fever are examples of salmonellosis, where the infectious agent originates from the genus of motile bacteria with a gram-negative staining pattern on microscopy, Salmonella.

• #6 Typhoid Fever: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/231135-overview

  Typhoid fever, or enteric fever, is a potentially fatal multisystemic infection produced primarily by Salmonella enterica serotype typhi and to a lesser extent Salmonella enterica serotypes and paratyphi A, B, and C. […] The most serious of these is typhoid that is primarily produced by Salmonella enterica serotype typhi and, to a lesser extent, S enterica serotypes paratyphi A, B, and C. […] Typhoid thrives in conditions of poor sanitation, crowding, and social chaos. […] The incidence of infections with S paratyphi may be surpassing those due to S typhi. […] Typhoidal salmonella have no nonhuman vectors. An inoculum as small as 100,000 organisms of typhi causes infection in more than 50% of healthy volunteers. […] Paratyphi requires a much higher inoculum to infect, and it is less endemic in rural areas.

• #7 Typhoid Fever: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/231135-overview

  The following are modes of transmission of typhoidal salmonella: Oral transmission via food or beverages handled by an often asymptomatic individuala carrierwho chronically sheds the bacteria through stool or, less commonly, urine. […] Hand-to-mouth transmission after using a contaminated toilet and neglecting hand hygiene. […] Oral transmission via sewage-contaminated water or shellfish (especially in the developing world). […] Typhoidal salmonella are able to survive a stomach pH as low as 1.5. […] Other risk factors for typhoid fever include various genetic polymorphisms. […] As the middle class in south Asia grows, some hospitals there are seeing a large number of typhoid fever cases among relatively well-off university students who live in group households with poor hygiene.

• #8 Typhoid Fever Causes, Symptoms, Treatment and Vaccine

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever (also called enteric fever) is a serious illness caused by infection with the Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi bacteria. […] Both diseases spread through water or food that has been contaminated by the poop or pee of a person who is infected with the germ. […] People who have typhoid fever release the germ in their pee and poop. If they dont wash their hands well after going to the bathroom, the germ stays on their hands. It then spreads to other things, including water and food. […] The bacteria can survive for weeks in water or dried sewage. If you drink or eat contaminated water or food, the bacteria will enter your body. This is generally how you get sick. […] A carrier is a person who still has the bacteria in their body, even when they don’t look or feel sick and they’ve taken antibiotics.

• #9 Typhoid Fever: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/231135-overview

  The following are modes of transmission of typhoidal salmonella: Oral transmission via food or beverages handled by an often asymptomatic individuala carrierwho chronically sheds the bacteria through stool or, less commonly, urine. […] Hand-to-mouth transmission after using a contaminated toilet and neglecting hand hygiene. […] Oral transmission via sewage-contaminated water or shellfish (especially in the developing world). […] Typhoidal salmonella are able to survive a stomach pH as low as 1.5. […] Other risk factors for typhoid fever include various genetic polymorphisms. […] As the middle class in south Asia grows, some hospitals there are seeing a large number of typhoid fever cases among relatively well-off university students who live in group households with poor hygiene.

• #10

  https://newsroom.uw.edu/news-releases/gene-loss-may-explain-how-salmonella-causes-typhoid-fever

  Some salmonella bacteria, however, can cause a serious, prolonged infection called typhoid fever. While it is uncommon in the United States, typhoid sickens more than 9.2 million people worldwide and kills more than 110,000 annually. […] A new study suggests that the salmonella variants that cause typhoid acquired this ability by shedding genes responsible for many of the acute symptoms of food poisoning. […] The salmonella serovars that cause typhoid typhi and paratyphi have adopted a different survival strategy. They infect macrophages and prevent them from self-destructing. This allows them to persist within the macrophages and to travel inside them as the immune cells move throughout the body. […] Salmonella typhi and paratyphi are stealth pathogens, Fang explained. They dont stimulate a robust immune response. Instead, they have found a way to persist in macrophages and spread throughout the body, causing an infection in which the bacteria can be shed in the stool for weeks to months and sometimes persistently colonizing people, like Typhoid Mary, who can never get rid of it.

• #11

  https://newsroom.uw.edu/news-releases/gene-loss-may-explain-how-salmonella-causes-typhoid-fever

  In their study, Fang and colleagues show that salmonella typhi and paratyphi acquired this ability by shedding 12 genes that ordinarily trigger macrophage death. […] As a result of the loss of these genes, the vigorous immune response and macrophage destruction seen with salmonella food poisoning does not occur with typhoid infections.

• #12

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/typhoid-fever/

  Typhoid fever is a bacterial infection that can spread throughout the body, affecting many organs. Without prompt treatment, it can cause serious complications and can be fatal. […] It’s caused by a bacterium called Salmonella typhi, which is related to the bacteria that cause salmonella food poisoning. […] Typhoid fever is highly contagious. An infected person can pass the bacteria out of their body in their poo or, less commonly, in their pee. […] If someone else eats food or drinks water that’s been contaminated with a small amount of infected poo or pee, they can become infected with the bacteria and develop typhoid fever. […] Read more about the causes of typhoid fever.

• #13 Typhoid Fever: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17730-typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever is an illness caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi). It infects your small intestines (gut) and causes high fever, stomach pain and other symptoms. Typhoid fever is also called enteric fever. […] Typhoid fever is caused by the bacterium S. Typhi. It lives in the gut (intestines) of infected people and can contaminate food and water. […] Typhoid fever usually spreads through food or water contaminated with S. Typhi. This can happen if someone with typhoid touches something you eat or drink without washing their hands. It can also happen if waste water (water that has poop or pee in it) gets into water you drink or on food you eat. […] You can get typhoid from another person if they dont wash their hands after going to the bathroom. When they touch surfaces and objects (like phones or doorknobs) they can leave bacteria behind that can transfer to the next person who touches it.

• #14 Typhoid Fever

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/typhoid_fever/fact_sheet.htm

  Typhoid fever is a bacterial infection of the intestinal tract (bowels/gut) and occasionally the bloodstream caused by the Salmonella Typhi bacteria. This strain of bacteria lives only in humans. […] Salmonella Typhi lives only in humans. People with typhoid fever carry the bacteria in their bloodstream and intestinal tract (bowels/gut). In addition, a small number of people, called carriers, recover from typhoid fever but continue to carry the bacteria. Both ill persons and carriers shed Salmonella Typhi in their feces (poop). […] You can get typhoid fever if you eat food or drink beverages that have been handled by a person who is shedding Salmonella Typhi or if sewage contaminated with Salmonella Typhi bacteria gets into the water you use for drinking or washing food. Therefore, typhoid fever is more common in areas of the world where handwashing is less frequent and water is more likely to be contaminated with sewage.

• #15

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/typhoid-fever/causes/

  Typhoid fever is caused by a type of bacteria called Salmonella typhi. […] The Salmonella typhi bacteria will be in the poo of an infected person after they have been to the toilet. […] In parts of the world with poor sanitation, infected human waste can contaminate the water supply. […] People who drink contaminated water or eat food washed in contaminated water can develop typhoid fever. […] Other ways typhoid fever can be contracted include: using a toilet contaminated with bacteria and touching your mouth before washing your hands, eating seafood from a water source contaminated by infected poo or pee, eating raw vegetables that have been fertilised with human waste, contaminated milk products, having oral or anal sex with a person who’s a carrier of Salmonella typhi bacteria.

• #16 Typhoid Fever | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/foodborne-illness/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid Fever is a life-threatening illness caused by the Typhi serotype of the bacteria Salmonella, referred to as Salmonella Typhi. […] Typhoid Fever is transmitted by eating food or drinking beverages improperly handled by an infected person with Salmonella Typhi or if contaminated water containing the bacteria is used to for washing food or drinking. […] Unlike other Salmonella-related infections, where a range of animals can become infected and act as reservoirs for the bacteria, humans are the sole source of infection for Typhoid Fever. […] Common sources of infection in areas of the world at risk include: Drinking water and beverages contaminated with human waste untreated tap water ingested directly, used to make ice or roadside drinks, or swallowed during teeth brushing or showering.

• #17

  https://www.hdfcergo.com/health-insurance/wellness-corner/reasons-for-typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever is a severe medical condition caused by the bacteria Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi). […] Salmonella Typhi gets transmitted through contaminated food and water. […] Eating food handled by someone infected who hasn’t washed his/her hands properly could result in typhoid fever. […] Drinking water containing infected faecal matter remains a potent cause for typhoid fever. […] Consuming raw fruits or vegetables rinsed with unclean water can cause typhoid fever. […] A primary cause of this ailment is ingesting beverages with ice made from polluted water. […] Eating fruits or vegetables grown in soil fertilised with infected faeces may be a veritable cause of this ailment. […] Drinking milk products diluted with contaminated water can be a potent cause of this illness. […] Living in areas with inadequate sanitation systems can also be a common cause of typhoid fever. […] Close contact with an infected person or carrier may cause typhoid fever. […] A leading cause of this ailment could be travelling to high-risk areas without proper precautions. […] Lack of access to clean water and proper sewage systems could lead to this ailment.

• #18 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Disease Advisor

  https://www.infectiousdiseaseadvisor.com/ddi/typhoid-fever/

  Typhoid fever is an infectious disease caused by Salmonella typhi; an indistinguishable condition called paratyphoid fever is caused by a related serotype, Salmonella paratyphi. […] Karl Joseph Eberth, a German pathologist, initially described the causative bacterial agent in 1880, and it was cultured for the first time 4 years later by the German bacteriologist, Georg Theodor August Gaffky. […] A 2017 analysis concluded that globally, S typhi accounts for 76.3% of enteric fever cases. […] This microorganism primarily lives and multiplies within humans, but it can also survive in the environment. […] Salmonella is shed temporarily or chronically through the feces, although it has also been detected in urine cultures. […] It may be spread through the 4 Fs feces, flies, fingers, and fomites with contaminated water being a common vehicle of indirect transmission.

• #19 Typhoid Fever – Symptoms, Causes, Complications & Prevention PACE Hospitals – Best Hospitals in Hitech City, Hyderabad, India | Near Madhapur, Kukatpally, KPHB, Kondapur, Gachibowli, Jubilee Hills, Banjara HillsPACE Hospitals Contact Numb

  https://www.pacehospital.com/typhoid-fever-symptoms-causes

  Salmonella typhi (S. typhi) is usually released into the faeces (rarely in urine) of the diseased or infected person and spreads by one of the following: Unhygienic practise (unclean hands) of an infected person after using the washroom and preparing food without washing hands, shaking hands with healthy persons, or touching areas where a healthy person can access. […] Infectious human faeces can contaminate water sources in areas with poor sanitation. Typhoid fever can be contracted by drinking or consuming food washed with contaminated water. […] The other methods by which typhoid spreads are: Consuming seafood that has been exposed to contaminated water or human waste, Consuming uncooked vegetables that have been fertilised with human waste, Sexual contact (anal) with Salmonella typhi bacteria carrier.

• #20 Typhoid Fever: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17730-typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever is an illness caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi). It infects your small intestines (gut) and causes high fever, stomach pain and other symptoms. Typhoid fever is also called enteric fever. […] Typhoid fever is caused by the bacterium S. Typhi. It lives in the gut (intestines) of infected people and can contaminate food and water. […] Typhoid fever usually spreads through food or water contaminated with S. Typhi. This can happen if someone with typhoid touches something you eat or drink without washing their hands. It can also happen if waste water (water that has poop or pee in it) gets into water you drink or on food you eat. […] You can get typhoid from another person if they dont wash their hands after going to the bathroom. When they touch surfaces and objects (like phones or doorknobs) they can leave bacteria behind that can transfer to the next person who touches it.

• #21 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever (enteric fever) is a systemic disease caused by the gram-negative bacterium Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi (S. Typhi). […] In the United States, typhoid is uncommon and occurs mainly among travelers returning from endemic regions. […] Humans are the only natural host and reservoir. Typhoid bacilli are shed in stool of asymptomatic carriers or in stool or urine of people with active disease. The infection is transmitted by ingestion of food or water contaminated with feces. […] The organism enters the body via the gastrointestinal tract and gains access to the bloodstream via the lymphatic channels. […] About 3% of untreated patients, referred to as chronic enteric carriers, harbor organisms in their gallbladder and shed them in stool for 1 year. […] Without antibiotics, the case fatality rate is about 10 to 15%. With prompt therapy, the case fatality rate is 1%.

• #22 Typhoid Fever | Health & Human Services

  https://hhs.iowa.gov/center-acute-disease-epidemiology/epi-manual/reportable-diseases/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever is caused by the bacillus Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi (commonly S. Typhi). […] Spread: Via ingestion of food and water contaminated by feces and urine of patients and carriers. […] Approximately 10% of untreated typhoid patients discharge bacilli for 3 months after symptom onset; 2-5% become carriers. […] Typhoid fever has a worldwide distribution, with approximately 5700 cases per year in the United States, with approximately 75% of these cases occurring among travelers to other countries. An estimated 27 million cases of typhoid fever and 210,000 deaths occur worldwide.

• #23 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever (enteric fever) is a systemic disease caused by the gram-negative bacterium Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi (S. Typhi). […] In the United States, typhoid is uncommon and occurs mainly among travelers returning from endemic regions. […] Humans are the only natural host and reservoir. Typhoid bacilli are shed in stool of asymptomatic carriers or in stool or urine of people with active disease. The infection is transmitted by ingestion of food or water contaminated with feces. […] The organism enters the body via the gastrointestinal tract and gains access to the bloodstream via the lymphatic channels. […] About 3% of untreated patients, referred to as chronic enteric carriers, harbor organisms in their gallbladder and shed them in stool for 1 year. […] Without antibiotics, the case fatality rate is about 10 to 15%. With prompt therapy, the case fatality rate is 1%.

• #24 Typhoid Fever Causes, Symptoms, Treatment and Vaccine

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/typhoid-fever

  They can still spread the illness, and this can last up to a year or longer after recovery. […] The most common test your doctor will do is a tissue culture. […] Your doctor may also confirm the infection by testing your blood for antibodies against typhoid bacteria (called a Widal test) or DNA from the bacteria in your blood. […] Typhoid fever is a serious infection. You get it by eating or drinking something that’s contaminated with Salmonella Typhi bacteria.

• #25 Typhoid fever: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001332.htm

  Typhoid fever is an infection that causes fever, diarrhea, and a rash. It is most commonly caused by bacteria called Salmonella typhi (S typhi). […] S typhi is spread through contaminated food, drink, or water. If you eat or drink something that is contaminated with the bacteria, the bacteria enter your body. […] Some people become carriers of S typhi and continue to release the bacteria in their stools, sometimes for years, spreading the disease. […] Typhoid fever is common in developing countries. Most cases in the United States are brought in from other countries where typhoid fever is common.

• #26

  https://newsroom.uw.edu/news-releases/gene-loss-may-explain-how-salmonella-causes-typhoid-fever

  Some salmonella bacteria, however, can cause a serious, prolonged infection called typhoid fever. While it is uncommon in the United States, typhoid sickens more than 9.2 million people worldwide and kills more than 110,000 annually. […] A new study suggests that the salmonella variants that cause typhoid acquired this ability by shedding genes responsible for many of the acute symptoms of food poisoning. […] The salmonella serovars that cause typhoid typhi and paratyphi have adopted a different survival strategy. They infect macrophages and prevent them from self-destructing. This allows them to persist within the macrophages and to travel inside them as the immune cells move throughout the body. […] Salmonella typhi and paratyphi are stealth pathogens, Fang explained. They dont stimulate a robust immune response. Instead, they have found a way to persist in macrophages and spread throughout the body, causing an infection in which the bacteria can be shed in the stool for weeks to months and sometimes persistently colonizing people, like Typhoid Mary, who can never get rid of it.

• #27

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is usually spread through contaminated food or water. Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested, they multiply and spread into the bloodstream. […] Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics although increasing resistance to different types of antibiotics is making treatment more complicated. […] Typhoid risk is higher in populations that lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation, and children are at highest risk. […] Antimicrobial resistance is common with likelihood of more complicated and expensive treatment options required in the most affected regions. […] Typhoid fever is common in places with poor sanitation and a lack of safe drinking water. Access to safe water and adequate sanitation, hygiene among food handlers and typhoid vaccination are all effective in preventing typhoid fever. […] Typhoid conjugate vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than the older typhoid vaccines and can be given as a single dose to children from the age of 6 months.

• #28 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  The importance of chronic carriage to ongoing transmission is well documented in non-endemic countries; however, the role in endemic countries is not well understood. […] Typhoid fever is more severe in debilitated and immunocompromised patients such as those with human immunodeficiency virus, on glucocorticoid therapy, or with altered phagocyte function (eg, patients with malaria and sickle cell anemia). […] A meta-analysis demonstrated that having an improved water source with a protected well can reduce the risk of culture-confirmed typhoid infection by half. […] Enteric fever is a prime example of the „infectious divide” between high-income countries and those with low and middle incomes. […] The vast majority of enteric fever cases worldwide are due to S Typhi. […] In 2019, an estimated 9.2 million typhoid fever cases and 110,000 deaths occurred worldwide.

• #29 Risk factors for typhoid fever: A desk review | medRxiv

  https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.09.10.24313440v2.full-text

  Food serves as a highly efficient medium for the growth of S. Typhi compared to water. […] Our study findings presented in Table 3 showed socio-economic and housing factors as risks for typhoid fever transmission. […] The risk factors outlined in Table 4 underscore the significant impact of hygiene and sanitation on the spread of typhoid fever. […] Antimicrobial exposure has the greatest impact on S. Typhi infection. […] Host genetic factors influence susceptibility to infectious diseases in humans. […] Typhoid fever, once prevalent in industrialized countries, is now effectively controlled, yet imported infections remain a significant public health concern. […] Vaccination is essential for the control of typhoid fever in endemic and epidemic settings as well as among travellers moving between non-endemic and endemic areas. […] Typhoid fever transmission exhibits distinct seasonal patterns influenced by environmental and climatic factors such as temperature, humidity, and precipitation.

• #30 Typhoid Fever: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/231135-overview

  Typhoid fever, or enteric fever, is a potentially fatal multisystemic infection produced primarily by Salmonella enterica serotype typhi and to a lesser extent Salmonella enterica serotypes and paratyphi A, B, and C. […] The most serious of these is typhoid that is primarily produced by Salmonella enterica serotype typhi and, to a lesser extent, S enterica serotypes paratyphi A, B, and C. […] Typhoid thrives in conditions of poor sanitation, crowding, and social chaos. […] The incidence of infections with S paratyphi may be surpassing those due to S typhi. […] Typhoidal salmonella have no nonhuman vectors. An inoculum as small as 100,000 organisms of typhi causes infection in more than 50% of healthy volunteers. […] Paratyphi requires a much higher inoculum to infect, and it is less endemic in rural areas.

• #31 Typhoid Fever – Symptoms, Causes, Complications & Prevention PACE Hospitals – Best Hospitals in Hitech City, Hyderabad, India | Near Madhapur, Kukatpally, KPHB, Kondapur, Gachibowli, Jubilee Hills, Banjara HillsPACE Hospitals Contact Numb

  https://www.pacehospital.com/typhoid-fever-symptoms-causes

  Typhoid or typhoid fever, also called enteric fever, a fatal infection caused by the bacteria Salmonella typhi. This multi systemic disease has historically been a burden for public health, particularly in underdeveloped nations. The typhoid fever is very contagious and can spread through the infected person’s faeces or, less frequently, through urine. […] Typhoid fever causes are more common in locations with overcrowding, social chaos, and inadequate sanitation, as Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (Salmonella typhi) spreads through the faecal-oral route via contaminated water, undercooked foods, and fomites (objects that carry infection) of infected patients. […] Since humans are its only host, typhoid spreads from one infected person to another or via carriers such as houseflies or typhoid carriers (typhoid recovers), which carry bacteria in their bodies.

• #32 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  The importance of chronic carriage to ongoing transmission is well documented in non-endemic countries; however, the role in endemic countries is not well understood. […] Typhoid fever is more severe in debilitated and immunocompromised patients such as those with human immunodeficiency virus, on glucocorticoid therapy, or with altered phagocyte function (eg, patients with malaria and sickle cell anemia). […] A meta-analysis demonstrated that having an improved water source with a protected well can reduce the risk of culture-confirmed typhoid infection by half. […] Enteric fever is a prime example of the „infectious divide” between high-income countries and those with low and middle incomes. […] The vast majority of enteric fever cases worldwide are due to S Typhi. […] In 2019, an estimated 9.2 million typhoid fever cases and 110,000 deaths occurred worldwide.

• #33 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Disease Advisor

  https://www.infectiousdiseaseadvisor.com/ddi/typhoid-fever/

  Use of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) increases the risk of Salmonella infection and enteric fever. […] This may be because PPIs alter the normal gut flora, which protects against typhoid fever. […] Furthermore, antibiotic use or poor nutrition may alter the microbiome and increase risk of this disease.

• #34 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Disease Advisor

  https://www.infectiousdiseaseadvisor.com/ddi/typhoid-fever/

  Use of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) increases the risk of Salmonella infection and enteric fever. […] This may be because PPIs alter the normal gut flora, which protects against typhoid fever. […] Furthermore, antibiotic use or poor nutrition may alter the microbiome and increase risk of this disease.

• #35 Risk factors for typhoid fever: A desk review | medRxiv

  https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.09.10.24313440v2.full-text

  Food serves as a highly efficient medium for the growth of S. Typhi compared to water. […] Our study findings presented in Table 3 showed socio-economic and housing factors as risks for typhoid fever transmission. […] The risk factors outlined in Table 4 underscore the significant impact of hygiene and sanitation on the spread of typhoid fever. […] Antimicrobial exposure has the greatest impact on S. Typhi infection. […] Host genetic factors influence susceptibility to infectious diseases in humans. […] Typhoid fever, once prevalent in industrialized countries, is now effectively controlled, yet imported infections remain a significant public health concern. […] Vaccination is essential for the control of typhoid fever in endemic and epidemic settings as well as among travellers moving between non-endemic and endemic areas. […] Typhoid fever transmission exhibits distinct seasonal patterns influenced by environmental and climatic factors such as temperature, humidity, and precipitation.

• #36 About Typhoid Fever and Paratyphoid Fever | Typhoid Fever | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/typhoid-fever/about/index.html

  Typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever are life-threatening illnesses. […] Each of the illnesses is caused by a kind of Salmonella bacteria (germs). […] The illnesses are caused by Salmonella bacteria. […] Typhoid fever is caused by Salmonella serotype Typhi. […] Paratyphoid fever is caused by Salmonella serotype Paratyphi. […] Most people in the United States with typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever were infected while traveling to these places. […] The bacteria that cause these illnesses are shed (gotten rid of) in poop. […] You can get typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever after swallowing the bacteria.

• #37 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Salmonella enterica serotypes Typhi, Paratyphi A, Paratyphi B (tartrate negative), and Paratyphi C cause potentially severe and occasionally life-threatening bacteremic illnesses referred to as typhoid fever (for Typhi serotype) and paratyphoid fever (for Paratyphi serotypes), and collectively as enteric fever. […] Humans are the only source of the bacteria that cause enteric fever; no animal or environmental reservoirs have been identified. Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are acquired through consumption of water or food contaminated by feces of an acutely infected or convalescent person, or a person with chronic, asymptomatic carriage. […] An estimated 9.2 million cases of typhoid fever and 3.8 million cases of paratyphoid fever occur worldwide each year, causing an estimated 133,000 deaths.

• #38 Typhoid Fever | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/foodborne-illness/typhoid-fever

  Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested they multiply and spread from the intestines into the bloodstream. […] General recommendations for avoiding Typhoid Fever: Avoid risky foods and beverages when traveling to high risk countries Boil it, Cook it, Peel it, or Forget it. […] When overseas to an area of the world that is known to be at risk for Typhoid Fever, vaccination prior to travel date is a consideration. […] Typhoid Fever vaccination loses effectiveness over time check with a doctor to identify whether a booster is required.

• #39

  https://www.hdfcergo.com/health-insurance/wellness-corner/reasons-for-typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever is a severe medical condition caused by the bacteria Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi). […] Salmonella Typhi gets transmitted through contaminated food and water. […] Eating food handled by someone infected who hasn’t washed his/her hands properly could result in typhoid fever. […] Drinking water containing infected faecal matter remains a potent cause for typhoid fever. […] Consuming raw fruits or vegetables rinsed with unclean water can cause typhoid fever. […] A primary cause of this ailment is ingesting beverages with ice made from polluted water. […] Eating fruits or vegetables grown in soil fertilised with infected faeces may be a veritable cause of this ailment. […] Drinking milk products diluted with contaminated water can be a potent cause of this illness. […] Living in areas with inadequate sanitation systems can also be a common cause of typhoid fever. […] Close contact with an infected person or carrier may cause typhoid fever. […] A leading cause of this ailment could be travelling to high-risk areas without proper precautions. […] Lack of access to clean water and proper sewage systems could lead to this ailment.

• #40 Typhoid fever | Definition, Symptoms, & Treatment | Britannica

  https://www.britannica.com/science/typhoid-fever

  typhoid fever, acute infectious disease caused by the bacterium Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. The bacterium usually enters the body through the mouth by the ingestion of contaminated food or water, penetrates the intestinal wall, and multiplies in lymphoid tissue; it then enters the bloodstream and causes bacteremia. […] Most major epidemics of typhoid fever have been caused by the pollution of public water supplies. Food and milk may be contaminated, however, by a human carrier of the disease who is employed in handling and processing them; by flies; or by the use of polluted water for cleaning purposes. Shellfish, particularly oysters, grown in polluted water and fresh vegetables grown on soil fertilized or contaminated by untreated sewage are other possible causes. […] The treatment of typhoid fever has been complicated by the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of S. Typhi. Historically, the antibiotic of choice against the disease was chloramphenicol. In the 1970s, because of widespread chloramphenicol resistance, ampicillin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole became the treatments of choice. Those drugs, however, were eventually rendered ineffective by multidrug-resistant S. Typhi. Strains of the bacterium that are resistant to contemporary antibiotics, including fluoroquinolones, have been increasingly reported in Asia and Africa.

• #41 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever (enteric fever) is a systemic disease caused by the gram-negative bacterium Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi (S. Typhi). […] In the United States, typhoid is uncommon and occurs mainly among travelers returning from endemic regions. […] Humans are the only natural host and reservoir. Typhoid bacilli are shed in stool of asymptomatic carriers or in stool or urine of people with active disease. The infection is transmitted by ingestion of food or water contaminated with feces. […] The organism enters the body via the gastrointestinal tract and gains access to the bloodstream via the lymphatic channels. […] About 3% of untreated patients, referred to as chronic enteric carriers, harbor organisms in their gallbladder and shed them in stool for 1 year. […] Without antibiotics, the case fatality rate is about 10 to 15%. With prompt therapy, the case fatality rate is 1%.

• #42 Typhoid fever – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid_fever

  Disease caused by the bacteria Salmonella Typhi. […] Causative agent: Salmonella enterica serological variant Typhi. […] Causes: Gastrointestinal infection of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi. […] Typhoid is caused by the bacterium Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi growing in the intestines, Peyer’s patches, mesenteric lymph nodes, spleen, liver, gallbladder, bone marrow and blood. […] Typhoid is spread by eating or drinking food or water contaminated with the feces of an infected person. […] Salmonella Typhi which causes typhoid fever is different from the other Salmonella bacteria that usually cause salmonellosis, a common type of food poisoning. […] The Gram-negative bacterium that causes typhoid fever is Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi. […] S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi is spread by the fecal-oral route from people who are infected and from asymptomatic carriers of the bacterium.

• #43 Typhoid Fever | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/foodborne-illness/typhoid-fever

  Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested they multiply and spread from the intestines into the bloodstream. […] General recommendations for avoiding Typhoid Fever: Avoid risky foods and beverages when traveling to high risk countries Boil it, Cook it, Peel it, or Forget it. […] When overseas to an area of the world that is known to be at risk for Typhoid Fever, vaccination prior to travel date is a consideration. […] Typhoid Fever vaccination loses effectiveness over time check with a doctor to identify whether a booster is required.

• #44 Typhoid Fever Vaccine, Symptoms, Treatment, Causes, Contagious

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/typhoid_fever_enteric_fever/article_em.htm

  Typhoid fever is caused by a bacterium, Salmonella typhi. […] Typhoid fever is caused by a bacterium, Salmonella typhi. […] These bacteria adhere to ileal tissue in the GI tract, survive in macrophage cells, are carried to mesenteric lymph nodes, and reach the lymphatic system. […] The bacteria then break out of the macrophages and enter the blood; some reach the gallbladder and then go into the GI tract where some are shed with the feces and others infect the patient through the GI tract.

• #45

  https://newsroom.uw.edu/news-releases/gene-loss-may-explain-how-salmonella-causes-typhoid-fever

  Some salmonella bacteria, however, can cause a serious, prolonged infection called typhoid fever. While it is uncommon in the United States, typhoid sickens more than 9.2 million people worldwide and kills more than 110,000 annually. […] A new study suggests that the salmonella variants that cause typhoid acquired this ability by shedding genes responsible for many of the acute symptoms of food poisoning. […] The salmonella serovars that cause typhoid typhi and paratyphi have adopted a different survival strategy. They infect macrophages and prevent them from self-destructing. This allows them to persist within the macrophages and to travel inside them as the immune cells move throughout the body. […] Salmonella typhi and paratyphi are stealth pathogens, Fang explained. They dont stimulate a robust immune response. Instead, they have found a way to persist in macrophages and spread throughout the body, causing an infection in which the bacteria can be shed in the stool for weeks to months and sometimes persistently colonizing people, like Typhoid Mary, who can never get rid of it.

• #46 Typhoid: Causes, Symptoms And Treatment | Netmeds

  https://www.netmeds.com/health-library/post/typhoid-causes-symptoms-and-treatment?srsltid=AfmBOoqz7w8oZUq4GI5MhD7mL8zciy0UEuUdwMr9_Q0YRUm7xz_zZTOD

  Typhoid Fever is an acute bacterial infection characterized by high fever. It mostly occurs due to the invasion of the Salmonella enterica, subspecies serovar typhi which is related to the subspecies Salmonella paratyphi A, B or C bacteria, which subsequently lead to the paratyphoid fever. The infection is quite contagious and usually infects humans through contaminated food and water. […] The gram-positive bacteria spreads only through human carriers and is transmitted from person to person due to direct contact with the faeces of an infected person. When a healthy person consumes contaminated food or water, the bacteria enter through the mouth and stays in the intestines for a few weeks and multiplies in the lymphoid tissue. Then, the active bacterium usually comes out of the intestinal walls and enters into the bloodstream and causes bacteremia. Through the bloodstream, the bacteria spread onto other tissues and organs and finally wreak havoc within the body. […] Even after the fever settles in the infected person, a few percentage of people become carriers of this harmful bacteria without any concerning symptoms of underlying health anomalies.

• #47 Factors of Typhoid Fever: An Examination of the Causes, Effects, and Developments Regarding Enteric Fever

  https://www.lakeforest.edu/news/factors-of-typhoid-fever-an-examination-of-the-causes-effects-and-developments-regarding-enteric-fever

  Due to the lack of sanitation systems to protect against the danger of ingesting contaminated water, it is very easy for the bacteria to move from host to host, as it infects the whole water source. […] Another reason why typhoid fever is a successful pathogen is due to the bacterias ability to invade the host cells and evade the immune response that follows. […] Overall, typhoid fever is a successful disease, due to its ease of transmission, ability to attach to the host cell and evade the host immune response, as well as being able to disrupt normal cell function. […] Because of the overall success of typhoid fever, due to characteristics of the bacteria, as well as epidemiological factors, there is a high necessity to reduce the morbidity, and subsequently, the mortality of this infectious disease.

• #48 Factors of Typhoid Fever: An Examination of the Causes, Effects, and Developments Regarding Enteric Fever

  https://www.lakeforest.edu/news/factors-of-typhoid-fever-an-examination-of-the-causes-effects-and-developments-regarding-enteric-fever

  Due to the lack of sanitation systems to protect against the danger of ingesting contaminated water, it is very easy for the bacteria to move from host to host, as it infects the whole water source. […] Another reason why typhoid fever is a successful pathogen is due to the bacterias ability to invade the host cells and evade the immune response that follows. […] Overall, typhoid fever is a successful disease, due to its ease of transmission, ability to attach to the host cell and evade the host immune response, as well as being able to disrupt normal cell function. […] Because of the overall success of typhoid fever, due to characteristics of the bacteria, as well as epidemiological factors, there is a high necessity to reduce the morbidity, and subsequently, the mortality of this infectious disease.

• #49

  https://newsroom.uw.edu/news-releases/gene-loss-may-explain-how-salmonella-causes-typhoid-fever

  In their study, Fang and colleagues show that salmonella typhi and paratyphi acquired this ability by shedding 12 genes that ordinarily trigger macrophage death. […] As a result of the loss of these genes, the vigorous immune response and macrophage destruction seen with salmonella food poisoning does not occur with typhoid infections.

• #50 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  The importance of chronic carriage to ongoing transmission is well documented in non-endemic countries; however, the role in endemic countries is not well understood. […] Typhoid fever is more severe in debilitated and immunocompromised patients such as those with human immunodeficiency virus, on glucocorticoid therapy, or with altered phagocyte function (eg, patients with malaria and sickle cell anemia). […] A meta-analysis demonstrated that having an improved water source with a protected well can reduce the risk of culture-confirmed typhoid infection by half. […] Enteric fever is a prime example of the „infectious divide” between high-income countries and those with low and middle incomes. […] The vast majority of enteric fever cases worldwide are due to S Typhi. […] In 2019, an estimated 9.2 million typhoid fever cases and 110,000 deaths occurred worldwide.

• #51 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Salmonella enterica serotypes Typhi, Paratyphi A, Paratyphi B (tartrate negative), and Paratyphi C cause potentially severe and occasionally life-threatening bacteremic illnesses referred to as typhoid fever (for Typhi serotype) and paratyphoid fever (for Paratyphi serotypes), and collectively as enteric fever. […] Humans are the only source of the bacteria that cause enteric fever; no animal or environmental reservoirs have been identified. Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are acquired through consumption of water or food contaminated by feces of an acutely infected or convalescent person, or a person with chronic, asymptomatic carriage. […] An estimated 9.2 million cases of typhoid fever and 3.8 million cases of paratyphoid fever occur worldwide each year, causing an estimated 133,000 deaths.

• #52 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Salmonella enterica serotypes Typhi, Paratyphi A, Paratyphi B (tartrate negative), and Paratyphi C cause potentially severe and occasionally life-threatening bacteremic illnesses referred to as typhoid fever (for Typhi serotype) and paratyphoid fever (for Paratyphi serotypes), and collectively as enteric fever. […] Humans are the only source of the bacteria that cause enteric fever; no animal or environmental reservoirs have been identified. Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are acquired through consumption of water or food contaminated by feces of an acutely infected or convalescent person, or a person with chronic, asymptomatic carriage. […] An estimated 9.2 million cases of typhoid fever and 3.8 million cases of paratyphoid fever occur worldwide each year, causing an estimated 133,000 deaths.

• #53 Complications and mortality of typhoid fever: A global systematic review and meta-analysis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7754788/

  Typhoid fever is caused by the organism Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi (Salmonella Typhi); a systematic infection transmitted predominantly through water or food contaminated by human feces. […] Typhoid complications include typhoid intestinal perforation (TIP), gastrointestinal hemorrhage, hepatitis, cholecystitis, myocarditis, shock, encephalopathy, pneumonia, and anemia. […] Intestinal perforation was a common complication and an important contributor to typhoid mortality, especially in African studies where one in five patients with TIP died. […] The median CFR of TIP across the 36 studies was 15.5% (6.7-24.1%). […] Among 13,303 confirmed typhoid cases from studies reporting mortality, 250 died, for a CFR of 1.9%. […] The pooled CFR estimate (95% CI; heterogeneity I2) among 79 studies reporting on mortality of confirmed typhoid fever was 2.0% (1.4-2.8%; 83.9%). […] The pooled CFR estimates for the Asia, Africa, Oceania, the Americas, and Europe regions were 0.9% (0.6-1.3%; 63.4%), 5.4% (2.7-8.9%; 83.4%), 7.2% (0.0-20.4%; 97.2%), 6.7% (0.0-19.9%; 94.4%), and 1.0% (0.0-6.8%; incalculable), respectively.

• #54 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  The importance of chronic carriage to ongoing transmission is well documented in non-endemic countries; however, the role in endemic countries is not well understood. […] Typhoid fever is more severe in debilitated and immunocompromised patients such as those with human immunodeficiency virus, on glucocorticoid therapy, or with altered phagocyte function (eg, patients with malaria and sickle cell anemia). […] A meta-analysis demonstrated that having an improved water source with a protected well can reduce the risk of culture-confirmed typhoid infection by half. […] Enteric fever is a prime example of the „infectious divide” between high-income countries and those with low and middle incomes. […] The vast majority of enteric fever cases worldwide are due to S Typhi. […] In 2019, an estimated 9.2 million typhoid fever cases and 110,000 deaths occurred worldwide.

• #55

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is usually spread through contaminated food or water. Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested, they multiply and spread into the bloodstream. […] Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics although increasing resistance to different types of antibiotics is making treatment more complicated. […] Typhoid risk is higher in populations that lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation, and children are at highest risk. […] Antimicrobial resistance is common with likelihood of more complicated and expensive treatment options required in the most affected regions. […] Typhoid fever is common in places with poor sanitation and a lack of safe drinking water. Access to safe water and adequate sanitation, hygiene among food handlers and typhoid vaccination are all effective in preventing typhoid fever. […] Typhoid conjugate vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than the older typhoid vaccines and can be given as a single dose to children from the age of 6 months.

• #56 Complications and mortality of typhoid fever: A global systematic review and meta-analysis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7754788/

  Typhoid fever is caused by the organism Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi (Salmonella Typhi); a systematic infection transmitted predominantly through water or food contaminated by human feces. […] Typhoid complications include typhoid intestinal perforation (TIP), gastrointestinal hemorrhage, hepatitis, cholecystitis, myocarditis, shock, encephalopathy, pneumonia, and anemia. […] Intestinal perforation was a common complication and an important contributor to typhoid mortality, especially in African studies where one in five patients with TIP died. […] The median CFR of TIP across the 36 studies was 15.5% (6.7-24.1%). […] Among 13,303 confirmed typhoid cases from studies reporting mortality, 250 died, for a CFR of 1.9%. […] The pooled CFR estimate (95% CI; heterogeneity I2) among 79 studies reporting on mortality of confirmed typhoid fever was 2.0% (1.4-2.8%; 83.9%). […] The pooled CFR estimates for the Asia, Africa, Oceania, the Americas, and Europe regions were 0.9% (0.6-1.3%; 63.4%), 5.4% (2.7-8.9%; 83.4%), 7.2% (0.0-20.4%; 97.2%), 6.7% (0.0-19.9%; 94.4%), and 1.0% (0.0-6.8%; incalculable), respectively.

• #57 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever (enteric fever) is a systemic disease caused by the gram-negative bacterium Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi (S. Typhi). […] In the United States, typhoid is uncommon and occurs mainly among travelers returning from endemic regions. […] Humans are the only natural host and reservoir. Typhoid bacilli are shed in stool of asymptomatic carriers or in stool or urine of people with active disease. The infection is transmitted by ingestion of food or water contaminated with feces. […] The organism enters the body via the gastrointestinal tract and gains access to the bloodstream via the lymphatic channels. […] About 3% of untreated patients, referred to as chronic enteric carriers, harbor organisms in their gallbladder and shed them in stool for 1 year. […] Without antibiotics, the case fatality rate is about 10 to 15%. With prompt therapy, the case fatality rate is 1%.

• #58 Typhoid Fever – Infections – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/bacterial-infections-gram-negative-bacteria/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever is caused by certain types of the gram-negative bacteria Salmonella. It typically causes a high fever and abdominal pain. […] Typhoid fever is one type of infection caused by Salmonella bacteria. There are many types of Salmonella, but most typhoid fever is caused by Salmonella Typhi. […] Typhoid fever is common in areas where sanitary conditions are poor. […] Salmonella Typhi is present only in people. […] People who are infected excrete the bacteria in stool and, rarely, in urine. […] Salmonella Typhi bacteria may contaminate food or drink when hands are inadequately washed after defecation or urination. […] Like all Salmonella bacteria, many of these bacteria must be consumed for infection to develop. […] Without treatment, typhoid fever is fatal in about 10 to 15% of people. With treatment, typhoid fever is fatal in only about 1% of people. […] A typhoid vaccine given by mouth (orally) and a polysaccharide vaccine given by injection into a muscle can help prevent typhoid fever.

• #59 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever (enteric fever) is a systemic disease caused by the gram-negative bacterium Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi (S. Typhi). […] In the United States, typhoid is uncommon and occurs mainly among travelers returning from endemic regions. […] Humans are the only natural host and reservoir. Typhoid bacilli are shed in stool of asymptomatic carriers or in stool or urine of people with active disease. The infection is transmitted by ingestion of food or water contaminated with feces. […] The organism enters the body via the gastrointestinal tract and gains access to the bloodstream via the lymphatic channels. […] About 3% of untreated patients, referred to as chronic enteric carriers, harbor organisms in their gallbladder and shed them in stool for 1 year. […] Without antibiotics, the case fatality rate is about 10 to 15%. With prompt therapy, the case fatality rate is 1%.

• #60 Complications and mortality of typhoid fever: A global systematic review and meta-analysis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7754788/

  Typhoid fever is caused by the organism Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi (Salmonella Typhi); a systematic infection transmitted predominantly through water or food contaminated by human feces. […] Typhoid complications include typhoid intestinal perforation (TIP), gastrointestinal hemorrhage, hepatitis, cholecystitis, myocarditis, shock, encephalopathy, pneumonia, and anemia. […] Intestinal perforation was a common complication and an important contributor to typhoid mortality, especially in African studies where one in five patients with TIP died. […] The median CFR of TIP across the 36 studies was 15.5% (6.7-24.1%). […] Among 13,303 confirmed typhoid cases from studies reporting mortality, 250 died, for a CFR of 1.9%. […] The pooled CFR estimate (95% CI; heterogeneity I2) among 79 studies reporting on mortality of confirmed typhoid fever was 2.0% (1.4-2.8%; 83.9%). […] The pooled CFR estimates for the Asia, Africa, Oceania, the Americas, and Europe regions were 0.9% (0.6-1.3%; 63.4%), 5.4% (2.7-8.9%; 83.4%), 7.2% (0.0-20.4%; 97.2%), 6.7% (0.0-19.9%; 94.4%), and 1.0% (0.0-6.8%; incalculable), respectively.

• #61 Complications and mortality of typhoid fever: A global systematic review and meta-analysis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7754788/

  Typhoid fever is caused by the organism Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi (Salmonella Typhi); a systematic infection transmitted predominantly through water or food contaminated by human feces. […] Typhoid complications include typhoid intestinal perforation (TIP), gastrointestinal hemorrhage, hepatitis, cholecystitis, myocarditis, shock, encephalopathy, pneumonia, and anemia. […] Intestinal perforation was a common complication and an important contributor to typhoid mortality, especially in African studies where one in five patients with TIP died. […] The median CFR of TIP across the 36 studies was 15.5% (6.7-24.1%). […] Among 13,303 confirmed typhoid cases from studies reporting mortality, 250 died, for a CFR of 1.9%. […] The pooled CFR estimate (95% CI; heterogeneity I2) among 79 studies reporting on mortality of confirmed typhoid fever was 2.0% (1.4-2.8%; 83.9%). […] The pooled CFR estimates for the Asia, Africa, Oceania, the Americas, and Europe regions were 0.9% (0.6-1.3%; 63.4%), 5.4% (2.7-8.9%; 83.4%), 7.2% (0.0-20.4%; 97.2%), 6.7% (0.0-19.9%; 94.4%), and 1.0% (0.0-6.8%; incalculable), respectively.

• #62 Complications and mortality of typhoid fever: A global systematic review and meta-analysis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7754788/

  Typhoid fever is caused by the organism Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi (Salmonella Typhi); a systematic infection transmitted predominantly through water or food contaminated by human feces. […] Typhoid complications include typhoid intestinal perforation (TIP), gastrointestinal hemorrhage, hepatitis, cholecystitis, myocarditis, shock, encephalopathy, pneumonia, and anemia. […] Intestinal perforation was a common complication and an important contributor to typhoid mortality, especially in African studies where one in five patients with TIP died. […] The median CFR of TIP across the 36 studies was 15.5% (6.7-24.1%). […] Among 13,303 confirmed typhoid cases from studies reporting mortality, 250 died, for a CFR of 1.9%. […] The pooled CFR estimate (95% CI; heterogeneity I2) among 79 studies reporting on mortality of confirmed typhoid fever was 2.0% (1.4-2.8%; 83.9%). […] The pooled CFR estimates for the Asia, Africa, Oceania, the Americas, and Europe regions were 0.9% (0.6-1.3%; 63.4%), 5.4% (2.7-8.9%; 83.4%), 7.2% (0.0-20.4%; 97.2%), 6.7% (0.0-19.9%; 94.4%), and 1.0% (0.0-6.8%; incalculable), respectively.

• #63 Typhoid Fever Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/231135-clinical

  S typhi and Salmonella paratyphi cause typhoid/enteric fever. […] The clinical course of an untreated patient with typhoid fever may deviate from that describe above. The timing of the symptoms and host response may vary based on geographic region, race factors, and the infecting bacterial strain. […] Young children, individuals with AIDS, and at least one third of immunocompetent adults who develop typhoid fever develop diarrhea rather than constipation. […] Atypical manifestations of typhoid fever include isolated severe headaches that may mimic meningitis, acute lobar pneumonia, isolated arthralgias, urinary symptoms, severe jaundice, or fever alone. […] Other unusual complications include pancreatitis, meningitis, orchitis, osteomyelitis, and abscesses anywhere on the body.

• #64 Complications and mortality of typhoid fever: A global systematic review and meta-analysis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7754788/

  Typhoid fever is caused by the organism Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi (Salmonella Typhi); a systematic infection transmitted predominantly through water or food contaminated by human feces. […] Typhoid complications include typhoid intestinal perforation (TIP), gastrointestinal hemorrhage, hepatitis, cholecystitis, myocarditis, shock, encephalopathy, pneumonia, and anemia. […] Intestinal perforation was a common complication and an important contributor to typhoid mortality, especially in African studies where one in five patients with TIP died. […] The median CFR of TIP across the 36 studies was 15.5% (6.7-24.1%). […] Among 13,303 confirmed typhoid cases from studies reporting mortality, 250 died, for a CFR of 1.9%. […] The pooled CFR estimate (95% CI; heterogeneity I2) among 79 studies reporting on mortality of confirmed typhoid fever was 2.0% (1.4-2.8%; 83.9%). […] The pooled CFR estimates for the Asia, Africa, Oceania, the Americas, and Europe regions were 0.9% (0.6-1.3%; 63.4%), 5.4% (2.7-8.9%; 83.4%), 7.2% (0.0-20.4%; 97.2%), 6.7% (0.0-19.9%; 94.4%), and 1.0% (0.0-6.8%; incalculable), respectively.

• #65

  https://journals.lww.com/aoam/fulltext/2010/09030/jaundice_in_typhoid_patients__differentiation_from.6.aspx

  While typhoid fever is common in our environment, presentation with jaundice is unusual. […] The aim of this study has been to determine the clinical and laboratory features that allow early diagnosis of typhoid fever in patients that present with jaundice and differentiate it from other common causes of fever and jaundice in the tropics. […] Typhoid patients may present with varying degrees of jaundice and fever that may be confused with viral, malarial or amebic hepatitis, diseases that are common in the tropics. […] Typhoid fever continues to be a common problem in developing countries where it is associated with high morbidity and mortality. […] Jaundice is a rare clinical presentation in typhoid fever and its presence may cause diagnostic problems, especially in the tropics where malaria and viral hepatitis are common. […] The clinical presentation of typhoid with jaundice can pose a diagnostic problem especially in the tropics, where jaundice in the febrile patient can be due to malaria, amebic or viral hepatitis. […] This study concludes that patients with typhoid fever may present with jaundice.

• #66 Typhoid Fever Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/231135-clinical

  S typhi and Salmonella paratyphi cause typhoid/enteric fever. […] The clinical course of an untreated patient with typhoid fever may deviate from that describe above. The timing of the symptoms and host response may vary based on geographic region, race factors, and the infecting bacterial strain. […] Young children, individuals with AIDS, and at least one third of immunocompetent adults who develop typhoid fever develop diarrhea rather than constipation. […] Atypical manifestations of typhoid fever include isolated severe headaches that may mimic meningitis, acute lobar pneumonia, isolated arthralgias, urinary symptoms, severe jaundice, or fever alone. […] Other unusual complications include pancreatitis, meningitis, orchitis, osteomyelitis, and abscesses anywhere on the body.

• #67 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  The culture of S Typhi or S Paratyphi from a normally sterile site, usually the blood or bone marrow, is the gold standard for diagnosing enteric fever. […] Antimicrobial resistance has been a significant threat to the control of enteric fever since the advent of antibiotic treatment. […] Multidrug resistance to all 3 first-line drugs, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, and co-trimoxazole, was first identified in 1972 and became common by the 1980s. […] The accumulated resistance genes of MDR strains are encoded on a large conjugative (self-transmissible) plasmid. […] The WHO recommends facility-based surveillance in all endemic countries, with laboratory confirmation of the infection.

• #68

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is usually spread through contaminated food or water. Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested, they multiply and spread into the bloodstream. […] Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics although increasing resistance to different types of antibiotics is making treatment more complicated. […] Typhoid risk is higher in populations that lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation, and children are at highest risk. […] Antimicrobial resistance is common with likelihood of more complicated and expensive treatment options required in the most affected regions. […] Typhoid fever is common in places with poor sanitation and a lack of safe drinking water. Access to safe water and adequate sanitation, hygiene among food handlers and typhoid vaccination are all effective in preventing typhoid fever. […] Typhoid conjugate vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than the older typhoid vaccines and can be given as a single dose to children from the age of 6 months.

• #69 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  The culture of S Typhi or S Paratyphi from a normally sterile site, usually the blood or bone marrow, is the gold standard for diagnosing enteric fever. […] Antimicrobial resistance has been a significant threat to the control of enteric fever since the advent of antibiotic treatment. […] Multidrug resistance to all 3 first-line drugs, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, and co-trimoxazole, was first identified in 1972 and became common by the 1980s. […] The accumulated resistance genes of MDR strains are encoded on a large conjugative (self-transmissible) plasmid. […] The WHO recommends facility-based surveillance in all endemic countries, with laboratory confirmation of the infection.

• #70 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are nationally notifiable diseases in the United States. […] Identification of a domestically acquired case should prompt a public health investigation to prevent other cases. […] Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are clinically indistinguishable. The combination of risk factors for infection and gradual onset of fever that increases in severity over several days should raise suspicion of enteric fever. […] Antibiotic therapy shortens the clinical course of enteric fever and reduces the risk of complications and death. […] Established resistance to older antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) has led to these agents being recommended only as alternative antibiotics for infections with known susceptibility. […] Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Typhi with resistance to all 3 of these antibiotics has been present for decades.

• #71 Typhoid fever | Definition, Symptoms, & Treatment | Britannica

  https://www.britannica.com/science/typhoid-fever

  typhoid fever, acute infectious disease caused by the bacterium Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. The bacterium usually enters the body through the mouth by the ingestion of contaminated food or water, penetrates the intestinal wall, and multiplies in lymphoid tissue; it then enters the bloodstream and causes bacteremia. […] Most major epidemics of typhoid fever have been caused by the pollution of public water supplies. Food and milk may be contaminated, however, by a human carrier of the disease who is employed in handling and processing them; by flies; or by the use of polluted water for cleaning purposes. Shellfish, particularly oysters, grown in polluted water and fresh vegetables grown on soil fertilized or contaminated by untreated sewage are other possible causes. […] The treatment of typhoid fever has been complicated by the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of S. Typhi. Historically, the antibiotic of choice against the disease was chloramphenicol. In the 1970s, because of widespread chloramphenicol resistance, ampicillin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole became the treatments of choice. Those drugs, however, were eventually rendered ineffective by multidrug-resistant S. Typhi. Strains of the bacterium that are resistant to contemporary antibiotics, including fluoroquinolones, have been increasingly reported in Asia and Africa.

• #72 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are nationally notifiable diseases in the United States. […] Identification of a domestically acquired case should prompt a public health investigation to prevent other cases. […] Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are clinically indistinguishable. The combination of risk factors for infection and gradual onset of fever that increases in severity over several days should raise suspicion of enteric fever. […] Antibiotic therapy shortens the clinical course of enteric fever and reduces the risk of complications and death. […] Established resistance to older antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) has led to these agents being recommended only as alternative antibiotics for infections with known susceptibility. […] Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Typhi with resistance to all 3 of these antibiotics has been present for decades.

• #73 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  The culture of S Typhi or S Paratyphi from a normally sterile site, usually the blood or bone marrow, is the gold standard for diagnosing enteric fever. […] Antimicrobial resistance has been a significant threat to the control of enteric fever since the advent of antibiotic treatment. […] Multidrug resistance to all 3 first-line drugs, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, and co-trimoxazole, was first identified in 1972 and became common by the 1980s. […] The accumulated resistance genes of MDR strains are encoded on a large conjugative (self-transmissible) plasmid. […] The WHO recommends facility-based surveillance in all endemic countries, with laboratory confirmation of the infection.

• #74 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are nationally notifiable diseases in the United States. […] Identification of a domestically acquired case should prompt a public health investigation to prevent other cases. […] Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are clinically indistinguishable. The combination of risk factors for infection and gradual onset of fever that increases in severity over several days should raise suspicion of enteric fever. […] Antibiotic therapy shortens the clinical course of enteric fever and reduces the risk of complications and death. […] Established resistance to older antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) has led to these agents being recommended only as alternative antibiotics for infections with known susceptibility. […] Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Typhi with resistance to all 3 of these antibiotics has been present for decades.

• #75 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  The culture of S Typhi or S Paratyphi from a normally sterile site, usually the blood or bone marrow, is the gold standard for diagnosing enteric fever. […] Antimicrobial resistance has been a significant threat to the control of enteric fever since the advent of antibiotic treatment. […] Multidrug resistance to all 3 first-line drugs, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, and co-trimoxazole, was first identified in 1972 and became common by the 1980s. […] The accumulated resistance genes of MDR strains are encoded on a large conjugative (self-transmissible) plasmid. […] The WHO recommends facility-based surveillance in all endemic countries, with laboratory confirmation of the infection.

• #76 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are nationally notifiable diseases in the United States. […] Identification of a domestically acquired case should prompt a public health investigation to prevent other cases. […] Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are clinically indistinguishable. The combination of risk factors for infection and gradual onset of fever that increases in severity over several days should raise suspicion of enteric fever. […] Antibiotic therapy shortens the clinical course of enteric fever and reduces the risk of complications and death. […] Established resistance to older antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) has led to these agents being recommended only as alternative antibiotics for infections with known susceptibility. […] Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Typhi with resistance to all 3 of these antibiotics has been present for decades.

• #77 Typhoid fever | Definition, Symptoms, & Treatment | Britannica

  https://www.britannica.com/science/typhoid-fever

  typhoid fever, acute infectious disease caused by the bacterium Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. The bacterium usually enters the body through the mouth by the ingestion of contaminated food or water, penetrates the intestinal wall, and multiplies in lymphoid tissue; it then enters the bloodstream and causes bacteremia. […] Most major epidemics of typhoid fever have been caused by the pollution of public water supplies. Food and milk may be contaminated, however, by a human carrier of the disease who is employed in handling and processing them; by flies; or by the use of polluted water for cleaning purposes. Shellfish, particularly oysters, grown in polluted water and fresh vegetables grown on soil fertilized or contaminated by untreated sewage are other possible causes. […] The treatment of typhoid fever has been complicated by the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of S. Typhi. Historically, the antibiotic of choice against the disease was chloramphenicol. In the 1970s, because of widespread chloramphenicol resistance, ampicillin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole became the treatments of choice. Those drugs, however, were eventually rendered ineffective by multidrug-resistant S. Typhi. Strains of the bacterium that are resistant to contemporary antibiotics, including fluoroquinolones, have been increasingly reported in Asia and Africa.

• #78 Typhoid fever | Definition, Symptoms, & Treatment | Britannica

  https://www.britannica.com/science/typhoid-fever

  typhoid fever, acute infectious disease caused by the bacterium Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. The bacterium usually enters the body through the mouth by the ingestion of contaminated food or water, penetrates the intestinal wall, and multiplies in lymphoid tissue; it then enters the bloodstream and causes bacteremia. […] Most major epidemics of typhoid fever have been caused by the pollution of public water supplies. Food and milk may be contaminated, however, by a human carrier of the disease who is employed in handling and processing them; by flies; or by the use of polluted water for cleaning purposes. Shellfish, particularly oysters, grown in polluted water and fresh vegetables grown on soil fertilized or contaminated by untreated sewage are other possible causes. […] The treatment of typhoid fever has been complicated by the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of S. Typhi. Historically, the antibiotic of choice against the disease was chloramphenicol. In the 1970s, because of widespread chloramphenicol resistance, ampicillin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole became the treatments of choice. Those drugs, however, were eventually rendered ineffective by multidrug-resistant S. Typhi. Strains of the bacterium that are resistant to contemporary antibiotics, including fluoroquinolones, have been increasingly reported in Asia and Africa.

• #79 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Before 2018, among all Typhi and Paratyphi A isolates tested by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS), 99% were susceptible to azithromycin and ceftriaxone, based on resistance criteria for Typhi. […] Typhoid vaccine is recommended for travelers 2 years and older going to areas where risk for exposure to Typhi is recognized.

• #80

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is usually spread through contaminated food or water. Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested, they multiply and spread into the bloodstream. […] Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics although increasing resistance to different types of antibiotics is making treatment more complicated. […] Typhoid risk is higher in populations that lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation, and children are at highest risk. […] Antimicrobial resistance is common with likelihood of more complicated and expensive treatment options required in the most affected regions. […] Typhoid fever is common in places with poor sanitation and a lack of safe drinking water. Access to safe water and adequate sanitation, hygiene among food handlers and typhoid vaccination are all effective in preventing typhoid fever. […] Typhoid conjugate vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than the older typhoid vaccines and can be given as a single dose to children from the age of 6 months.

• #81 Typhoid Fever | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/foodborne-illness/typhoid-fever

  Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested they multiply and spread from the intestines into the bloodstream. […] General recommendations for avoiding Typhoid Fever: Avoid risky foods and beverages when traveling to high risk countries Boil it, Cook it, Peel it, or Forget it. […] When overseas to an area of the world that is known to be at risk for Typhoid Fever, vaccination prior to travel date is a consideration. […] Typhoid Fever vaccination loses effectiveness over time check with a doctor to identify whether a booster is required.

• #82 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  The importance of chronic carriage to ongoing transmission is well documented in non-endemic countries; however, the role in endemic countries is not well understood. […] Typhoid fever is more severe in debilitated and immunocompromised patients such as those with human immunodeficiency virus, on glucocorticoid therapy, or with altered phagocyte function (eg, patients with malaria and sickle cell anemia). […] A meta-analysis demonstrated that having an improved water source with a protected well can reduce the risk of culture-confirmed typhoid infection by half. […] Enteric fever is a prime example of the „infectious divide” between high-income countries and those with low and middle incomes. […] The vast majority of enteric fever cases worldwide are due to S Typhi. […] In 2019, an estimated 9.2 million typhoid fever cases and 110,000 deaths occurred worldwide.

• #83 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/typhoid-fever

  Drinking water should be purified, and sewage should be disposed of effectively. […] A live-attenuated oral typhoid vaccine is available (Ty21a strain); it is used for travelers to endemic regions and is about 40 to 80% effective. […] Typhoid fever is spread enterically and causes fever and other constitutional symptoms (eg, headache, arthralgia, anorexia, abdominal pain and tenderness); later in the disease, some patients develop severe, sometimes bloody diarrhea and/or a characteristic rash (rose spots). […] A chronic carrier state develops in about 3% of untreated patients; they harbor organisms in their gallbladder and shed them in stool for 1 year. […] Diagnose using blood and stool cultures; because drug resistance is common, susceptibility testing is essential. […] Treat with ceftriaxone, a fluoroquinolone, or azithromycin, guided by susceptibility testing; corticosteroids may be given to decrease severe symptoms.

• #84

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is usually spread through contaminated food or water. Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested, they multiply and spread into the bloodstream. […] Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics although increasing resistance to different types of antibiotics is making treatment more complicated. […] Typhoid risk is higher in populations that lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation, and children are at highest risk. […] Antimicrobial resistance is common with likelihood of more complicated and expensive treatment options required in the most affected regions. […] Typhoid fever is common in places with poor sanitation and a lack of safe drinking water. Access to safe water and adequate sanitation, hygiene among food handlers and typhoid vaccination are all effective in preventing typhoid fever. […] Typhoid conjugate vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than the older typhoid vaccines and can be given as a single dose to children from the age of 6 months.

• #85 What are 4 causes of typhoid?

  https://www.touchwoodpharmacy.com/what-are-4-causes-of-typhoid/

  Typhoid fever is caused by a bacteria called Salmonella typhi. […] Typhoid is usually spread through contaminated food and water. It can also spread from person to person or through surfaces an infected person has touched. […] Drinking and using tap water is one of the major methods of typhoid transmission. […] Eating raw fruit and veg that has been washed in contaminated water will do more harm than good. […] You shouldnt buy food from street vendors because of the contamination risk. […] Use hand sanitiser and wash your hands thoroughly and frequently, even when you arent travelling.

• #86 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/typhoid-fever

  Drinking water should be purified, and sewage should be disposed of effectively. […] A live-attenuated oral typhoid vaccine is available (Ty21a strain); it is used for travelers to endemic regions and is about 40 to 80% effective. […] Typhoid fever is spread enterically and causes fever and other constitutional symptoms (eg, headache, arthralgia, anorexia, abdominal pain and tenderness); later in the disease, some patients develop severe, sometimes bloody diarrhea and/or a characteristic rash (rose spots). […] A chronic carrier state develops in about 3% of untreated patients; they harbor organisms in their gallbladder and shed them in stool for 1 year. […] Diagnose using blood and stool cultures; because drug resistance is common, susceptibility testing is essential. […] Treat with ceftriaxone, a fluoroquinolone, or azithromycin, guided by susceptibility testing; corticosteroids may be given to decrease severe symptoms.

• #87

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is usually spread through contaminated food or water. Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested, they multiply and spread into the bloodstream. […] Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics although increasing resistance to different types of antibiotics is making treatment more complicated. […] Typhoid risk is higher in populations that lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation, and children are at highest risk. […] Antimicrobial resistance is common with likelihood of more complicated and expensive treatment options required in the most affected regions. […] Typhoid fever is common in places with poor sanitation and a lack of safe drinking water. Access to safe water and adequate sanitation, hygiene among food handlers and typhoid vaccination are all effective in preventing typhoid fever. […] Typhoid conjugate vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than the older typhoid vaccines and can be given as a single dose to children from the age of 6 months.

• #88 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Before 2018, among all Typhi and Paratyphi A isolates tested by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS), 99% were susceptible to azithromycin and ceftriaxone, based on resistance criteria for Typhi. […] Typhoid vaccine is recommended for travelers 2 years and older going to areas where risk for exposure to Typhi is recognized.

• #89 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Before 2018, among all Typhi and Paratyphi A isolates tested by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS), 99% were susceptible to azithromycin and ceftriaxone, based on resistance criteria for Typhi. […] Typhoid vaccine is recommended for travelers 2 years and older going to areas where risk for exposure to Typhi is recognized.

• #90

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is usually spread through contaminated food or water. Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested, they multiply and spread into the bloodstream. […] Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics although increasing resistance to different types of antibiotics is making treatment more complicated. […] Typhoid risk is higher in populations that lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation, and children are at highest risk. […] Antimicrobial resistance is common with likelihood of more complicated and expensive treatment options required in the most affected regions. […] Typhoid fever is common in places with poor sanitation and a lack of safe drinking water. Access to safe water and adequate sanitation, hygiene among food handlers and typhoid vaccination are all effective in preventing typhoid fever. […] Typhoid conjugate vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than the older typhoid vaccines and can be given as a single dose to children from the age of 6 months.

• #91 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/typhoid-fever

  Drinking water should be purified, and sewage should be disposed of effectively. […] A live-attenuated oral typhoid vaccine is available (Ty21a strain); it is used for travelers to endemic regions and is about 40 to 80% effective. […] Typhoid fever is spread enterically and causes fever and other constitutional symptoms (eg, headache, arthralgia, anorexia, abdominal pain and tenderness); later in the disease, some patients develop severe, sometimes bloody diarrhea and/or a characteristic rash (rose spots). […] A chronic carrier state develops in about 3% of untreated patients; they harbor organisms in their gallbladder and shed them in stool for 1 year. […] Diagnose using blood and stool cultures; because drug resistance is common, susceptibility testing is essential. […] Treat with ceftriaxone, a fluoroquinolone, or azithromycin, guided by susceptibility testing; corticosteroids may be given to decrease severe symptoms.

• #92 Typhoid Fever – Infections – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/bacterial-infections-gram-negative-bacteria/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever is caused by certain types of the gram-negative bacteria Salmonella. It typically causes a high fever and abdominal pain. […] Typhoid fever is one type of infection caused by Salmonella bacteria. There are many types of Salmonella, but most typhoid fever is caused by Salmonella Typhi. […] Typhoid fever is common in areas where sanitary conditions are poor. […] Salmonella Typhi is present only in people. […] People who are infected excrete the bacteria in stool and, rarely, in urine. […] Salmonella Typhi bacteria may contaminate food or drink when hands are inadequately washed after defecation or urination. […] Like all Salmonella bacteria, many of these bacteria must be consumed for infection to develop. […] Without treatment, typhoid fever is fatal in about 10 to 15% of people. With treatment, typhoid fever is fatal in only about 1% of people. […] A typhoid vaccine given by mouth (orally) and a polysaccharide vaccine given by injection into a muscle can help prevent typhoid fever.

• #93

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is usually spread through contaminated food or water. Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested, they multiply and spread into the bloodstream. […] Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics although increasing resistance to different types of antibiotics is making treatment more complicated. […] Typhoid risk is higher in populations that lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation, and children are at highest risk. […] Antimicrobial resistance is common with likelihood of more complicated and expensive treatment options required in the most affected regions. […] Typhoid fever is common in places with poor sanitation and a lack of safe drinking water. Access to safe water and adequate sanitation, hygiene among food handlers and typhoid vaccination are all effective in preventing typhoid fever. […] Typhoid conjugate vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than the older typhoid vaccines and can be given as a single dose to children from the age of 6 months.

• #94 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/typhoid-fever

  Drinking water should be purified, and sewage should be disposed of effectively. […] A live-attenuated oral typhoid vaccine is available (Ty21a strain); it is used for travelers to endemic regions and is about 40 to 80% effective. […] Typhoid fever is spread enterically and causes fever and other constitutional symptoms (eg, headache, arthralgia, anorexia, abdominal pain and tenderness); later in the disease, some patients develop severe, sometimes bloody diarrhea and/or a characteristic rash (rose spots). […] A chronic carrier state develops in about 3% of untreated patients; they harbor organisms in their gallbladder and shed them in stool for 1 year. […] Diagnose using blood and stool cultures; because drug resistance is common, susceptibility testing is essential. […] Treat with ceftriaxone, a fluoroquinolone, or azithromycin, guided by susceptibility testing; corticosteroids may be given to decrease severe symptoms.

• #95 Typhoid Fever | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/foodborne-illness/typhoid-fever

  Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested they multiply and spread from the intestines into the bloodstream. […] General recommendations for avoiding Typhoid Fever: Avoid risky foods and beverages when traveling to high risk countries Boil it, Cook it, Peel it, or Forget it. […] When overseas to an area of the world that is known to be at risk for Typhoid Fever, vaccination prior to travel date is a consideration. […] Typhoid Fever vaccination loses effectiveness over time check with a doctor to identify whether a booster is required.

• #96 What are 4 causes of typhoid?

  https://www.touchwoodpharmacy.com/what-are-4-causes-of-typhoid/

  Typhoid fever is caused by a bacteria called Salmonella typhi. […] Typhoid is usually spread through contaminated food and water. It can also spread from person to person or through surfaces an infected person has touched. […] Drinking and using tap water is one of the major methods of typhoid transmission. […] Eating raw fruit and veg that has been washed in contaminated water will do more harm than good. […] You shouldnt buy food from street vendors because of the contamination risk. […] Use hand sanitiser and wash your hands thoroughly and frequently, even when you arent travelling.

• #97 Typhoid Fever | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/foodborne-illness/typhoid-fever

  Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested they multiply and spread from the intestines into the bloodstream. […] General recommendations for avoiding Typhoid Fever: Avoid risky foods and beverages when traveling to high risk countries Boil it, Cook it, Peel it, or Forget it. […] When overseas to an area of the world that is known to be at risk for Typhoid Fever, vaccination prior to travel date is a consideration. […] Typhoid Fever vaccination loses effectiveness over time check with a doctor to identify whether a booster is required.

• #98 What are 4 causes of typhoid?

  https://www.touchwoodpharmacy.com/what-are-4-causes-of-typhoid/

  Typhoid fever is caused by a bacteria called Salmonella typhi. […] Typhoid is usually spread through contaminated food and water. It can also spread from person to person or through surfaces an infected person has touched. […] Drinking and using tap water is one of the major methods of typhoid transmission. […] Eating raw fruit and veg that has been washed in contaminated water will do more harm than good. […] You shouldnt buy food from street vendors because of the contamination risk. […] Use hand sanitiser and wash your hands thoroughly and frequently, even when you arent travelling.

• #99 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  The culture of S Typhi or S Paratyphi from a normally sterile site, usually the blood or bone marrow, is the gold standard for diagnosing enteric fever. […] Antimicrobial resistance has been a significant threat to the control of enteric fever since the advent of antibiotic treatment. […] Multidrug resistance to all 3 first-line drugs, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, and co-trimoxazole, was first identified in 1972 and became common by the 1980s. […] The accumulated resistance genes of MDR strains are encoded on a large conjugative (self-transmissible) plasmid. […] The WHO recommends facility-based surveillance in all endemic countries, with laboratory confirmation of the infection.

• #100 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever.html

  Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are nationally notifiable diseases in the United States. […] Identification of a domestically acquired case should prompt a public health investigation to prevent other cases. […] Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are clinically indistinguishable. The combination of risk factors for infection and gradual onset of fever that increases in severity over several days should raise suspicion of enteric fever. […] Antibiotic therapy shortens the clinical course of enteric fever and reduces the risk of complications and death. […] Established resistance to older antibiotics (e.g., ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) has led to these agents being recommended only as alternative antibiotics for infections with known susceptibility. […] Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Typhi with resistance to all 3 of these antibiotics has been present for decades.

• #101 Typhoid: Symptoms, treatment, causes, and prevention

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/156859

  Typhoid is an infection caused by Salmonella bacteria. […] Typhoid is caused by the bacteria S. typhi. It spreads through food, drinks, and drinking water that are contaminated with infected fecal matter. […] The bacterium lives in the intestines and bloodstream of humans. It spreads between individuals through direct contact with the feces of a person with an infection. […] No animals carry this disease, so transmission is always from human to human. S. typhi enters through the mouth and spends 1-3 weeks in the intestine. […] Typhoid is more prevalent in places with less efficient sanitation and hygiene. […] Some people carry the bacteria without developing symptoms. […] People who test positive for typhoid may not be allowed to work with children or older adults until medical tests are negative.

• #102 Typhoid fever – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid_fever

  Disease caused by the bacteria Salmonella Typhi. […] Causative agent: Salmonella enterica serological variant Typhi. […] Causes: Gastrointestinal infection of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi. […] Typhoid is caused by the bacterium Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi growing in the intestines, Peyer’s patches, mesenteric lymph nodes, spleen, liver, gallbladder, bone marrow and blood. […] Typhoid is spread by eating or drinking food or water contaminated with the feces of an infected person. […] Salmonella Typhi which causes typhoid fever is different from the other Salmonella bacteria that usually cause salmonellosis, a common type of food poisoning. […] The Gram-negative bacterium that causes typhoid fever is Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi. […] S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi is spread by the fecal-oral route from people who are infected and from asymptomatic carriers of the bacterium.

• #103 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever (enteric fever) is a systemic disease caused by the gram-negative bacterium Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi (S. Typhi). […] In the United States, typhoid is uncommon and occurs mainly among travelers returning from endemic regions. […] Humans are the only natural host and reservoir. Typhoid bacilli are shed in stool of asymptomatic carriers or in stool or urine of people with active disease. The infection is transmitted by ingestion of food or water contaminated with feces. […] The organism enters the body via the gastrointestinal tract and gains access to the bloodstream via the lymphatic channels. […] About 3% of untreated patients, referred to as chronic enteric carriers, harbor organisms in their gallbladder and shed them in stool for 1 year. […] Without antibiotics, the case fatality rate is about 10 to 15%. With prompt therapy, the case fatality rate is 1%.

• #104

  https://newsroom.uw.edu/news-releases/gene-loss-may-explain-how-salmonella-causes-typhoid-fever

  Some salmonella bacteria, however, can cause a serious, prolonged infection called typhoid fever. While it is uncommon in the United States, typhoid sickens more than 9.2 million people worldwide and kills more than 110,000 annually. […] A new study suggests that the salmonella variants that cause typhoid acquired this ability by shedding genes responsible for many of the acute symptoms of food poisoning. […] The salmonella serovars that cause typhoid typhi and paratyphi have adopted a different survival strategy. They infect macrophages and prevent them from self-destructing. This allows them to persist within the macrophages and to travel inside them as the immune cells move throughout the body. […] Salmonella typhi and paratyphi are stealth pathogens, Fang explained. They dont stimulate a robust immune response. Instead, they have found a way to persist in macrophages and spread throughout the body, causing an infection in which the bacteria can be shed in the stool for weeks to months and sometimes persistently colonizing people, like Typhoid Mary, who can never get rid of it.

• #105

  https://newsroom.uw.edu/news-releases/gene-loss-may-explain-how-salmonella-causes-typhoid-fever

  In their study, Fang and colleagues show that salmonella typhi and paratyphi acquired this ability by shedding 12 genes that ordinarily trigger macrophage death. […] As a result of the loss of these genes, the vigorous immune response and macrophage destruction seen with salmonella food poisoning does not occur with typhoid infections.

• #106

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is usually spread through contaminated food or water. Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested, they multiply and spread into the bloodstream. […] Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics although increasing resistance to different types of antibiotics is making treatment more complicated. […] Typhoid risk is higher in populations that lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation, and children are at highest risk. […] Antimicrobial resistance is common with likelihood of more complicated and expensive treatment options required in the most affected regions. […] Typhoid fever is common in places with poor sanitation and a lack of safe drinking water. Access to safe water and adequate sanitation, hygiene among food handlers and typhoid vaccination are all effective in preventing typhoid fever. […] Typhoid conjugate vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than the older typhoid vaccines and can be given as a single dose to children from the age of 6 months.

• #107 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  The importance of chronic carriage to ongoing transmission is well documented in non-endemic countries; however, the role in endemic countries is not well understood. […] Typhoid fever is more severe in debilitated and immunocompromised patients such as those with human immunodeficiency virus, on glucocorticoid therapy, or with altered phagocyte function (eg, patients with malaria and sickle cell anemia). […] A meta-analysis demonstrated that having an improved water source with a protected well can reduce the risk of culture-confirmed typhoid infection by half. […] Enteric fever is a prime example of the „infectious divide” between high-income countries and those with low and middle incomes. […] The vast majority of enteric fever cases worldwide are due to S Typhi. […] In 2019, an estimated 9.2 million typhoid fever cases and 110,000 deaths occurred worldwide.

• #108

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is usually spread through contaminated food or water. Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria are ingested, they multiply and spread into the bloodstream. […] Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics although increasing resistance to different types of antibiotics is making treatment more complicated. […] Typhoid risk is higher in populations that lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation, and children are at highest risk. […] Antimicrobial resistance is common with likelihood of more complicated and expensive treatment options required in the most affected regions. […] Typhoid fever is common in places with poor sanitation and a lack of safe drinking water. Access to safe water and adequate sanitation, hygiene among food handlers and typhoid vaccination are all effective in preventing typhoid fever. […] Typhoid conjugate vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than the older typhoid vaccines and can be given as a single dose to children from the age of 6 months.

• #109 TYPHOID FEVER 101: CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, TREATMENT, AND PREVENTION | Mya Care

  https://myacare.com/blog/typhoid-fever-101-causes-symptoms-treatment-and-prevention

  Given below is a guide to safeguard yourself from the disease: […] Typhoid fever vaccines can protect you against illness and have become increasingly important with the emergence of strains of typhoid bacteria that resist antibiotic treatment. […] If you experience typhoid fever symptoms, contact a healthcare provider as soon as possible. Early diagnosis and treatment will increase your survival chances and reduce the risk of developing complications from the illness.

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