Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Typhoid fever – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/typhoid-fever/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20378665

  Your health care provider may suspect typhoid fever based on your symptoms, and your medical and travel history. The diagnosis is often confirmed by growing the Salmonella enterica serotype typhi in a sample of your body fluid or tissue. […] A sample of your blood, stool, urine or bone marrow is used. The sample is placed in an environment where bacteria grow easily. The growth, called a culture, is checked under a microscope for the typhoid bacteria. A bone marrow culture often is the most sensitive test for Salmonella typhi. […] A culture test is the most common diagnostic test. But other testing may be used to confirm typhoid fever. One is a test to detect antibodies to typhoid bacteria in your blood. Another test checks for typhoid DNA in your blood.

• #2 Typhoid Fever: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17730-typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever is an illness caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi). […] Your healthcare provider will use your symptoms, your travel history and lab tests to diagnose typhoid fever. […] Your healthcare provider will take samples of body fluids or tissue to test for signs of S. Typhi. […] Typhoid is treated with antibiotics. […] Your healthcare provider will treat typhoid fever with antibiotics, which may include: Ciprofloxacin, levoflaxin or ofloxacin. […] If you live in or are traveling to an area where typhoid is common, getting vaccinated is the best way to keep from getting ill and spreading disease. […] You may still be contagious for a long time after your symptoms go away. […] Its important to be tested after you feel better to make sure you cant give typhoid to someone else.

• #3 Typhoid fever – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/typhoid-fever/symptoms-causes/syc-20378661

  See a health care provider right away if you think you might have typhoid fever. […] If you have symptoms after you return home, consider seeing a provider who focuses on international travel medicine or infectious diseases. This might help get typhoid fever diagnosed and treated more quickly.

• #4

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/typhoid-fever/diagnosis/

  You should see a GP if you think you have typhoid fever, particularly if you’ve returned from travelling abroad in the past month or so. […] A diagnosis of typhoid fever can usually be confirmed by analysing samples of blood, poo, or pee. […] These will be examined under a microscope for the Salmonella typhi bacteria that cause the condition. […] The bacteria aren’t always detected the first time, so you may need to have a series of tests. […] Testing a sample of bone marrow is a more accurate way of diagnosing typhoid fever. […] If typhoid fever is confirmed, other members of your household may also need to be tested in case you have passed the infection on to them.

• #5 Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/infections-diseases/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever

  Healthcare professionals should know how to diagnose, treat, and prevent typhoid and paratyphoid fever in international travelers. […] Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are nationally notifiable diseases in the United States. Healthcare professionals should report cases to their state or local health department. Identification of a domestically acquired case should prompt a public health investigation to prevent other cases. […] Patients with typhoid or paratyphoid fever typically have bacteremia; blood culture is therefore the preferred method of diagnosis. A single culture is positive in only approximately 50% of cases, however. Multiple blood cultures increase the sensitivity and might be required for diagnosis. […] Poor sensitivity and specificity of rapid antibody tests and the time it takes to obtain a positive culture mean that the initial diagnosis must often be made clinically. Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are clinically indistinguishable. The combination of risk factors for infection and gradual onset of fever that increases in severity over several days should raise suspicion of enteric fever.

• #6 Enteric Fever Diagnosis: Current Challenges and Future Directions

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/10/4/410

  Enteric fever is a life-threatening systemic febrile disease caused by Salmonella enterica serovars Typhi and Paratyphi (S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi). […] An accurate diagnosis is critical for effective control of the disease. However, enteric fever diagnosis based on clinical presentations is challenging due to overlapping symptoms with other febrile illnesses that are also prevalent in endemic areas. […] Current laboratory tests display suboptimal sensitivity and specificity, and no diagnostic methods are available for identifying asymptomatic carriers. […] This review discusses the pros and cons of currently available diagnostic tests for enteric fever, the advancement of research toward improved diagnostic tests, and the challenges of discovering new ideal biomarkers and tests. […] Laboratory diagnosis is required to confirm enteric fever.

• #6 Enteric Fever Diagnosis: Current Challenges and Future Directions

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/10/4/410

  The current diagnostic tests cannot reliably distinguish enteric fever from others. […] A myriad of reports has indicated the global spread of S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi strains that are resistant to all of the first-line antibiotics, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, and co-trimoxazole, collectively known as multidrug-resistance (MDR) Salmonella. […] For this reason, bone marrow culture is generally considered the gold standard for enteric fever diagnosis in endemic areas. […] The primary challenges of this method include a slower turnaround time (≥48 h) required for bacterial growth and identification and the need for appropriate laboratory infrastructure, which is not necessarily common in endemic areas. […] Nucleic acid detection involves polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that amplifies Salmonella serovar-specific DNA for diagnosis.

• #6 Enteric Fever Diagnosis: Current Challenges and Future Directions

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/10/4/410

  The arrival of new diagnostic tests allowing the early detection of S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi infection and the detection of chronic carriers would help eradicate enteric fever. […] Current enteric fever diagnostics such as culture-based methods exhibit superior specificity but suffer from low sensitivity and relatively slow turnaround time. […] Toward the establishment of optimal diagnostic methods, several high-throughput approaches have been carried out to search for bacterial and host biomarkers that are relatively unique for enteric fever and differentiating acute, recovery, and convalescent infection stages. […] The currently available data are not sufficient to point out a single ideal biomarker.

• #6 Enteric Fever Diagnosis: Current Challenges and Future Directions

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/10/4/410

  Although enteric fever has been well established for more than a century, there has not been a single “ideal” laboratory diagnostic biomarker available. […] The definitive diagnosis of enteric fever requires the isolation of bacteria from blood or bone marrow, accompanied by fever ≥38 °C for at least three days. […] Culture remains the mainstay of diagnosis, and bacterial isolation allows us to characterize the pathogen for antibiotic resistance genes and the causation of the outbreak of disease in the particular location. […] Although the method has 100% specificity, it lacks sensitivity. […] On average, blood and bone marrow cultures have a sensitivity of ~50% and ~80%, respectively, which directly correlates with the number of viable bacteria in blood (≤1 CFU/mL) and bone marrow (~10 CFU/mL).

• #7 Diagnostics for Typhoid Fever: Current Perspectives and Future Outlooks for Product Development and Access

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10236505/

  Typhoid is an enteric disease caused by Salmonella Typhi. Like many febrile illnesses, typhoid presents with nonspecific symptoms. In routine healthcare settings in low- and middle-income countries, typhoid fever is suspected and treated empirically. Though many diagnostic tests are available for typhoid diagnosis, there are currently no diagnostic tests that meet ideal requirements for sensitivity, specificity, speed, and cost-effectiveness. […] Regional estimates of the burden of typhoid fever cannot be measured accurately without improved disease diagnostics; this lack of diagnostics and data impacts the ability of governments to plan and appropriately intervene. […] Blood culture is recognized to be the gold standard for typhoid diagnosis; however, it is a complex and expensive process as highlighted by the example from Laos.

• #8 Typhoid Fever Workup: Approach Considerations, Laboratory Studies, Imaging Studies

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/231135-workup

  Any individual with a significant febrile illness who has traveled to endemic areas or who has been exposed to a case of Typhoid should be ruled out for this disease. […] The diagnosis of typhoid fever (enteric fever) is primarily clinical. […] Importantly, the reported sensitivities of tests for S typhi vary greatly in the literature, even among the most recent articles and respected journals. […] The criterion standard for diagnosis of typhoid fever has long been culture isolation of the organism. Cultures are considered 100% to be 100% specific. […] Blood, intestinal secretions (vomitus or duodenal aspirate), and stool culture results are positive for S typhi in approximately 85%-90% of patients with typhoid fever who present within the first week of onset. […] Multiple blood cultures (3) yield a sensitivity of 73%-97%.

• #8 Typhoid Fever Workup: Approach Considerations, Laboratory Studies, Imaging Studies

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/231135-workup

  Stool culture alone yields a sensitivity of less than 50%, and urine culture alone is even less sensitive. […] Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has been used for the diagnosis of typhoid fever with varying success. […] Assays that identify Salmonella antibodies or antigens support the diagnosis of typhoid fever, but these results should be confirmed with cultures or DNA evidence. […] In summary, current laboratory tests possess suboptimal sensitivity and specificity. […] Since the sensitivity of cultures of blood, bone marrow, urine and stool vary with the duration of disease, various nonspecific tests have been studied regarding usefulness in diagnosing typhoid fever. […] A serum alanine amino transferase (ALT) to lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) ratio of more than 9:1 appears to be helpful in distinguishing typhoid from viral hepatitis.

• #9 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  Identify the key clinical manifestations and diagnostic tests to promptly diagnose typhoid and paratyphoid fever. […] Confirmation of typhoid or paratyphoid fever requires S Typhi or S Paratyphi bacteria or deoxyribonucleic acid from the organism to be isolated from a normally sterile site by culture or molecular test, respectively. […] The culture of S Typhi or S Paratyphi from a normally sterile site, usually the blood or bone marrow, is the gold standard for diagnosing enteric fever. Blood or bone marrow culture is 100% specific and essential to determining antimicrobial susceptibility and the appropriateness of ongoing treatment. […] The Widal agglutination test is a classic serological test that has been controversial since its development in the late nineteenth century due to its low sensitivity and specificity.

• #9 Typhoid Fever – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557513/

  Various serological tests for diagnosing typhoid are commercially available and increasingly used due to their low cost and rapid results. However, sensitivity and specificity are only moderate due to cross-reactivity with other Salmonella serovars and preexisting antibodies from prior infection. […] Nucleic acid detection methods such as multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or whole genome sequencing allow the genetic signature of the specific genotype to be determined, including the resistance pattern.

• #10 Typhoid Fever Diagnosis in Endemic Countries: A Clog in the Wheel of Progress?

  https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/54/2/23

  Isolation of the causative bacteria in TF patients by culture remains the gold standard for diagnosis. […] However, in most developing countries a serological test known as the Widal test is most commonly applied. […] The definitive diagnosis of TF is isolation of S. Typhi from blood which should normally be sterile. […] In patients who have yet to initiate antibiotic treatment, within the first two weeks of infection, blood culture is positive in up to 80% of patients, while in patients already on antibiotics, sensitivity can be as low as 40%. […] In contrast, bone marrow culture is more sensitive giving good yields even when antibiotic treatment has been initiated. […] Some of the challenges in the application of culture-based approaches in isolating S. Typhi in endemic countries include the time taken to obtain culture results which takes at least 5–7 days, low sensitivity, lack of infrastructure and inadequate supply of trained manpower.

• #10 Typhoid Fever Diagnosis in Endemic Countries: A Clog in the Wheel of Progress?

  https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/54/2/23

  The Widal test was developed by Georges Ferdinand Widal in 1896 and helps to detect the presence of Salmonella antibodies in a patient’s serum. […] The Widal test is simple and inexpensive to perform, and widely used in developing countries, although it has limited diagnostic value. […] Generally, although RDTs have demonstrated some improvement over the Widal test, they still lack the required sensitivity, specificity, cost-effectiveness and consistency to allow their use as point-of-care diagnostics in endemic settings. […] Without improved diagnostics, accurate estimates of the burden of typhoid, and planning by technical partners and governments concerned will remain challenging. […] There is a need for increased funding for laboratory infrastructure in developing countries especially in Sub-Saharan Africa where the true burden of typhoid is underappreciated, largely due to weak public health systems.

• #10 Typhoid Fever Diagnosis in Endemic Countries: A Clog in the Wheel of Progress?

  https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/54/2/23

  Typhoid fever causes significant morbidity and mortality in developing countries, with inaccurate estimates in some countries affected, especially those situated in Sub-Saharan Africa. […] Disease burden assessment is limited by lack of a high degree of sensitivity and specificity by many current rapid diagnostic tests. […] In addition, most typhoid-endemic countries employ serological tests that have low sensitivity and specificity making diagnosis unreliable. Here we review currently available typhoid fever diagnostics, and advances in serodiagnosis of S. Typhi. […] In most TF affected countries, physicians rely on laboratory results from serologic tests that are not reliable (usually Widal) to arrive at a clinical decision. […] Here, we review laboratory diagnosis of TF, emergence of ABR S. Typhi and propose solutions to challenges encountered in TF-endemic countries.

• #11 Diagnosis of Enteric Fever

  https://www.pidjournal.com/abstractArticleContentBrowse/PID/26124/JPJ/fullText

  The presence of normal WBC count or leukocytosis with or without eosinopenia does not rule out typhoid fever. […] Blood culture is the gold standard for the diagnosis of typhoid and paratyphoid fever. […] Blood culture diagnostic sensitivity is characterized by heterogeneity, ranging between 40% and 87% with an average sensitivity of about 50% and drops considerably with prior antibiotic treatment and duration of illness. […] Bone marrow cultures have a very high yield with sensitivity between 80% and 95%. […] Although serological tests are commonly used in many settings, current evidence suggests that these tests are limited by their poor sensitivity and specificity, and so are inappropriate. […] The Widal test has several limitations and even if it is requested for in the second week of the illness, it loses its clinical relevance. […] Rapid serological tests correlate poorly with blood culture results. […] An ideal test should be rapid, specific as well as sensitive for detection of true infection and carrier stage.

• #12 Typhoid Fever – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever (enteric fever) is a systemic disease caused by the gram-negative bacterium Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi (S. Typhi). […] Diagnosis is clinical and confirmed by culture. […] Diagnosis of Typhoid Fever […] Typhoid fever should be considered in patients with fever in or those returning from endemic areas, particularly if fever has lasted more than 3 days or there is diarrhea, abdominal pain, or constipation. […] Cultures of blood, stool, and urine should be obtained. […] Blood cultures are usually positive only during the first 2 weeks of illness and are not highly sensitive, but stool cultures are usually positive during the third to fifth weeks. […] If these cultures are negative and typhoid fever is strongly suspected, culture from a bone marrow biopsy specimen (which is highly sensitive) may reveal the organism.

• #13 Typhoid fever: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001332.htm

  Typhoid fever is an infection that causes fever, diarrhea, and a rash. It is most commonly caused by bacteria called Salmonella typhi (S typhi). […] Your health care provider will perform a physical exam and ask about the symptoms. A complete blood count (CBC) will show a high number of white blood cells. A blood culture during the first week of the fever can show S typhi bacteria. Other tests that can help diagnose this condition include: ELISA blood test to look for antibodies to the S typhi bacteria, Fluorescent antibody study to look for substances that are specific to S typhi bacteria, Platelet count (platelet count may be low), Stool culture.

• #14 Detect Causes of Typhoid Fever Through Blood Tests

  https://www.lupindiagnostics.com/blog/lifestyle/how-to-diagnose-typhoid-fever-tests-and-procedures-explained

  Typhoid fever is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Salmonella typhi (S. typhi), which spreads through contaminated water and food. […] Diagnosis involves analyzing urine, stool, blood, or bone marrow samples to detect the presence of the bacteria. […] Blood Culture: This test is the primary method for confirming typhoid fever. […] Stool Culture: Effective during the second and third weeks of infection, this test’s reliability depends on sample quantity and disease duration. […] Bone Marrow: Although highly accurate, this test is invasive and costly. […] Widal Test: Also known as the typhoid or enteric fever test, this blood test identifies antibodies produced against S. Typhi antigens. […] Skin Snip Test: Punch biopsies of infection-related rashes aid in diagnosing typhoid fever before initiating antibiotic treatment.

• #14 Detect Causes of Typhoid Fever Through Blood Tests

  https://www.lupindiagnostics.com/blog/lifestyle/how-to-diagnose-typhoid-fever-tests-and-procedures-explained

  Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Assay: This test identifies H and O antigen serotypes based on DNA, but its sensitivity is limited due to low bacterial concentrations in the blood. […] Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA): This test identifies antibodies and is useful for acute illness diagnosis. […] Interpretation of Results: Widal test results range from 1:20 to 1:640, with a titer of 1:160 or higher indicating a positive result. […] A positive result suggests S. Typhi infection, necessitating consultation with a healthcare provider. […] In summary, typhoid fever, caused by Salmonella typhi, poses significant health risks if untreated. Diagnosis relies on various tests, with the Widal test being a common method for identifying the infection.

• #15 Typhoid Fever, Enteric Fever (Salmonella typhi)

  https://labpedia.net/typhoid-fever-enteric-fever-salmonella-typhi/

  Blood culture: When you take 15 mL is positive during the first 10 days of infection, positivity may reach 90% and even in the relapse. 30% of cases are positive in the third week. It is positive in the first week of infection in 80% of the cases. But blood culture may reach 90% of the cases, decreasing to 50% in the third week. […] The widal test was developed in 1896. It will be positive after 7 to 10 days of infection. The blood, bone marrow, bile, and stool culture is superior to the widal test for typhoid fever or carrier state diagnosis. If the cultures facilities are unavailable, then the widal test is valuable for the diagnosis. […] The titer of O-antibodies 1:80 is suspicious in unvaccinated patients. The titer of 1:160 is strongly suggestive of infection in unvaccinated individuals.

• #15 Typhoid Fever, Enteric Fever (Salmonella typhi)

  https://labpedia.net/typhoid-fever-enteric-fever-salmonella-typhi/

  The widal test is positive in the vaccinated person or previous infection. False positive reactions are seen in autoimmune diseases. […] How will you diagnose the Enteric fever (Salmonella infection)? Typhidot test: The manufacturing companies claim that it would be positive after 2 to 3 days. […] Summary of Diagnosis of typhoid fever: Samonella is non-motile. Biochemical tests show acid and gas formation from carbohydrates. S.typhi does not produce gas formation. Serologically, it can identify antigens. O somatic antigen. H flagellar antigen. Vi surface antigen. […] Explain the Summary of the available lab tests for diagnosing Typhoid fever? White blood cell count: It is low during the first two weeks. WBC count decreased from 4000 to 6000/cmm. 3000 to 5000/cmm during the next two weeks. 10,000/cmm or more/cmm may suggest perforation or sepsis (suppuration).

• #15 Typhoid Fever, Enteric Fever (Salmonella typhi)

  https://labpedia.net/typhoid-fever-enteric-fever-salmonella-typhi/

  What Sample is needed to diagnose Typhoid Fever? A widal test can be done on the serum of the patient. Feces can be used for the culture. A blood culture can be done and is positive in the early stage of the fever. Urine may also be needed for the culture. In a few cases, a bone marrow sample can be cultured. […] What precautions will you take for diagnosis of Typhoid Fever? The widal test will be positive after 7 to 10 days of the onset of the fever. Culture gives the early result to detect the bacilli. […] How will you diagnose enteric fever (typhoid fever)? CBC shows: Low TLC, leucopenia. 4000 to 6000/cmm in the first two weeks. 3000 to 5000/cmm during the next two weeks. 10,000/cmm may suggest perforation or suppuration. ESR is usually decreased. There is normocytic anemia. In case of bleeding, this may become hypochromic and microcytic anemia.

• #16 All You Need To Know About The Widal Test For Typhoid Fever | Health-e

  https://health-e.in/blog/widal-test/

  A widal test report is more commonly known as the typhoid test report, as the widal test is done for diagnosing typhoid fever. […] The widal test is a serological test that detects antibodies against the bacteria in a patients blood sample, indicating whether or not they have been infected with the bacteria. […] The widal test analyzes the interaction between these antigens and antibodies in a patients blood sample. By detecting the presence of these antibodies, the test can confirm whether or not a person has been infected with the bacteria that causes typhoid fever. […] If a person is showing the following symptoms, a doctor may recommend a widal test to confirm the diagnosis: […] The widal test is a valuable diagnostic tool in detecting typhoid fever, and its a relatively simple and straightforward procedure.

• #16 All You Need To Know About The Widal Test For Typhoid Fever | Health-e

  https://health-e.in/blog/widal-test/

  A titer of 1:160 or higher is considered diagnostic of typhoid fever. However, its important to note that the widal test alone is not enough to diagnose typhoid fever, and other clinical and laboratory tests should be conducted for confirmation. […] If someone receives a positive result on the widal test, it means that they have been infected with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi bacteria, which is the cause of typhoid fever. […] If the widal test shows a negative result and the titre value of antigens O and H in the sample is below 1:160, it indicates that the person is unlikely to have an enteric fever, and their symptoms may be due to a different infection. […] The widal test is a fast and efficient diagnostic test used to detect typhoid fever. Unlike other diagnostic methods, results from the widal test can be obtained on the same day.

• #17 Typhoid fever – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoid_fever

  The Widal test is used to identify specific antibodies in the serum of people with typhoid by using antigen-antibody interactions. […] In this test, the serum is mixed with a dead bacterial suspension of Salmonella with specific antigens. […] Rapid diagnostic tests such as Tubex, Typhidot, and Test-It have shown moderate diagnostic accuracy. […] Typhidot is based on the presence of specific IgM and IgG antibodies to a specific 50Kd OMP antigen. […] The Tubex test contains two types of particles: brown magnetic particles coated with antigen and blue indicator particles coated with O9 antibody.

• #18 Blood Tests For Typhoid Fever: Symptoms, Causes and Treatment | Ganesh Diagnostic

  https://www.ganeshdiagnostic.com/blog/blood-tests-for-typhoid-fever-symptoms-causes-and-treatment

  At Ganesh Diagnostic, we promote different tests- Blood Tests, Culture, Urine and Stool examination for the typhoid diagnosis. Given below are the lists of Tests at our Center. […] The Widal test in general, involves in testing for the agglutinating antibody levels against your O antigens which would usually appear in about 6 to 8 days after the disease onset and along with H antigens which appears on the days 10 to 12. However, use of the more recent tests such as your IDL Tubex test or Typhidot test to allow for more rapid detection of antibodies, leading to the faster diagnosis. […] The complete blood count (CBC) also shows the high number of the white blood cells. The blood culture during first week of your fever could show the S typhi bacteria. Also ELISA blood test can look for the antibodies to S typhi bacteria.

• #19 Is the Widal Test Reliable for Typhoid Fever Diagnosis?

  https://www.awayclinic.com/post/a-commonly-used-typhoid-test-can-be-very-misleading

  Typhoid fever is a serious bacterial infection caused by Salmonella typhi, typically spread through contaminated food and water. Symptoms include fever, headache, fatigue, abdominal pain, and constipation or diarrhea. While the typhoid vaccine offers protection, proper diagnosis is crucial for effective typhoid treatment with antibiotics. […] In many developing countries, the Widal test is commonly used to diagnose typhoid fever. However, this agglutination test has significant limitations that can lead to misdiagnosis. […] The Widal test is a serological test used to detect antibodies against Salmonella typhi antigens in a blood sample. Developed by Georges-Fernand Widal in 1896, it has been a long-standing tool in the diagnosis of typhoid fever. […] However, it’s important to note that many experts argue that the Widal test is no longer appropriate as a standalone diagnostic tool for typhoid fever due to its low sensitivity and specificity. Its continued use is often a result of necessity rather than preference in areas where more accurate alternatives are not readily available.

• #20 Widal Test – Testing.com

  https://www.testing.com/tests/widal-test/

  The Widal test is one method that may be used to help make a presumptive diagnosis of enteric fever, also known as typhoid fever. […] Although the test is no longer commonly performed in the United States or other developed countries, it is still in use in many emerging nations where enteric fever is endemic and limited resources require the use of rapid, affordable testing alternatives. […] While the method is easy to perform, concerns remain about the reliability of the Widal test. It is not specific for typhoid fever and can be positive when a person does not have the infection. […] In the U.S. and other developed nations, testing for enteric fever usually involves a blood culture to detect the bacteria during the first week of fever. A stool, urine or bone marrow culture may also be performed.

• #20 Widal Test – Testing.com

  https://www.testing.com/tests/widal-test/

  The World Health Organization (WHO) has said that due to the various factors that can influence the results of a Widal test, it is best not to rely too much on this test. WHO instead recommends the use of cultures, whenever possible. […] There are newer rapid antibody tests for typhoid fever commercially available, several of which have been included in comparative studies of their reliability, for example in India and Africa. Findings seem to vary as to whether any are as reliable as blood culture for diagnosing this infection.

• #21 What Are the New Diagnostic Tests for Typhoid Fever?

  https://www.icliniq.com/articles/infectious-diseases/advances-in-typhoid-fever-diagnostics

  New diagnostic tools for typhoid fever promise rapid, accurate detection, improving patient outcomes and global disease control. […] Rapid and accurate diagnostics are crucial for the early identification and appropriate management of typhoid cases. […] In recent years, significant progress has been made in developing diagnostic tests for typhoid fever, revolutionizing ones approach to this debilitating disease. […] Serologic tests are diagnostic methods to detect antibodies produced by the patient’s immune system in response to an infection, such as typhoid fever. […] The two most commonly known serologic tests for typhoid fever are the Widal test and newer advancements like the Tubex and Typhidot assays. […] The Widal test has been a longstanding tool in diagnosing typhoid fever.

• #21 What Are the New Diagnostic Tests for Typhoid Fever?

  https://www.icliniq.com/articles/infectious-diseases/advances-in-typhoid-fever-diagnostics

  Significant advancements in blood culture technology have addressed these limitations. […] In addition to automated blood culture systems, molecular techniques such as Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) have emerged as valuable tools for typhoid fever diagnosis. […] Rapid antigen tests detect specific proteins or antigens associated with the target pathogen, in this case, Salmonella Typhi. […] Rapid antigen tests are a valuable tool in the early diagnosis of typhoid fever, allowing for prompt initiation of treatment. […] Molecular diagnostic tests, such as Polymerase Chain Reaction and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), are at the forefront of modern diagnostic technology. […] Molecular tests focus on identifying the pathogen’s genetic material, in this case, Salmonella Typhi.

• #21 What Are the New Diagnostic Tests for Typhoid Fever?

  https://www.icliniq.com/articles/infectious-diseases/advances-in-typhoid-fever-diagnostics

  One of the major advantages of molecular tests is their ability to detect the bacterium at an early stage of infection. […] Metabolomics seeks to identify and characterize the metabolic fingerprints or profiles associated with typhoid fever. […] Researchers in this field work on identifying specific biomarkers, which are metabolites or metabolic products indicative of typhoid fever. […] Metabolomics has the potential to revolutionize typhoid diagnostics by providing a quick and accurate means of detection. […] The landscape of typhoid fever diagnostics is evolving rapidly, with various tools and technologies available for healthcare providers.

• #22 Assessment of Rapid Diagnostic Tests for Typhoid Diagnosis and Assessment of Febrile Illness Outbreaks in Fiji in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 106 Issue 2 (2022)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/106/2/article-p543.xml

  Blood culture is the most common method used and its sensitivity ranges from 40% to 66%. […] Several antibody detection RDT for typhoid are available, but their value for routine individual patient management is limited by their lack of sensitivity and specificity. […] We evaluated the diagnostic accuracy of available typhoid RDTs on stored serum samples from patients and subjects in Fiji. […] The sensitivity and specificity of the three RDTs using blood culture-confirmed typhoid cases as the reference standard are shown in Table 3. […] TUBEX had a sensitivity of 77.6%, specificity 60.5%, with a PPV of 32.2%, and NPV of 91.5%. […] The sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV of Typhidot Rapid were 75.5%, 85.5%, 56.6%, and 93.3%, respectively. […] The Test-It assay had a sensitivity of 57.1%, specificity 93.4%, PPV 68.5%, and NPV 89.7%.

• #22 Assessment of Rapid Diagnostic Tests for Typhoid Diagnosis and Assessment of Febrile Illness Outbreaks in Fiji in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 106 Issue 2 (2022)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/106/2/article-p543.xml

  Typhoid is an endemic in Fiji with increases observed since the early 2000s and frequent outbreaks reported. […] We assessed the diagnostic accuracy of currently available typhoid rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) (TUBEX, Typhidot Rapid, and Test-It assay) to establish their performance against blood culture in Fiji and to examine their suitability for rapid typhoid outbreak identification. […] The sensitivities of the tests were 77.6% for TUBEX, 75.5% for Typhidot Rapid, and 57.1% for Test-It assay. […] Typhoid RDTs performed suboptimally for individual patient diagnosis due to low sensitivity and variable specificity. […] We demonstrate that RDTs could be useful in the field for rapid attribution of febrile illness outbreaks to typhoid. […] The diagnosis of typhoid is complicated by the lack of sensitivity of existing methods.

• #22 Assessment of Rapid Diagnostic Tests for Typhoid Diagnosis and Assessment of Febrile Illness Outbreaks in Fiji in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 106 Issue 2 (2022)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/106/2/article-p543.xml

  Our findings on the performance of Typhidot Rapid and Test-It assay are comparable to a recent systematic review, which reported sensitivity of 78% (95% CI 6581) and 69 (95% CI 5978) and specificity of 77 (95% CI 6686) and 90 (95% CI 7893), respectively. […] Although we do not recommend their use in Fiji for patient-level diagnosis of typhoid, they may be useful in the field investigation of outbreaks of febrile illness for rapid assessment of typhoid as a cause.

• #23

  https://journals.lww.com/armh/fulltext/2024/12030/evaluation_of_a_rapid_diagnostic_test__tubex_tf_.3.aspx

  We conclude that the TUBEX-TF test has a greater sensitivity and specificity than other rapid tests currently on the market. It is a simple, rapid test to diagnose enteric fever. […] To facilitate quick and accurate diagnosis in endemic regions, several rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) that look for the presence of enteric fever serovar-specific immunodominant antigens have been developed. […] TUBEX-TF detects anti-O9 IgM antibodies against S. typhi and anti-O2 antibodies against S. paratyphi, whereas the Enterocheck-WB test detects both IgM and IgG antibodies against S. Typhis 50-kDa outer membrane protein (OMP). […] These RDTs can be utilized as a reliable point-of-care test for prompt diagnosis of enteric fever since they have 80%-90% specificity, 70%-80% sensitivity, and a quick turnaround time of under 2 h.

• #24 A Novel Approach to Typhoid Fever Diagnostics – Take on Typhoid

  https://www.coalitionagainsttyphoid.org/a-novel-approach-to-typhoid-fever-diagnostics/

  Improved diagnostics are crucial in the fight against typhoid fever. Current methods are inadequate. Blood culture tests are considered the gold standard, yet often misidentify typhoid fever as other enteric diseases, such as paratyphoid. […] Without effective diagnostic methods, it is difficult to identify patients, determine treatment, and track the spread of disease. […] A new study, using a technique called metabolomics, may have taken a crucial first step towards developing the next generation of typhoid diagnostics. […] The researchers identified 6 key metabolites that can be used to distinguish between typhoid cases, paratyphoid cases, and controls. […] Though these findings are promising, much more research must be conducted before this methodology could be applied in clinical settings.

• #25 Typhoid fever | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-023-00480-z

  Tennant, S. M. et al. Detection of typhoidal and paratyphoidal Salmonella in blood by real-time polymerase chain reaction. […] Sapkota, J. et al. Comparative analysis of commercially available typhoid point-of-care tests: results of a prospective and hybrid retrospective multicenter diagnostic accuracy study in Kenya and Pakistan. […] Charles, R. C. et al. Immunoproteomic analysis of antibody in lymphocyte supernatant in patients with typhoid fever in Bangladesh. […] Andrews, J. R. et al. Plasma immunoglobulin a responses against 2 Salmonella Typhi antigens identify patients with typhoid fever. […] Liang, L. et al. Immune profiling with a Salmonella Typhi antigen microarray identifies new diagnostic biomarkers of human typhoid. […] Mylona, E. et al. The identification of enteric fever-specific antigens for population-based serosurveillance.

• #26 Validation of the Nelwan Score as a screening tool for the diagnosis of typhoid fever in adults in Indonesia | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0256508

  Typhoid fever diagnosis is challenging for clinicians in areas with limited laboratory facilities. Scoring methods based on signs and symptoms are useful for screening for probable cases of typhoid fever. The Nelwan Score variables are derived from the clinical signs and symptoms of patients with suspected typhoid. We validated the Nelwan Score compared to laboratory tests as the gold standard. […] A Nelwan Score of 10 is the best cut-off value for screening for typhoid fever. It is useful as screening tool for typhoid fever, where laboratory resources are limited, and could help to decrease irrational antibiotic use. […] The Nelwan Score, which was first developed by Nelwan in 1991 is a clinical scoring system that aids in the diagnosis of typhoid fever. […] With the Nelwan Score, the points obtained are totaled, and the score corresponds to the probability of a clinical diagnosis of typhoid fever: a score of 13 or more is rated highly likely to be typhoid fever, and typhoid fever is unlikely if the score is 7.

• #27 Typhoid Diagnostics – Take on Typhoid

  https://www.coalitionagainsttyphoid.org/the-issues/typhoid-diagnostics/

  Accurate diagnosis of typhoid is critical to ensuring that those who are sick receive timely medical attention and appropriate treatment. Current typhoid diagnosis has many challenges due to both the nature of the disease as well as the difficulties with available diagnostic tools. […] According to the World Health Organization, a definitive diagnosis of typhoid requires isolation of the Salmonella Typhi bacterium through blood culture. This method is considered the gold standard for typhoid diagnosis, though it still has serious practical limitations. […] Because of these limitations, the diagnosis of typhoid in most low-resource settings is made based on clinical criteria, which is challenging due to the nonspecificity of typhoid symptoms. […] Several typhoid diagnostics that aim to overcome the shortcomings of existing methods, by being cost-effective and rapidly delivering accurate results, are in development. […] The development of a more cost-effective, rapid diagnostic test is needed to help avoid misdiagnosis.

• #28

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid

  Typhoid fever can be confirmed through blood testing. […] Typhoid fever can be treated with antibiotics although increasing resistance to different types of antibiotics is making treatment more complicated. […] Antimicrobial resistance is common with likelihood of more complicated and expensive treatment options required in the most affected regions. […] It is important for people being treated for typhoid fever to do the following: Have their doctor test to ensure that no Salmonella Typhi bacteria remain in their body. […] Typhoid fever vaccination should be offered to travellers to destinations where the risk of typhoid fever is high. […] In October 2017, the Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization (SAGE), which advises WHO on vaccine use, issued a recommendation for the typhoid conjugate vaccine to be added to routine childhood immunization programmes in typhoid endemic countries. […] As at March 2023, WHO has prequalified two conjugate vaccines for the prevention of typhoid. Typhoid conjugate vaccine has longer-lasting immunity than the older typhoid vaccines and can be given as a single dose to children from the age of 6 months.

• #29

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/typhoid-fever/treatment/

  Typhoid fever can usually be treated successfully with a course of antibiotic medicine. […] Any blood, poo or pee samples taken during your diagnosis will usually be tested in a laboratory to determine which strain you’re infected with, so you can be treated with an appropriate antibiotic. […] Hospital admission is usually recommended if you have severe symptoms of typhoid fever, such as persistent vomiting, severe diarrhoea or a swollen stomach. […] Most people respond well to hospital treatment and improve within 3 to 5 days, but it may be several weeks until you’re well enough to leave hospital. […] If this happens, the symptoms usually return around a week after antibiotic treatment has finished. […] After your symptoms have passed, another poo sample should be tested to check if there are still Salmonella typhi bacteria in your poo. […] You may need to have a further 28-day course of antibiotics to „flush out” the bacteria.

• #30 Typhoid Fever: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment | Dr. B. Lal Lab

  https://blallab.com/blogs/typhoid-symptoms-causes-diagnosis-tests-treatment

  The diagnosis of typhoid fever typically involves: […] Antibody tests can be conducted to determine if you have developed antibodies against Salmonella typhi […] Laboratory tests can be performed to check for fever […] Samples of blood, stool, and urine may be taken for analysis […] Bone marrow testing may be done to help diagnose the illness […] A blood culture can also be used to detect the presence of the bacteria that cause typhoid fever. […] Diagnosing typhoid fever typically involves a clinical assessment, but doctors may also use stool or blood samples to confirm the diagnosis. […] After diagnosis, around 3% to 5% of patients may become carriers of typhoid bacteria. This highlights the importance of preventing the spread of the illness, even after typhoid treatment is completed.

• #31 Typhoid (enteric) fever – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment | BMJ Best Practice

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/221

  Typhoid fever is a faecal-oral transmissible disease caused by the bacterium Salmonella enterica, serotype typhi. […] Definitive diagnosis depends on bacterial isolation, usually by blood culture. […] 1st investigations to order include FBC, serum transaminases, blood culture, stool culture, urine culture, bone marrow culture, and drug susceptibility testing. […] Investigations to consider include rose spot culture.

• #32 Typhoid and paratyphoid fever – Knowledge @ AMBOSS

  https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/typhoid-and-paratyphoid-fever/

  Suspect typhoid or paratyphoid fever in patients with fever and gastrointestinal concerns (e.g., diarrhea) who have traveled to endemic areas. In adults and children, diagnosis is confirmed with the detection of Salmonella Typhi or Salmonella Paratyphi in cultures. […] Blood cultures: indicated for all patients. Most important diagnostic tool to identify current infection. May be positive starting in week 1 of the disease. […] Stool cultures: to increase chance of pathogen detection or to identify chronic Salmonella carriage. Recommended for all pediatric patients and for individuals who traveled with an infected patient. Lower sensitivity than blood cultures. May be positive starting in week 2. […] Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are nationally notifiable diseases in the US. Notify the state or local health department if a case is confirmed.

• #33 Typhoid fever | Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care

  https://www.health.gov.au/diseases/typhoid-fever

  Typhoid fever is caused by bacteria called Salmonella typhi, which is found in contaminated water, food, urine or faeces. Typhoid can become life threatening if it is not treated. […] Typhoid fever is a nationally notifiable disease. […] We monitor cases through the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS).

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