Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Male Breast Reduction

  https://www.cosmetic-md.com/articles/male-breast-reduction/

  Gynecomastia is widespread in men and boys. […] Believe it or not, gynecomastia affects an estimated 40% to 60% of all men in one or both breasts. […] Most gynecomastia cases—30% to 40%—appear in adolescent boys around the age of 12 and lasts about 2 to 3 years. […] In about 10% of the male population, it persists as a stigma throughout their lives. […] Another type of gynecomastia—commonly seen in athletes—usually results from using synthetic anabolic steroids. […] Other causes of gynecomastia include obesity, aging (estrogen levels increase as men age), estrogen-producing tumors, genetic and familial predisposition, chronic liver disease (such as chronic alcoholism), and drugs (antacids, diuretics, cardiac medications, diazepam, and marijuana). […] In rare cases, gynecomastia can transform into cancerous growths.

• #2 Gynecomastia: What It Is, Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/16227-enlarged-male-breast-tissue-gynecomastia

  Gynecomastia (enlarged male breast tissue) most often happens due to an imbalance of testosterone and estrogen. Gynecomastia can affect males of all ages. But it usually occurs during the newborn period, puberty and older adulthood. Its very common, affecting over 50% of males at some point in their lives. Gynecomastia most often happens due to an imbalance of hormones specifically testosterone and estrogen. […] Gynecomastia is the enlargement of glandular tissue in your breast(s). Estrogen is responsible for the growth of glandular breast tissue. Estrogen also suppresses the release of testosterone. This is because it suppresses luteinizing hormone (LH), the hormone responsible for the release of testosterone in your testicles. In other words, an increase in estrogen and a decrease in testosterone most often leads to gynecomastia.

• #3 Gynecomastia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430812/

  Gynecomastia is an increase in male breast volume. This condition most often occurs during times of hormonal change such as at birth, during adolescence and in old age. […] Gynecomastia appears more within certain age groups of the male population. Newborns can suffer from this condition until their hormonal imbalances normalize. […] Adolescence hypertrophy occurs in boys beginning around age 13 and can last into early adulthood. The incidence of this condition again increases in men 65 years of age and older.

• #4 Gynecomastia: Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment – Endotext – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279105/

  Gynecomastia is a relatively common disorder. Its causes range from benign physiological processes to rare neoplasms. To diagnose the etiology of the gynecomastia, the clinician must understand the hormonal factors involved in breast development. […] Gynecomastia, breast development in males, can occur normally during three phases of life. The first occurs shortly after birth in both males and females. This is partly caused by the high fetal blood levels of estradiol and progesterone (produced by the mother) that stimulate breast tissue in the newborn. […] Puberty marks the second period when gynecomastia can occur physiologically. In fact, up to 60% of boys have clinically detectable gynecomastia by age 14. […] The third age range in which gynecomastia is frequently seen is during older age (60 years). The reported prevalence varies from 36 to 57%, possibly because of different selected populations and different diagnostic criteria.

• #5 Gynecomastia | 5-Minute Pediatric Consult

  https://peds.unboundmedicine.com/pedscentral/view/5-Minute-Pediatric-Consult/617417/all/Gynecomastia?q=haloperidol

  Visible or palpable proliferation of unilateral or bilateral breast glandular tissue in a male. […] Two age distribution peaks: neonatal, pubertal. […] Neonatal gynecomastia occurs in 60-90% of all newborns. […] Peak incidence for pubertal gynecomastia in males is 14 years of age (range: 10 to 16 years). Onset usually at 5- to 10-mL testicular size and pubic hair Tanner III or IV. […] ~40% of pubertal boys develop transient gynecomastia (measuring 0.5 cm). This percentage varies greatly in studies, perhaps due to examination techniques.

• #6 Gynecomastia: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/120858-overview

  Gynecomastia is the most common reason for male breast evaluation. The condition is common in infancy and adolescence, as well as in middle-aged to older adult males. One estimate is that 60-90% of infants have transient gynecomastia due to the high estrogen state of pregnancy. […] The next peak of occurrence is during puberty, with a prevalence ranging from 4-69%. Some reports have shown a transient increase in estradiol concentration at the onset of puberty in boys who develop gynecomastia. Pubertal gynecomastia usually has an onset in boys aged 10-12 years. It generally regresses within 18 months, and persistence is uncommon in men older than 17 years. The third peak occurs in older men, with a prevalence of 24-65%.

• #7 Gynecomastia: Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment – Endotext – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279105/

  Gynecomastia is a relatively common disorder. Its causes range from benign physiological processes to rare neoplasms. To diagnose the etiology of the gynecomastia, the clinician must understand the hormonal factors involved in breast development. […] Gynecomastia, breast development in males, can occur normally during three phases of life. The first occurs shortly after birth in both males and females. This is partly caused by the high fetal blood levels of estradiol and progesterone (produced by the mother) that stimulate breast tissue in the newborn. […] Puberty marks the second period when gynecomastia can occur physiologically. In fact, up to 60% of boys have clinically detectable gynecomastia by age 14. […] The third age range in which gynecomastia is frequently seen is during older age (60 years). The reported prevalence varies from 36 to 57%, possibly because of different selected populations and different diagnostic criteria.

• #8 Gynecomastia & Male Breast Reduction FAQ | Seattle Gynecomastia Center

  http://seattlegynecomastia.com/faq/

  Has the incidence of male breast enlargement changed in the past 20 years? […] Although there is no way of knowing for sure about the exact numbers of males with breast enlargement, the number of men seeking treatment has risen at a faster rate than most other cosmetic surgeries. At Pratt Plastic Surgery, we have noticed a definite increase in the number of male patients seeking treatment for their enlarged breasts and/or puffy nipples over the past few years. […] Is gynecomastia seen only in puberty and adulthood? […] No, Breast enlargement occurs quite often in both male and female babies in the first month or so of life, and is thought to be associated with maternal estrogen which crosses the placenta prior to birth. This neonatal gynecomastia seen in male babies generally resolves by 4-6 weeks following birth. […] It has been traditionally estimated that 50-75% of boys will develop so-called physiologic adolescent gynecomastia, where an isolated subareolar lump may be present during puberty. It is considered normal for this condition to resolve within 2 years of onset.

• #9 Gynecomastia: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/120858-overview

  Gynecomastia is the most common reason for male breast evaluation. The condition is common in infancy and adolescence, as well as in middle-aged to older adult males. One estimate is that 60-90% of infants have transient gynecomastia due to the high estrogen state of pregnancy. […] The next peak of occurrence is during puberty, with a prevalence ranging from 4-69%. Some reports have shown a transient increase in estradiol concentration at the onset of puberty in boys who develop gynecomastia. Pubertal gynecomastia usually has an onset in boys aged 10-12 years. It generally regresses within 18 months, and persistence is uncommon in men older than 17 years. The third peak occurs in older men, with a prevalence of 24-65%.

• #10 Gynecomastia | 5-Minute Pediatric Consult

  https://peds.unboundmedicine.com/pedscentral/view/5-Minute-Pediatric-Consult/617417/all/Gynecomastia?q=haloperidol

  Visible or palpable proliferation of unilateral or bilateral breast glandular tissue in a male. […] Two age distribution peaks: neonatal, pubertal. […] Neonatal gynecomastia occurs in 60-90% of all newborns. […] Peak incidence for pubertal gynecomastia in males is 14 years of age (range: 10 to 16 years). Onset usually at 5- to 10-mL testicular size and pubic hair Tanner III or IV. […] ~40% of pubertal boys develop transient gynecomastia (measuring 0.5 cm). This percentage varies greatly in studies, perhaps due to examination techniques.

• #11 Patient education: Gynecomastia (breast enlargement in males) (Beyond the Basics) – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/gynecomastia-breast-enlargement-in-males-beyond-the-basics

  Gynecomastia is a condition in which the glandular tissue in the breasts becomes enlarged in males, sometimes causing discomfort or nipple tenderness. It is usually the result of a hormonal imbalance and typically occurs during infancy, adolescence, or mid to late life. Gynecomastia must be distinguished from the breast enlargement due to fat deposits seen in overweight males. The condition often goes away on its own, but treatments are available for severe or persistent cases. When gynecomastia is the result of an underlying health problem, treatment of that problem usually improves the gynecomastia as well. […] Up to 70 percent of males in early to mid-puberty experience gynecomastia because of the normal hormonal changes that occur during puberty. Gynecomastia is also common among middle-aged and older males. In this population, up to 65 percent of males are affected.

• #12 Gynecomastia | 5-Minute Pediatric Consult

  https://peds.unboundmedicine.com/pedscentral/view/5-Minute-Pediatric-Consult/617417/all/Gynecomastia?q=haloperidol

  Visible or palpable proliferation of unilateral or bilateral breast glandular tissue in a male. […] Two age distribution peaks: neonatal, pubertal. […] Neonatal gynecomastia occurs in 60-90% of all newborns. […] Peak incidence for pubertal gynecomastia in males is 14 years of age (range: 10 to 16 years). Onset usually at 5- to 10-mL testicular size and pubic hair Tanner III or IV. […] ~40% of pubertal boys develop transient gynecomastia (measuring 0.5 cm). This percentage varies greatly in studies, perhaps due to examination techniques.

• #13 Patient education: Gynecomastia (breast enlargement in males) (Beyond the Basics) – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/gynecomastia-breast-enlargement-in-males-beyond-the-basics/print

  Gynecomastia is a condition in which the glandular tissue in the breasts becomes enlarged in males, sometimes causing discomfort or nipple tenderness. It is usually the result of a hormonal imbalance and typically occurs during infancy, adolescence, or mid to late life. […] Up to 70 percent of males in early to mid-puberty experience gynecomastia because of the normal hormonal changes that occur during puberty. Gynecomastia is also common among middle-aged and older males. In this population, up to 65 percent of males are affected. […] Gynecomastia that occurs during puberty usually resolves without treatment within six months to two years. The condition sometimes develops between ages 10 and 12 years and most commonly occurs between ages 13 and 14 years. The condition persists beyond age 17 years in up to 20 percent of individuals.

• #14 Gynecomastia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gynecomastia

  Gynecomastia is the most common benign disorder of the male breast tissue and affects 35% of men, being most prevalent between the ages of 50 and 69. […] New cases of gynecomastia are common in three age populations: newborns, adolescents, and men older than 50 years. […] Gynecomastia in older men is estimated to be present in 24-65% of men between the ages of 50 and 80. […] The prevalence of gynecomastia in men may have increased in recent years, but the epidemiology of the disorder is not fully understood.

• #15 Enlarged breasts in men (gynecomastia) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/gynecomastia/symptoms-causes/syc-20351793

  Enlarged breasts in men (gynecomastia) is an increase in the amount of breast gland tissue in boys or men. An imbalance of the hormones estrogen and testosterone causes it. Gynecomastia can affect one or both breasts, sometimes unevenly. […] Newborns, boys going through puberty and older men may develop gynecomastia due to natural changes in hormone levels. […] About 24% to 65% of men ages 50 to 80 get gynecomastia. But most adults with the condition have no symptoms. […] Certain health conditions that affect the balance of hormones can either cause or be linked with gynecomastia. […] Risk factors for gynecomastia include puberty, older age, obesity, use of anabolic steroids to improve athletic performance, and certain health conditions. […] Gynecomastia has few physical complications. But it may lead to mental health concerns due to changes in how the chest looks.

• #16 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Gynecomastia.aspx

  Gynecomastia is defined as the benign proliferation of male breast glandular tissue with a size exceeding two centimeters. […] In simplistic terms, gynecomastia is an increase in the male breast volume and is traditionally associated with hormonal incidences such as birth, adolescence, and old age. […] Gynecomastia can appear transient at birth due to increased circulating maternal estrogens. Later in life, gynecomastia may appear due to hormonal changes during puberty, resulting in an imbalance between estradiol and testosterone. […] Further still, gynecomastia may arise in old age (65 years); this hypertrophic increase in breast volume is thought to be due to a decline in testosterone levels as well as a shift in the ratio of testosterone to estrogen. […] Moreover, older men are likely to be on medications with side effects, including gynecomastia.

• #17 Breast enlargement in males: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003165.htm

  When an abnormal amount of breast tissue develops in males, it is called gynecomastia. It is important to find out if the excess growth in the area of the breast is breast tissue and not excess fat tissue (lipomastia). […] Enlarged breasts in males are usually harmless, but may cause men to avoid wearing certain clothing or to not want to be seen without a shirt. This can cause significant distress, particularly in young men. […] More than one half of boys develop some breast enlargement during puberty. Breast growth often goes away in 6 months to 2 years. […] In men, hormone changes due to aging can cause breast growth. This may occur more often in overweight or obese men and in men age 50 and older. […] Men who have enlarged breasts may have an increased risk for breast cancer. Breast cancer in men is rare. Signs that may suggest breast cancer include: One-sided breast growth, Firm or hard breast lump that feels like it is attached to the tissue, Skin sore over the breast, Bloody discharge from the nipple. […] Gynecomastia that has been present for a long time is less likely to resolve even if the right treatment is started.

• #18 Enlarged breasts in men (gynecomastia) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/gynecomastia/symptoms-causes/syc-20351793

  Enlarged breasts in men (gynecomastia) is an increase in the amount of breast gland tissue in boys or men. An imbalance of the hormones estrogen and testosterone causes it. Gynecomastia can affect one or both breasts, sometimes unevenly. […] Newborns, boys going through puberty and older men may develop gynecomastia due to natural changes in hormone levels. […] About 24% to 65% of men ages 50 to 80 get gynecomastia. But most adults with the condition have no symptoms. […] Certain health conditions that affect the balance of hormones can either cause or be linked with gynecomastia. […] Risk factors for gynecomastia include puberty, older age, obesity, use of anabolic steroids to improve athletic performance, and certain health conditions. […] Gynecomastia has few physical complications. But it may lead to mental health concerns due to changes in how the chest looks.

• #19 Enlarged breasts in men (gynecomastia) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/gynecomastia/symptoms-causes/syc-20351793

  Enlarged breasts in men (gynecomastia) is an increase in the amount of breast gland tissue in boys or men. An imbalance of the hormones estrogen and testosterone causes it. Gynecomastia can affect one or both breasts, sometimes unevenly. […] Newborns, boys going through puberty and older men may develop gynecomastia due to natural changes in hormone levels. […] About 24% to 65% of men ages 50 to 80 get gynecomastia. But most adults with the condition have no symptoms. […] Certain health conditions that affect the balance of hormones can either cause or be linked with gynecomastia. […] Risk factors for gynecomastia include puberty, older age, obesity, use of anabolic steroids to improve athletic performance, and certain health conditions. […] Gynecomastia has few physical complications. But it may lead to mental health concerns due to changes in how the chest looks.

• #20 Gynecomastia: Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment – Endotext – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279105/

  Pathologic gynecomastia is due to an increase in the circulating and/or local breast tissue ratio of estrogen to androgen. […] Increased estrogen levels will increase glandular proliferation by several mechanisms. […] Testicular tumors can lead to increased blood estrogen levels by the following mechanisms: estrogen overproduction, androgen overproduction with extragonadal aromatization to estrogens, and secretion of hCG that stimulates normal Leydig cells (via the LH receptor). […] About 20% of gynecomastia is caused by medications or exogenous chemicals. […] Male breast cancer is rare and comprises only 0.2% of all male cancers. The overall prevalence of invasive carcinomas was 0.11% and of in situ carcinomas was 0.18% in a 20-year national registry study of surgically excised breast specimens with the diagnosis of gynecomastia.

• #21 Gynecomastia: Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment – Endotext – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279105/

  Pathologic gynecomastia is due to an increase in the circulating and/or local breast tissue ratio of estrogen to androgen. […] Increased estrogen levels will increase glandular proliferation by several mechanisms. […] Testicular tumors can lead to increased blood estrogen levels by the following mechanisms: estrogen overproduction, androgen overproduction with extragonadal aromatization to estrogens, and secretion of hCG that stimulates normal Leydig cells (via the LH receptor). […] About 20% of gynecomastia is caused by medications or exogenous chemicals. […] Male breast cancer is rare and comprises only 0.2% of all male cancers. The overall prevalence of invasive carcinomas was 0.11% and of in situ carcinomas was 0.18% in a 20-year national registry study of surgically excised breast specimens with the diagnosis of gynecomastia.

• #22 Patient education: Gynecomastia (breast enlargement in males) (Beyond the Basics) – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/gynecomastia-breast-enlargement-in-males-beyond-the-basics

  Gynecomastia occurs in up to 75 percent of males who take drugs called antiandrogens to treat prostate cancer. […] Gynecomastia is a common complication of hormonal treatment for prostate cancer (androgen deprivation therapy or antiandrogen monotherapy). However, there are treatment options available to prevent the development of gynecomastia, including tamoxifen and radiation therapy. […] Men with prostate cancer who undergo antiandrogen therapy are at risk for developing gynecomastia. Pretreatment with radiation or taking a medication (tamoxifen) along with the antiandrogen are two options for preventing breast growth.

• #23 Gynecomastia: What It Is, Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/16227-enlarged-male-breast-tissue-gynecomastia

  Gynecomastia may be a symptom or result of the following health conditions: Adrenal tumors. Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid). Kidney disease or kidney failure. Klinefelter syndrome (an inherited condition). Liver disease and cirrhosis. Male hypogonadism (low testosterone). Pituitary gland tumors (pituitary adenomas), especially prolactinomas. Testicular tumors. […] Gynecomastia may be a side effect of certain medications, including: Cimetidine (for heartburn and acid reflux). Digoxin (for certain heart issues). Finasteride (for enlarged prostate or alopecia). Ketoconazole (for fungal or yeast infections). Spironolactone (for high blood pressure and heart failure). Thiazides (a class of diuretics). Phenothiazines (a class of first-generation antipsychotic medications). Theophylline (for asthma and COPD). Methotrexate (for rheumatoid arthritis and cancer). Imatinib (chemotherapy drug). […] If gynecomastia is causing you distress and/or you have other new symptoms, talk to your healthcare provider. They can check to see if an underlying medical condition is the cause and discuss potential treatment options.

• #24 Gynecomastia: What It Is, Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/16227-enlarged-male-breast-tissue-gynecomastia

  Gynecomastia may be a symptom or result of the following health conditions: Adrenal tumors. Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid). Kidney disease or kidney failure. Klinefelter syndrome (an inherited condition). Liver disease and cirrhosis. Male hypogonadism (low testosterone). Pituitary gland tumors (pituitary adenomas), especially prolactinomas. Testicular tumors. […] Gynecomastia may be a side effect of certain medications, including: Cimetidine (for heartburn and acid reflux). Digoxin (for certain heart issues). Finasteride (for enlarged prostate or alopecia). Ketoconazole (for fungal or yeast infections). Spironolactone (for high blood pressure and heart failure). Thiazides (a class of diuretics). Phenothiazines (a class of first-generation antipsychotic medications). Theophylline (for asthma and COPD). Methotrexate (for rheumatoid arthritis and cancer). Imatinib (chemotherapy drug). […] If gynecomastia is causing you distress and/or you have other new symptoms, talk to your healthcare provider. They can check to see if an underlying medical condition is the cause and discuss potential treatment options.

• #25 Gynecomastia: What It Is, Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/16227-enlarged-male-breast-tissue-gynecomastia

  Gynecomastia may be a symptom or result of the following health conditions: Adrenal tumors. Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid). Kidney disease or kidney failure. Klinefelter syndrome (an inherited condition). Liver disease and cirrhosis. Male hypogonadism (low testosterone). Pituitary gland tumors (pituitary adenomas), especially prolactinomas. Testicular tumors. […] Gynecomastia may be a side effect of certain medications, including: Cimetidine (for heartburn and acid reflux). Digoxin (for certain heart issues). Finasteride (for enlarged prostate or alopecia). Ketoconazole (for fungal or yeast infections). Spironolactone (for high blood pressure and heart failure). Thiazides (a class of diuretics). Phenothiazines (a class of first-generation antipsychotic medications). Theophylline (for asthma and COPD). Methotrexate (for rheumatoid arthritis and cancer). Imatinib (chemotherapy drug). […] If gynecomastia is causing you distress and/or you have other new symptoms, talk to your healthcare provider. They can check to see if an underlying medical condition is the cause and discuss potential treatment options.

• #26 Gynecomastia in Haitians — Puerto Rico, Florida, Texas, New York

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000249.htm

  Since the fall of 1981, gynecomastia has been occurring in Haitian men located in the Immigration and Naturalization Service’s (INS) Service Processing Centers. […] Of 540 male Haitians 18-50 years old examined, 77 (14.3%) had gynecomastia–defined as a palpable, firm, discoid, subareolar, unilateral or bilateral breast mass. […] After the disorder was recognized in Fort Allen, cases of gynecomastia were found in Haitians in other INS facilities, including the INS Service Processing Center, El Paso, Texas, and the Krome North Service Processing Center, Miami, Florida. […] On January 4, 1982, examination of the entire Haitian male population at Krome for gynecomastia was completed. Of 522 male Haitians, 52 (10.0%) had gynecomastia. […] Surveillance continues for new cases at facilities where Haitians are being detained.

• #27 Male gynecomastia and risk for malignant tumours – a cohort study | BMC Cancer | Full Text

  https://bmccancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2407-2-26

  Men with gynecomastia may suffer from absolute or relative estrogen excess and their risk of different malignancies may be increased. […] A total of 68 malignancies versus 66.07 expected were observed; SIR = 1.03 (95% CI 0.801.30). A significantly increased risk for testicular cancer; SIR = 5.82 (95% CI 1.2017.00) and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin; SIR = 3.21 (95% CI 1.715.48) were noted. […] There is a significant increased risk of testicular cancer and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin in men who have been operated on for gynecomastia. […] The increased risk for malignant tumours with gynecomastia has previously been described in some case-control studies. […] The present study, being the so far only published prospective investigation in the literature with a maximum follow up time of 30 years, demonstrates a significantly increased risk for testicular and squamous skin cancer in men with a prior histopathological diagnosis of gynecomastia. […] In conclusion the prospective investigation confirms an increased risk for testicular cancer in men with a prior history of gynecomastia. Also skin cancer and esophageal cancer were more common among men with gynecomastia.

• #28 Male gynecomastia and risk for malignant tumours – a cohort study | BMC Cancer | Full Text

  https://bmccancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2407-2-26

  Men with gynecomastia may suffer from absolute or relative estrogen excess and their risk of different malignancies may be increased. […] A total of 68 malignancies versus 66.07 expected were observed; SIR = 1.03 (95% CI 0.801.30). A significantly increased risk for testicular cancer; SIR = 5.82 (95% CI 1.2017.00) and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin; SIR = 3.21 (95% CI 1.715.48) were noted. […] There is a significant increased risk of testicular cancer and squamous cell carcinoma of the skin in men who have been operated on for gynecomastia. […] The increased risk for malignant tumours with gynecomastia has previously been described in some case-control studies. […] The present study, being the so far only published prospective investigation in the literature with a maximum follow up time of 30 years, demonstrates a significantly increased risk for testicular and squamous skin cancer in men with a prior histopathological diagnosis of gynecomastia. […] In conclusion the prospective investigation confirms an increased risk for testicular cancer in men with a prior history of gynecomastia. Also skin cancer and esophageal cancer were more common among men with gynecomastia.

• #29 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/news/20240117/Men-with-enlarged-breast-tissue-may-be-at-greater-risk-of-early-death.aspx

  Men with enlarged breast tissue, not caused by excess weight a condition formally known as gynecomastia may be at heightened risk of an early death before the age of 75, suggests the first study of its kind, published online in the open access journal BMJ Open. […] Enlarged breast tissue in men is usually caused by a hormone imbalance and affects around a third to around two thirds of men, depending on age. […] The development of gynecomastia can occur at any age, but has three distinct peaks across the life course, prompted by pronounced changes in sex hormone levels in the neonatal period, during puberty, and at older ages, note the researchers. […] Previously published research indicates a link between the condition and a heightened risk of past and future risk of ill health. […] To try and find out, the researchers drew on data from Danish national health and population registries: 23,429 men were diagnosed with gynecomastia between 1 January 1995 and 30 June 2021.

• #30 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/news/20240117/Men-with-enlarged-breast-tissue-may-be-at-greater-risk-of-early-death.aspx

  Men with enlarged breast tissue, not caused by excess weight a condition formally known as gynecomastia may be at heightened risk of an early death before the age of 75, suggests the first study of its kind, published online in the open access journal BMJ Open. […] Enlarged breast tissue in men is usually caused by a hormone imbalance and affects around a third to around two thirds of men, depending on age. […] The development of gynecomastia can occur at any age, but has three distinct peaks across the life course, prompted by pronounced changes in sex hormone levels in the neonatal period, during puberty, and at older ages, note the researchers. […] Previously published research indicates a link between the condition and a heightened risk of past and future risk of ill health. […] To try and find out, the researchers drew on data from Danish national health and population registries: 23,429 men were diagnosed with gynecomastia between 1 January 1995 and 30 June 2021.

• #31 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/news/20240117/Men-with-enlarged-breast-tissue-may-be-at-greater-risk-of-early-death.aspx

  Among those with gynecomastia, 1093 (nearly 7%) with the condition of unknown cause and 1501 (21%) of those with a pre-existing risk factor died, compared with 10,532 (9%) deaths among the men without gynecomastia. […] This equates to a 37% higher risk of early death from any cause among those with gynecomastia than among those without the condition. […] But when stratified by group, the risk of death was highest in those with a known pre-existing condition among whom the odds were 75% higher than those with gynecomastia of unknown cause among whom the odds were 5% higher. […] Pre-existing cancers (74% heightened risk) and circulatory (61% heightened risk), lung (double the risk), and gut diseases (5-fold heightened risk) were associated with the greatest risks. […] Men with idiopathic gynecomastia weren’t generally at greater risk of an early death than men in the reference group, except for a cause-specific 2-fold heightened risk of death from liver disease.

• #32 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/news/20240117/Men-with-enlarged-breast-tissue-may-be-at-greater-risk-of-early-death.aspx

  Among those with gynecomastia, 1093 (nearly 7%) with the condition of unknown cause and 1501 (21%) of those with a pre-existing risk factor died, compared with 10,532 (9%) deaths among the men without gynecomastia. […] This equates to a 37% higher risk of early death from any cause among those with gynecomastia than among those without the condition. […] But when stratified by group, the risk of death was highest in those with a known pre-existing condition among whom the odds were 75% higher than those with gynecomastia of unknown cause among whom the odds were 5% higher. […] Pre-existing cancers (74% heightened risk) and circulatory (61% heightened risk), lung (double the risk), and gut diseases (5-fold heightened risk) were associated with the greatest risks. […] Men with idiopathic gynecomastia weren’t generally at greater risk of an early death than men in the reference group, except for a cause-specific 2-fold heightened risk of death from liver disease.

• #33 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/news/20240117/Men-with-enlarged-breast-tissue-may-be-at-greater-risk-of-early-death.aspx

  Among those with gynecomastia, 1093 (nearly 7%) with the condition of unknown cause and 1501 (21%) of those with a pre-existing risk factor died, compared with 10,532 (9%) deaths among the men without gynecomastia. […] This equates to a 37% higher risk of early death from any cause among those with gynecomastia than among those without the condition. […] But when stratified by group, the risk of death was highest in those with a known pre-existing condition among whom the odds were 75% higher than those with gynecomastia of unknown cause among whom the odds were 5% higher. […] Pre-existing cancers (74% heightened risk) and circulatory (61% heightened risk), lung (double the risk), and gut diseases (5-fold heightened risk) were associated with the greatest risks. […] Men with idiopathic gynecomastia weren’t generally at greater risk of an early death than men in the reference group, except for a cause-specific 2-fold heightened risk of death from liver disease.

• #34 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/news/20240117/Men-with-enlarged-breast-tissue-may-be-at-greater-risk-of-early-death.aspx

  Among those with gynecomastia, 1093 (nearly 7%) with the condition of unknown cause and 1501 (21%) of those with a pre-existing risk factor died, compared with 10,532 (9%) deaths among the men without gynecomastia. […] This equates to a 37% higher risk of early death from any cause among those with gynecomastia than among those without the condition. […] But when stratified by group, the risk of death was highest in those with a known pre-existing condition among whom the odds were 75% higher than those with gynecomastia of unknown cause among whom the odds were 5% higher. […] Pre-existing cancers (74% heightened risk) and circulatory (61% heightened risk), lung (double the risk), and gut diseases (5-fold heightened risk) were associated with the greatest risks. […] Men with idiopathic gynecomastia weren’t generally at greater risk of an early death than men in the reference group, except for a cause-specific 2-fold heightened risk of death from liver disease.

• #35 Gynecomastia: Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment – Endotext – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279105/

  Pathologic gynecomastia is due to an increase in the circulating and/or local breast tissue ratio of estrogen to androgen. […] Increased estrogen levels will increase glandular proliferation by several mechanisms. […] Testicular tumors can lead to increased blood estrogen levels by the following mechanisms: estrogen overproduction, androgen overproduction with extragonadal aromatization to estrogens, and secretion of hCG that stimulates normal Leydig cells (via the LH receptor). […] About 20% of gynecomastia is caused by medications or exogenous chemicals. […] Male breast cancer is rare and comprises only 0.2% of all male cancers. The overall prevalence of invasive carcinomas was 0.11% and of in situ carcinomas was 0.18% in a 20-year national registry study of surgically excised breast specimens with the diagnosis of gynecomastia.

• #36 Gynecomastia: Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment – Endotext – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279105/

  Pathologic gynecomastia is due to an increase in the circulating and/or local breast tissue ratio of estrogen to androgen. […] Increased estrogen levels will increase glandular proliferation by several mechanisms. […] Testicular tumors can lead to increased blood estrogen levels by the following mechanisms: estrogen overproduction, androgen overproduction with extragonadal aromatization to estrogens, and secretion of hCG that stimulates normal Leydig cells (via the LH receptor). […] About 20% of gynecomastia is caused by medications or exogenous chemicals. […] Male breast cancer is rare and comprises only 0.2% of all male cancers. The overall prevalence of invasive carcinomas was 0.11% and of in situ carcinomas was 0.18% in a 20-year national registry study of surgically excised breast specimens with the diagnosis of gynecomastia.

• #37 Gynecomastia | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/gynecomastia-1?lang=us

  Gynecomastia refers to a benign excess of the male breast tissue, that is usually reversible. It is not a risk factor per se for developing male breast cancer. […] While it can occur at any age, it tends to have greater prevalence in two groups: adolescent boys and older men (some publications describe a trimodal age distribution, occurring in neonatal, pubertal, and elderly males). Prevalence of „asymptomatic” gynecomastia ranges around 8: neonates: 60-90%, adolescents: 50-60%, men aged 50 to 69 years: up to 70%. […] Prevalence of „symptomatic” cases is markedly lower.

• #38 Gynaecomastia: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/gynaecomastia

  Gynaecomastia is common, affecting 50% of mid-pubertal boys. Incidence increases again over the age of 65 […] Male breast cancer is rare (lifetime risk of 0.1%); gynaecomastia should not be considered as a pre-malignant condition and does not increase the risk of breast cancer. However, gynaecomastia in adults is often related to some sort of pathology and this should be looked for; European guidelines advise that this should be done by a specialist, after iatrogenic causes or those due to drugs of abuse are ruled out.

• #39 Gynecomastia – Sharp – Annals of Breast Surgery

  https://abs.amegroups.org/article/view/6806/html

  Gynecomastia is the most common breast condition in males with a prevalence ranging between 30-70% of the population and occurs bilaterally in 50% of patients. There is lack of consensus on a standard grading scale for gynecomastia with multiple scales, based upon physical exam and fat versus glandular composition, currently being utilized. Most gynecomastia is asymptomatic. Symptoms may include palpation of a retroareolar breast mass and/or enlargement of the breast(s). Psychological consequences include depression, anxiety, disordered eating, body dysmorphic disorder, and reduced self-esteem. Traditionally, gynecomastia alone was not thought to have an elevated risk of breast cancer; however, factors associated with increased incidence of gynecomastia, for instance estrogen exposure and androgen deficiency, may also increase the risk of breast cancer. The etiology of gynecomastia is typically divided into physiologic and nonphysiologic categories with nonphysiologic gynecomastia further subdivided into pharmacologic, pathologic, and idiopathic causes. The most common cause of nonphysiologic gynecomastia is persistent pubertal gynecomastia and should prompt further workup if persistent beyond 2 years. Nonphysiologic gynecomastia can occur at any age. The treatment of asymptomatic idiopathic and physiologic gynecomastia, in the absence of features suggesting underlying disease or malignancy, involves sympathetic reassurance and observation. Ninety percent of cases resolve on their own within a few years. Pharmacologic or surgical treatment may be considered in select cases of pubertal gynecomastia for cosmesis, analgesia, or for psychological well-being. In cases of non-physiologic gynecomastia, treatment of the underlying cause is usually required.

• #40 What Is Breast Cancer in Men? | Male Breast Cancer | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer-in-men/about/what-is-breast-cancer-in-men.html

  Gynecomastia is the most common male breast disorder. It is not a tumor but rather an increase in the amount of a man’s breast tissue. […] Gynecomastia can appear as a button-like or disk-like growth under the nipple and areola (the dark circle around the nipple), which can be felt and sometimes seen. Some men have more severe gynecomastia and they may appear to have small breasts. […] Gynecomastia is common among teenage boys because the balance of hormones in the body changes during adolescence. It is also common in older men due to changes in their hormone balance. […] In rare cases, gynecomastia occurs because tumors or diseases of certain endocrine (hormone-producing) glands cause a man’s body to make more estrogen (the main female hormone). […] Having excess body weight or obesity can also cause higher levels of estrogen in men. […] Some medicines can cause gynecomastia. […] Klinefelter syndrome, a rare genetic condition, can lead to gynecomastia as well as increase a man’s risk of developing breast cancer.

• #41 Risk Factors for Breast Cancer in Men | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer-in-men/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  Men with Klinefelter syndrome also have small testicles and are often infertile because they are unable to produce functioning sperm cells. Compared with other men, they have lower levels of androgens (male hormones) and more estrogens (female hormones). For this reason, they often develop gynecomastia (benign male breast growth). […] Men with Klinefelter syndrome are more likely to get breast cancer than other men. Having this condition can increase the risk anywhere between 20 – 60 times the risk of a man in the general population. […] Men with liver disease can also have a higher chance of developing benign male breast growth (gynecomastia) and also have an higher risk of developing breast cancer.

• #42 Risk Factors for Breast Cancer in Men | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/breast-cancer-in-men/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  Men with Klinefelter syndrome also have small testicles and are often infertile because they are unable to produce functioning sperm cells. Compared with other men, they have lower levels of androgens (male hormones) and more estrogens (female hormones). For this reason, they often develop gynecomastia (benign male breast growth). […] Men with Klinefelter syndrome are more likely to get breast cancer than other men. Having this condition can increase the risk anywhere between 20 – 60 times the risk of a man in the general population. […] Men with liver disease can also have a higher chance of developing benign male breast growth (gynecomastia) and also have an higher risk of developing breast cancer.

• #43 Gynecomastia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gynecomastia

  Gynecomastia is the most common benign disorder of the male breast tissue and affects 35% of men, being most prevalent between the ages of 50 and 69. […] New cases of gynecomastia are common in three age populations: newborns, adolescents, and men older than 50 years. […] Gynecomastia in older men is estimated to be present in 24-65% of men between the ages of 50 and 80. […] The prevalence of gynecomastia in men may have increased in recent years, but the epidemiology of the disorder is not fully understood.

• #44 Gynecomastia & Male Breast Reduction FAQ | Seattle Gynecomastia Center

  http://seattlegynecomastia.com/faq/

  Has the incidence of male breast enlargement changed in the past 20 years? […] Although there is no way of knowing for sure about the exact numbers of males with breast enlargement, the number of men seeking treatment has risen at a faster rate than most other cosmetic surgeries. At Pratt Plastic Surgery, we have noticed a definite increase in the number of male patients seeking treatment for their enlarged breasts and/or puffy nipples over the past few years. […] Is gynecomastia seen only in puberty and adulthood? […] No, Breast enlargement occurs quite often in both male and female babies in the first month or so of life, and is thought to be associated with maternal estrogen which crosses the placenta prior to birth. This neonatal gynecomastia seen in male babies generally resolves by 4-6 weeks following birth. […] It has been traditionally estimated that 50-75% of boys will develop so-called physiologic adolescent gynecomastia, where an isolated subareolar lump may be present during puberty. It is considered normal for this condition to resolve within 2 years of onset.

• #45

  https://smh-j.com/smhj/article/view/90

  Gynecomastia is characterized by the benign enlargement of male breast tissue, a condition witnessed across varied age brackets and influenced by several factors. […] Within Saudi Arabia, a 15-year case series reflected gynecomastia as the predominant benign male breast lesion, constituting 54% of such cases. […] In Saudi Arabia, despite limited data, gynecomastia emerges as a pressing health concern.

• #46 Gynecomastia

  https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/gynecomastia

  Medications are responsible for about 10% to 20% of gynecomastia cases in postadolescent males. About 25% of all cases have no apparent cause. […] Gynecomastia is primarily a disorder of hormonal imbalance. […] Chronic liver disease and kidney failure can both produce gynecomastia by affecting the body’s hormonal balance. […] Although drugs are responsible for less than 20% of all cases of gynecomastia, there is a long list of medications that have been identified as potential causes of this condition. […] When gynecomastia is bilateral, a hormonal origin is likely. If the condition is unilateral, the condition is more likely to be idiopathic or caused by drugs. […] Treatment of gynecomastia is very different from the treatment of most other conditions because it is often the result of other problems (i.e., neoplasms, hormonal imbalance, systemic diseases).

• #47 Risk of gynecomastia and breast cancer associated with the use of 5-al | CLEP

  https://www.dovepress.com/risk-of-gynecomastia-and-breast-cancer-associated-with-the-use-of-5-al-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-CLEP

  Clinical trial results suggest that 5-alpha reductase inhibitors (5ARIs) for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) may increase the risk of gynecomastia and male breast cancer, but epidemiological studies have been limited. […] Compared to no exposure, gynecomastia risk was elevated for users of 5ARIs (alone or in combination with ABs) in both the cohort (IRR=3.55, 95% CI 3.05-4.14) and case-control analyses (OR=3.31, 95% CI 2.66-4.10), whereas the risk was null for users of AB only. […] The increased risk of gynecomastia with the use of 5ARIs persisted regardless of the number of prescriptions, exposure timing, and presence or absence of concomitant prescriptions for drugs known to be associated with gynecomastia. […] In men with BPH, 5ARIs significantly increased the risk of gynecomastia, but not breast cancer, compared to AB use and no exposure.

• #48 Risk of gynecomastia and breast cancer associated with the use of 5-al | CLEP

  https://www.dovepress.com/risk-of-gynecomastia-and-breast-cancer-associated-with-the-use-of-5-al-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-CLEP

  Clinical trial results suggest that 5-alpha reductase inhibitors (5ARIs) for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) may increase the risk of gynecomastia and male breast cancer, but epidemiological studies have been limited. […] Compared to no exposure, gynecomastia risk was elevated for users of 5ARIs (alone or in combination with ABs) in both the cohort (IRR=3.55, 95% CI 3.05-4.14) and case-control analyses (OR=3.31, 95% CI 2.66-4.10), whereas the risk was null for users of AB only. […] The increased risk of gynecomastia with the use of 5ARIs persisted regardless of the number of prescriptions, exposure timing, and presence or absence of concomitant prescriptions for drugs known to be associated with gynecomastia. […] In men with BPH, 5ARIs significantly increased the risk of gynecomastia, but not breast cancer, compared to AB use and no exposure.

• #49 Risk of gynecomastia and breast cancer associated with the use of 5-al | CLEP

  https://www.dovepress.com/risk-of-gynecomastia-and-breast-cancer-associated-with-the-use-of-5-al-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-CLEP

  To date, there have been no large observational studies of real-world data that evaluate the association between the use of 5ARIs and the risk of gynecomastia. […] The risk of gynecomastia was higher for dutasteride than for finasteride. […] We observed a greater than threefold elevation in risk of gynecomastia for users of 5ARIs (alone or in combination with ABs) in comparison to unexposed men, whereas there was no elevation of risk for men using ABs for the treatment of BPH. […] Our results suggest that the use of 5ARIs do not increase the risk of breast cancer in comparison to nonexposed men.

• #50 Risk of gynecomastia and breast cancer associated with the use of 5-al | CLEP

  https://www.dovepress.com/risk-of-gynecomastia-and-breast-cancer-associated-with-the-use-of-5-al-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-CLEP

  Clinical trial results suggest that 5-alpha reductase inhibitors (5ARIs) for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) may increase the risk of gynecomastia and male breast cancer, but epidemiological studies have been limited. […] Compared to no exposure, gynecomastia risk was elevated for users of 5ARIs (alone or in combination with ABs) in both the cohort (IRR=3.55, 95% CI 3.05-4.14) and case-control analyses (OR=3.31, 95% CI 2.66-4.10), whereas the risk was null for users of AB only. […] The increased risk of gynecomastia with the use of 5ARIs persisted regardless of the number of prescriptions, exposure timing, and presence or absence of concomitant prescriptions for drugs known to be associated with gynecomastia. […] In men with BPH, 5ARIs significantly increased the risk of gynecomastia, but not breast cancer, compared to AB use and no exposure.

• #51 Patient education: Gynecomastia (breast enlargement in males) (Beyond the Basics) – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/gynecomastia-breast-enlargement-in-males-beyond-the-basics/print

  Gynecomastia is a common complication of hormonal treatment for prostate cancer (androgen deprivation therapy or antiandrogen monotherapy). However, there are treatment options available to prevent the development of gynecomastia, including tamoxifen and radiation therapy. […] Men who have had gynecomastia for more than one year do not typically benefit from the use of tamoxifen. For them, surgery to reduce the size of the breasts is an option. […] Men with prostate cancer who undergo antiandrogen therapy are at risk for developing gynecomastia. Pretreatment with radiation or taking a medication (tamoxifen) along with the antiandrogen are two options for preventing breast growth.

• #52 Patient education: Gynecomastia (breast enlargement in males) (Beyond the Basics) – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/gynecomastia-breast-enlargement-in-males-beyond-the-basics/print

  Gynecomastia is a common complication of hormonal treatment for prostate cancer (androgen deprivation therapy or antiandrogen monotherapy). However, there are treatment options available to prevent the development of gynecomastia, including tamoxifen and radiation therapy. […] Men who have had gynecomastia for more than one year do not typically benefit from the use of tamoxifen. For them, surgery to reduce the size of the breasts is an option. […] Men with prostate cancer who undergo antiandrogen therapy are at risk for developing gynecomastia. Pretreatment with radiation or taking a medication (tamoxifen) along with the antiandrogen are two options for preventing breast growth.

• #53 Gynecomastia: What It Is, Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/16227-enlarged-male-breast-tissue-gynecomastia

  Gynecomastia (enlarged male breast tissue) most often happens due to an imbalance of testosterone and estrogen. Gynecomastia can affect males of all ages. But it usually occurs during the newborn period, puberty and older adulthood. Its very common, affecting over 50% of males at some point in their lives. Gynecomastia most often happens due to an imbalance of hormones specifically testosterone and estrogen. […] Gynecomastia is the enlargement of glandular tissue in your breast(s). Estrogen is responsible for the growth of glandular breast tissue. Estrogen also suppresses the release of testosterone. This is because it suppresses luteinizing hormone (LH), the hormone responsible for the release of testosterone in your testicles. In other words, an increase in estrogen and a decrease in testosterone most often leads to gynecomastia.

• #54 Gynecomastia | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/gynecomastia-1?lang=us

  Gynecomastia refers to a benign excess of the male breast tissue, that is usually reversible. It is not a risk factor per se for developing male breast cancer. […] While it can occur at any age, it tends to have greater prevalence in two groups: adolescent boys and older men (some publications describe a trimodal age distribution, occurring in neonatal, pubertal, and elderly males). Prevalence of „asymptomatic” gynecomastia ranges around 8: neonates: 60-90%, adolescents: 50-60%, men aged 50 to 69 years: up to 70%. […] Prevalence of „symptomatic” cases is markedly lower.

• #55 Gynecomastia – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/869

  Gynecomastia is the proliferation of benign male glandular breast tissue. It may be unilateral or bilateral, painful, or asymptomatic. […] Gynecomastia results from excessive estrogen action or deficient testosterone action on breast glandular tissue. […] Many drugs, environmental exposures, illnesses, and some genetic conditions increase the risk for gynecomastia. Treatment may improve gynecomastia, especially if it is of recent onset. […] Most cases require no specific treatment. Therapies for persistent pain or psychological distress include anti-estrogen therapy, androgen replacement if proven testosterone deficiency, or surgery (liposuction or mammoplasty).

• #56 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/news/20240117/Men-with-enlarged-breast-tissue-may-be-at-greater-risk-of-early-death.aspx

  They conclude: „Males diagnosed with gynecomastia are at a 37% higher risk of death, observed mainly in males with a known pre-existing gynecomastia risk factor and not in males with idiopathic gynecomastia. These results should therefore prompt thorough clinical examination to identify the underlying risk factors.”

• #57 SciELO Brazil – Gynecomastia: physiopathology, evaluation and treatment Gynecomastia: physiopathology, evaluation and treatment

  https://www.scielo.br/j/spmj/a/PFcc79gBghNMHmXs7RPs89g/

  Gynecomastia (GM) is characterized by enlargement of the male breast, caused by glandular proliferation and fat deposition. GM is common and occurs in adolescents, adults and in old age. […] The etiology of GM is attributable to physiological factors, endocrine tumors or dysfunctions, non-endocrine diseases, drug use or idiopathic causes. […] Clinical evaluation must address diagnostic confirmation, search for an etiological factor and classify GM into severity grades to guide the treatment. […] For long-standing GM, the best results are generally achieved through surgery, combining liposuction and mammary adenectomy. […] GM is common and clinically important. Nevertheless, major gaps in knowledge regarding its modern epidemiology exist, and it has not been proven whether the apparent rise in its incidence is true.

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