Materiały źródłowe

• #1 COVID-19: Epidemiology, virology, and prevention – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/covid-19-epidemiology-virology-and-prevention

  COVID-19: Epidemiology, virology, and prevention […] Before the World Health Organization (WHO) declared an end to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) global health emergency in May 2023, SARS-CoV-2 infection resulted in an estimated 15 million excess deaths in 2020 and 2021 alone. […] As SARS-CoV-2 transitions to endemicity, it remains an important cause of illness around the world. […] This topic will discuss the virology, epidemiology, and prevention of COVID-19.

• #1 COVID-19 surveillance – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance

  COVID-19 surveillance involves monitoring the spread of the coronavirus disease in order to establish the patterns of disease progression. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends active surveillance, with focus of case finding, testing and contact tracing in all transmission scenarios. COVID-19 surveillance is expected to monitor epidemiological trends, rapidly detect new cases, and based on this information, provide epidemiological information to conduct risk assessment and guide disease preparedness. […] The WHO recommends reporting probable and confirmed cases of COVID-19 infection within 48 hours of identification. Countries should report on a case-by-case basis as far as possible but, in case of limitation in resources, aggregate weekly reporting is also possible. […] Virological surveillance is done by using molecular tests for COVID-19. WHO has published resources for laboratories on how to perform testing for COVID-19. In the European Union, laboratory confirmed cases of COVID-19 are reported within 24 hours of identification. Several countries conduct virological surveillance on wastewater to test for the presence or prevalence of COVID-19 in the population residing in a wastewater catchment.

• #1 The World Health Organization COVID-19 surveillance database | International Journal for Equity in Health | Full Text

  https://equityhealthj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12939-022-01767-5

  COVID-19 global surveillance aims to monitor the extension of the pandemic across countries, the severity of the disease and risk factors, and the impact of control measures. Data collection tools and standardized surveillance methods were documented in the interim guidance Public Health Surveillance for SARS-CoV-2. […] Two years after the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, many aspects of epidemiological surveillance remain challenging despite many achievements and lessons learnt. This paper documents the construction of the WHO-HQ COVID-19 surveillance database by describing its data collection, storage, and dissemination mechanisms, followed by a discussion of the use of these data in facilitating analysis of inequalities. […] The objectives of the surveillance were to monitor areas and population affected by COVID-19 and to understand the epidemiological characteristics of the illness (incubation period, secondary attack rate, serial interval, case fatality rate) including age, sex, co-morbidities, settings of transmission, and nature of contacts to identify vulnerable groups at highest risk of exposure or severe disease.

• #1 The World Health Organization COVID-19 surveillance database | International Journal for Equity in Health | Full Text

  https://equityhealthj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12939-022-01767-5

  In January 2020, SARS-CoV-2 virus was identified as a cause of an outbreak in China. The disease quickly spread worldwide, and the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the pandemic in March 2020. […] From the first notifications of spread of the disease, the WHOs Emergency Programme implemented a global COVID-19 surveillance system in coordination with all WHO regional offices. The system aimed to monitor the spread of the epidemic over countries and across population groups, severity of the disease and risk factors, and the impact of control measures. COVID-19 surveillance data reported to WHO is a combination of case-based data and weekly aggregated data, focusing on a minimum global dataset for cases and deaths including disaggregation by age, sex, occupation as a Health Care Worker, as well as number of cases tested, and number of cases newly admitted for hospitalization. These disaggregations aim to monitor inequities in COVID-19 distribution and risk factors among population groups.

• #1 National surveillance for Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection/health-professionals/interim-guidance-surveillance-human-infection.html

  The pandemic public health response goal is to minimize serious illness and overall deaths while minimizing societal disruption. […] They were developed to improve Canada’s understanding of COVID-19 epidemiology in the context of evolving public health interventions. […] The COVID-19 surveillance system is comprised of multiple data streams and is organized into the following components. […] Community surveillance encompasses the overall epidemiology of acute COVID-19 and longer-term impacts, such as post-COVID condition or new or worsening chronic disease. […] Virologic surveillance identifies, tracks and evaluates the specific lineages of SARS-CoV-2. […] Severe outcome surveillance monitors hospitalizations and deaths associated with COVID-19. […] Vaccine and immunity monitoring provides information on vaccination coverage, vaccine safety and effectiveness, the impact of vaccination on COVID-19 outcomes, and serological studies of immunity levels in Canada’s population.

• #1 National surveillance for Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection/health-professionals/interim-guidance-surveillance-human-infection.html

  International monitoring provides clear international situational awareness of COVID-19 and risk levels at home and abroad by describing global case and severe outcome activity and emerging signals and variants. […] Public health surveillance continues to be key to preparedness, particularly given the potential for multiple respiratory threats. […] The COVID-19 surveillance system is comprised of multiple data streams, one of which is the national case dataset. […] National case reporting contributes key information towards many components of integrated COVID-19 surveillance. […] We have developed the national COVID-19 surveillance case definitions for classification and reporting COVID-19 probable and confirmed cases. […] We collect demographic, clinical, epidemiologic, vaccination and laboratory information on all reported probable and confirmed cases.

• #1 COVID-19 surveillance – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance

  At least 24 countries have established digital surveillance of their citizens. The digital surveillance technologies include COVID-19 apps, location data and electronic tags. The Center For Disease Control and Prevention in USA tracks the travel information of individuals using airline passenger data.

• #1 COVID-19 Wastewater Surveillance | Department of Health

  https://coronavirus.health.ny.gov/covid-19-wastewater-surveillance

  COVID-19 Wastewater Concentration Dashboard […] Wastewater surveillance is an important tool to track the spread of COVID-19 and help predict a rise in cases within a community. […] Wastewater surveillance can detect the SARS-CoV-2 virus in wastewater as many as three to seven days before we see increases in the percentage of people who test positive or are hospitalized with COVID-19. […] The SARS-CoV-2 detection level is displayed in three categories – Low, Moderate, and High showing how much viral RNA was detected in the wastewater sample. High detection levels include four additional subcategories, based on each sites historical data. Levels are based on the highest detection reported from the most recent three samples. These detection levels have been shown to correlate with estimated community transmission levels.

• #1 Respiratory Disease Data – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/respiratory-diseases-in-virginia/data/

  VDH updates these data each week on Tuesday. Data are preliminary and subject to change as additional data are received. […] This interactive tool uses data from emergency department visits, death certificates, laboratory and outbreak reports, and vaccination records. These data are used to track trends in Virginia for respiratory illnesses, including COVID-19, flu (influenza), and RSV (respiratory syncytial virus). […] Emergency department (ED) visit data can be one of the fastest ways to spot changing trends in respiratory virus spread. This summary uses ED data to categorize the activity level and trends for respiratory illnesses in Virginia. […] Visits for respiratory illness are emergency department (ED) visits meeting the CDC Broad Acute Respiratory DD v1 syndrome definition, which measures diagnosed acute respiratory illness (ARI). This includes viral illnesses such as COVID-19, influenza, and RSV, and other respiratory illnesses, such as cough or pneumonia.

• #1 COVID-19 Surveillance Data: A Primer for Epidemiology and Data Science

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7958032/

  In the current pandemic, surveillance data distributed by state health departments are used to produce rapid observations of the burden and distribution of disease in terms of person, place, and time. Specific metrics include the number and proportion of positive tests, hospitalizations, viral reproduction numbers, and deaths. […] Despite eye-popping sample sizes, the underlying data as currently reported have fundamental limitations that constrain our ability to make valid epidemiological inferences. […] The solution to the inference vacuum relies on large-scale population-based sampling to reliably establish disease incidence or impacts. […] We have observed that many analyses make untenable and unstated assumptions about the representativeness of positive SARS-CoV-2 tests and COVID-19 deaths on a given date.

• #1 COVID-19 Surveillance Data: A Primer for Epidemiology and Data Science

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7958032/

  Although moving averages are a welcome smoothing technique to noisy cumulative count data, we should advocate collecting data that our collective experience says really matter, not only what is convenient or intended to produce news breakers and capture readers attention. […] Other concerns are variability in the predictive value of specific tests, changes in testing eligibility and coverage, differences between presumptive and confirmed case definitions, and repeated testing. […] These were critical in the early phases, but now that we are more than a year into the pandemic it is time to emphasize experiments, enacted interventions and their impact evaluation, and causal inference. […] When reported daily, the assumption is that these factors do not change over time, which is clearly unsubstantiated.

• #1 Multi-level quality assessment of United States COVID-19 epidemiological surveillance | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0319263

  Although the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) tasked United States (U.S.) health departments with tracking and informing disease mitigation efforts, there has been no national assessment of public COVID-19 data quality. The current study aimed to illustrate U.S. COVID-19 reporting quality by examining epidemiological surveillance from U.S. health departments in 50 states and the District of Columbia between July and August 2020 along five central quality dimensions: timeliness, reliability, completeness, accuracy, and accessibility. […] Results broadly demonstrated that the quality of COVID-19 data reporting was significantly heterogenous. States varied in timeliness of initial data reports (median: 3/2/2020, minimum: 9/29/2019, maximum: 4/20/2020). Most states (56.8%) did not indicate sources of data for their official published reports. In assessing for 10 standard variables from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), states widely differed in granularity of reported variables and no state health department reported data for all CDC surveillance variables (e.g., race, ethnicity, sex). Most same-day comparisons of state-specific counts reported by the CDC differed from respective state health departments (cases: 84.3% differed; deaths: 68.6% differed). Follow-up examination indicated improvements in reliability, accuracy, and accessibility, but issues in data source verification and completeness persisted.

• #1 Changes to Public Health Surveillance Methods Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Scoping Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10837764/

  The COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent public health response led to a pivot in public health priorities. As the urgency to understand and respond to COVID-19 transmission grew, many public health teams prioritized pandemic response including the redeployment of many staff to contact tracing and eventually mass vaccination. […] The singular worldwide focus on COVID-19 allowed for an unprecedented dedication of resources (time, money, and intellect) to leverage pre-existing surveillance processes, creating the opportunity to apply these learnings to nonCOVID-19 disease surveillance contexts. […] The severity of the COVID-19 pandemic necessitated a further push in the development of innovative surveillance methods to track and manage SARS-CoV-2 transmission. […] The COVID-19 pandemic also highlighted the importance of interjurisdictional data systems which can enable timely access to data across jurisdictional boundaries to inform public health functions. […] The ethical implications of digital surveillance, in particular, were discussed in 80 included papers. […] The heavy focus on COVID-19 in the surveillance literature reflects public health’s drastic reallocation of resources to the pandemic response.

• #1 Changes to Public Health Surveillance Methods Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Scoping Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10837764/

  Public health surveillance plays a vital role in informing public health decision-making. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020 caused a widespread shift in public health priorities. Global efforts focused on COVID-19 monitoring and contact tracing. Existing public health programs were interrupted due to physical distancing measures and reallocation of resources. […] This scoping review aims to explore emergent public health surveillance methods during the early COVID-19 pandemic to characterize the impact of the pandemic on surveillance methods. […] The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated advancements in surveillance and the adoption of new technologies, especially for digital and wastewater surveillance methods. Given the investments in these systems, further applications for public health surveillance are likely. The literature for surveillance methods was dominated by surveillance of infectious diseases, particularly COVID-19. A substantial amount of literature on the ethical, legal, security, and equity implications of these emerging surveillance methods also points to a need for cautious consideration of potential harm.

• #1 JMIR Public Health and Surveillance – Changes to Public Health Surveillance Methods Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Scoping Review

  https://publichealth.jmir.org/2024/1/e49185/

  The ethical implications of digital surveillance, in particular, were discussed in 80 included papers. […] The COVID-19 pandemic also highlighted the importance of interjurisdictional data systems which can enable timely access to data across jurisdictional boundaries to inform public health functions.

• #1 COVID-19, surveillance and the threat to your rights – Amnesty InternationalCOVID-19, surveillance and the threat to your rights – Amnesty International

  https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/04/covid-19-surveillance-threat-to-your-rights/

  However, increased surveillance measures will be unlawful unless they can meet strict criteria. […] Governments must be able to show that measures implemented are provided for by law and are necessary, proportionate, time-bound, and that they are implemented with transparency and adequate oversight. […] What this means in practice is that surveillance measures must be the least intrusive available to achieve the desired result. […] Lessons learnt from recent history tell us that there is a real danger surveillance measures become permanent fixtures. […] Many countries are using cell phone data to track people’s movements in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. […] Other countries are using cell phone data but without the added protections of anonymization or aggregation. […] In South Korea, authorities have been sending health advisory texts which have been accompanied with personal details of infected patients, including hyperlinks which open to detailed data about their movements.

• #1 COVID-19, surveillance and the threat to your rights – Amnesty InternationalCOVID-19, surveillance and the threat to your rights – Amnesty International

  https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/04/covid-19-surveillance-threat-to-your-rights/

  These measures raise important questions about how our personal information is collected, used and shared. […] Several states are turning to AI and big data technologies to combat COVID-19. […] Governments should not use surveillance technologies which gather forms of data beyond what is legitimately needed to contain the disease. […] It is critical that companies involved in the fight against COVID-19 identify, prevent, mitigate and account for any human rights risks that may arise from the pandemic context with regard to their operations, products and services. […] As we come together to face this unprecedented crisis, it is important to have a long-term view of the measures we are undertaking to combat the virus. […] It is important that human rights for all remains at the centre of that vision for the future.

• #1

  https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/who-policy-brief-covid-19-surveillance

  Countries are advised to sustain collaborative surveillance for COVID-19, in order to provide a basis for situational awareness and risk assessment and the detection of significant changes in virus characteristics, virus spread, disease severity and population immunity, as per the WHO Director-Generals standing recommendations for COVID-19. […] Integration of COVID-19 surveillance with surveillance for other respiratory infections, e.g. influenza, should be prioritized, to provide baselines relative to other circulating viruses. […] WHO urges countries to report epidemiological and laboratory information in a timely manner to established WHO regional or global platforms, through RespiMart and the expanded activities of the Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS). […] Multiple approaches should be applied to SARS-CoV-2 surveillance, including monitoring infections in populations at highest risk of severe disease, characterizing new SARS-CoV-2 variants and investigating post COVID-19 condition.

• #1

  https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/who-policy-brief-covid-19-surveillance

  SARS-CoV-2 testing should continue strategically and be integrated into existing infectious disease (e.g. respiratory pathogen) surveillance systems. […] It is crucial to continue genomic surveillance for SARS-CoV-2 and other pathogens with epidemic and pandemic potential using capacities that were strengthened for COVID-19. Testing, reporting and risk assessment for SARS-CoV-2 continues to be needed and should utilize genomic surveillance and phenotypic assessment. […] Strengthened COVID-19 surveillance systems enhance pandemic preparedness for respiratory pathogens. Countries are urged to maintain operational readiness for surges of COVID-19 and other emerging and re-emerging pathogens. […] WHO encourages its Member States to improve data linkage, share data and experiences and explore more innovative and collaborative approaches to timely detection of outbreaks, understanding risks and vulnerabilities.

• #1 RESVIGEN (Respiratory Virus Genomic Surveillance Regional Network) – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/influenza-sars-cov-2-rsv-and-other-respiratory-viruses/resvigen-respiratory-virus-genomic

  The COVID-19 Genomic Surveillance Regional Network was created in 2020 not only to strengthen the sequencing capacity in the participating laboratories, but also for them to establish a routine SARS-CoV-2 genomic sequencing, as a strategy to increase the amount of genetic sequence data available to the global community, which is critical to support the development of diagnostic protocols, the information for vaccine development and to better understand the evolution and molecular epidemiology of the SARS-CoV-2. […] The participation on the COVID-19 Genomic Surveillance Regional Network is open to all the countries of the Americas through the National Public Health Laboratories. […] Virus mutations or variants are being monitored from the start of the COVID-19 pandemic through the Global Initiative on Sharing Avian Influenza Data (GISAID) sequencing database. WHO routinely assesses if variants of SARS-CoV-2 have an impact on:

• #1 RESVIGEN (Respiratory Virus Genomic Surveillance Regional Network) – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/influenza-sars-cov-2-rsv-and-other-respiratory-viruses/resvigen-respiratory-virus-genomic

  Risk assessment for variants of concern to determine if there will be public health implications are routinely performed. […] Immediately report to PAHO/WHO initial cases/clusters associated with VOI or VOC infection through the IHR mechanism. […] Where capacity exists and in coordination with the international community, perform field investigations to improve understanding of the potential impacts of the VOI or VOC on COVID-19 epidemiology, severity, effectiveness of public health and social measures, or other relevant characteristics. […] Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) regions were an important epicenter of the COVID-19 pandemic and SARS-CoV-2 evolution. Through the COVID-19 Genomic Surveillance Regional Network (COVIGEN), LAC countries produced an important number of genomic sequencing data that made possible an enhanced SARS-CoV-2 genomic surveillance capacity in the Americas, paving the way for characterization of emerging variants and helping to guide the public health response.

• #1 Surveillance and updates on COVID-19

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/covid-19/situation-updates

  This interactive dashboard provides a weekly integrated epidemiological summary for influenza, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). […] ECDC regularly assesses new evidence on variants detected through epidemic intelligence, rules-based genomic variant screening or other scientific sources.

• #1 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  Epidemiology is essential to the fight against any disease. The study of how diseases spread, and why, has loomed large in the struggle to understand, contain and respond to COVID-19. Analyses of data on infections and deaths, and projections from studies that model the virus’s spread, have driven policy decisions all over the world. […] Epidemiology will be important as the pandemic progresses for example, in understanding the potential impact of the new variants that are currently wreaking havoc around the world. […] By about the middle of January, epidemiologists began reporting the results of modelling studies, which indicated that case numbers were likely to be much higher than had initially been documented. […] These studies found, for example, that the R0 rate which describes the number of people an infected person will pass the virus on to, on average, if the virus is allowed to spread uncontrolled to be between 2 and 4.

• #1 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  As more data became available, epidemiologists were able to confirm that the virus could be transmitted by people showing no symptoms and that it had high pandemic potential. […] At the end of January, the World Health Organization declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern, which included advice for countries on implementing public-health measures, including testing and isolating infected people, and tracing and quarantining their contacts. […] The epidemiological community also began turning its attention to evaluating measures that might help to contain the virus. […] Researchers began modelling the effectiveness of what are called non-pharmaceutical interventions. […] Their models suggested that infections and deaths could be reduced if people wore face masks and maintained a degree of distance from one another, and if more people stayed at home.

• #1 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  Studies from outside China also later affirmed that transmission dropped considerably after educational institutions were closed, gatherings limited and essential businesses closed. […] Epidemiologists will need to re-evaluate, on the basis of more recent data, whether guidelines on interventions such as social distancing need to be revised and made more stringent to account for the different ways the new variants behave. […] Another new challenge for epidemiologists is measuring how the vaccines currently being rolled out around the world affect the virus’s spread. […] The pandemic has changed epidemiology. […] The US government has announced that it will establish a National Center for Epidemic Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics. […] Epidemiology itself is expanding, with the involvement of researchers from other fields, such as physics, mathematics, computer science and network science, who have been contributing their ideas and expertise. […] Epidemiologists need to communicate both the certainty and the uncertainty of their findings so that the best decisions can be reached. […] If the past year has taught us anything, it is that knowledge of public-health tools and access to data are not enough to control a pandemic.

• #1 COVID-19 Influenced the Epidemiology of Facial Trauma: A Narrative Review, 2020–2024

  https://www.mdpi.com/2673-8112/5/5/69

  The implementation of a range of social distancing and lockdown measures during the COVID-19 pandemic were seen to impact on the well-established epidemiology of facial trauma. […] This study demonstrated that social distancing measures significantly influenced the epidemiology of facial trauma presentations that occurred during the pandemic. […] It became apparent to these authors that the implementation of a range of public health social distancing/lockdown measures to reduce COVID-19 community transmission had a serendipitous secondary effect by changing the expected frequency and characteristics of facial trauma that presented to urban tertiary referral trauma centers. […] The objective of this study was to determine the impact that the COVID-19 pandemic had on the epidemiology of maxillofacial trauma. Specifically, the purpose was to identify how the COVID-19 pandemic and associated public health measures of social distancing and lockdown changed the frequency and etiology of facial trauma as reported in the international literature.

• #1 COVID-19 Influenced the Epidemiology of Facial Trauma: A Narrative Review, 2020–2024

  https://www.mdpi.com/2673-8112/5/5/69

  Arguably, the principal finding of our literature review was that 83% (n = 52) of the studies that were reviewed revealed a significant decrease in the number of facial trauma presentations to tertiary referral centers. The mean reduction was 39%, ranging from 2% to 95%. Falls (n = 35 studies) in the home (n = 13 studies) were identified as the predominant cause and place of injury. […] A notable secondary finding was that the widespread imposition of lockdown laws was seemingly responsible for altering the etiological causes of maxillofacial trauma presentation. Historically, the global leading causes of facial trauma can be attributed to road traffic accidents and interpersonal violence, which is supported by Pereira et al.’s recent systematic review. Significantly, our research identified alterations to this amongst the COVID cohorts when subjected to various restrictions, which resulted in an increase in falls as the leading cause with a concomitant reduction in road traffic accidents and interpersonal violence. […] The importance of these observations is that changing human behavior and activity can result in considerable alterations to the frequency and etiology of maxillofacial trauma.

• #1 Surveillance of COVID-19 after the pandemic. How do we do it? | Medicina Clínica (English Edition)

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-medicina-clinica-english-edition–462-articulo-surveillance-covid-19-after-pandemic-how-S2387020622004582?covid=Dr56DrLjUdaMjzAgze452SzSInMN&rfr=truhgiz&y=kEzTXsahn8atJufRpNPuIGh67s1

  Surveillance of COVID-19 after the pandemic. How do we do it? […] Since the emergence of the omicron variant and the end of the sixth wave, a sharp decline in SARS-CoV-2 virulence, hospitalisation and mortality has begun to be observed, which may indicate that we are witnessing a turnaround in the pandemic. This has led to the development of an interesting debate on the virological and epidemiological surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 following an approach similar to that of influenza. […] Therefore, the aim of this paper is to outline the steps necessary to carry out future surveillance of COVID-19 in a similar way to influenza, based on various documents from national and international bodies that have already made statements in this regard. […] The current epidemiological situation of COVID-19 in Spain suggests an evolution to an influenza-like surveillance model in the medium term.

• #1 Surveillance of COVID-19 after the pandemic. How do we do it? | Medicina Clínica (English Edition)

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-medicina-clinica-english-edition–462-articulo-surveillance-covid-19-after-pandemic-how-S2387020622004582?covid=Dr56DrLjUdaMjzAgze452SzSInMN&rfr=truhgiz&y=kEzTXsahn8atJufRpNPuIGh67s1

  In this same document, the Ministry of Health justifies the transition of surveillance to a new model in which this decrease in severity makes it possible not to depend on mass screening using molecular methods or rapid tests. […] The transition to influenza-like surveillance of COVID-19 requires attention to 2 major aspects. […] COVID-19 therefore becomes a biweekly-reporting ND with special emphasis on continuous sequencing of samples to further characterise the virus in order to identify the potential emergence of new variants. […] On an international level, the World Health Organisation (WHO) updated its Global Influenza Programme (GIP) on 31 January 2022 to address the combined and joint surveillance of influenza and SARS-CoV-2 through the 70-year-old reference laboratory logistics infrastructure, the Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS).

• #1 COVID-19 2023 Update – Ending of the Public Health Emergency

  https://portal.ct.gov/dph/communications/health-topics/covid-19-2023-update—ending-of-the-public-health-emergency

  With the nationally declared Public Health Emergency ending on May 11, the Connecticut Department of Public Health has announced the States COVID-19 recovery plans and next steps. […] Ending the COVID-19 emergency declarations does not mean the virus has been eradicated. […] You still should get vaccinated, get the updated vaccine, use at-home tests, stay home when you are sick, and wear a high-quality mask when respiratory viruses are circulating at high levels in your community. […] DPH issued its last COVID-19 report for the 2022-23 respiratory viral disease season on the Open Data Portal on June 1, 2023. […] COVID-19 public data reporting will resume on Oct. 5, 2023, and continue through the winter months, as part of DPHs respiratory surveillance reporting program.

• #1 Data and Dashboards

  https://www.nj.gov/health/covid-19/information/data-and-dashboards/

  COVID-19 Surveillance Reports […] Please note: Our Respiratory Illness Reports now combine surveillance data for COVID-19, influenza, RSV, and other respiratory viruses, replacing the separate COVID-19 and Influenza Surveillance Reports. […] This document includes facility reported COVID-19 Confirmed cases. Suspect cases are excluded.

• #2 COVID-19: Epidemiology, virology, and prevention – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/covid-19-epidemiology-virology-and-prevention

  COVID-19: Epidemiology, virology, and prevention […] Before the World Health Organization (WHO) declared an end to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) global health emergency in May 2023, SARS-CoV-2 infection resulted in an estimated 15 million excess deaths in 2020 and 2021 alone. […] As SARS-CoV-2 transitions to endemicity, it remains an important cause of illness around the world. […] This topic will discuss the virology, epidemiology, and prevention of COVID-19.

• #2 COVID-19 surveillance – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance

  COVID-19 surveillance involves monitoring the spread of the coronavirus disease in order to establish the patterns of disease progression. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends active surveillance, with focus of case finding, testing and contact tracing in all transmission scenarios. COVID-19 surveillance is expected to monitor epidemiological trends, rapidly detect new cases, and based on this information, provide epidemiological information to conduct risk assessment and guide disease preparedness. […] The WHO recommends reporting probable and confirmed cases of COVID-19 infection within 48 hours of identification. Countries should report on a case-by-case basis as far as possible but, in case of limitation in resources, aggregate weekly reporting is also possible. […] Virological surveillance is done by using molecular tests for COVID-19. WHO has published resources for laboratories on how to perform testing for COVID-19. In the European Union, laboratory confirmed cases of COVID-19 are reported within 24 hours of identification. Several countries conduct virological surveillance on wastewater to test for the presence or prevalence of COVID-19 in the population residing in a wastewater catchment.

• #2 The World Health Organization COVID-19 surveillance database | International Journal for Equity in Health | Full Text

  https://equityhealthj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12939-022-01767-5

  COVID-19 global surveillance aims to monitor the extension of the pandemic across countries, the severity of the disease and risk factors, and the impact of control measures. Data collection tools and standardized surveillance methods were documented in the interim guidance Public Health Surveillance for SARS-CoV-2. […] Two years after the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, many aspects of epidemiological surveillance remain challenging despite many achievements and lessons learnt. This paper documents the construction of the WHO-HQ COVID-19 surveillance database by describing its data collection, storage, and dissemination mechanisms, followed by a discussion of the use of these data in facilitating analysis of inequalities. […] The objectives of the surveillance were to monitor areas and population affected by COVID-19 and to understand the epidemiological characteristics of the illness (incubation period, secondary attack rate, serial interval, case fatality rate) including age, sex, co-morbidities, settings of transmission, and nature of contacts to identify vulnerable groups at highest risk of exposure or severe disease.

• #2 National surveillance for Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection/health-professionals/interim-guidance-surveillance-human-infection.html

  The pandemic public health response goal is to minimize serious illness and overall deaths while minimizing societal disruption. […] They were developed to improve Canada’s understanding of COVID-19 epidemiology in the context of evolving public health interventions. […] The COVID-19 surveillance system is comprised of multiple data streams and is organized into the following components. […] Community surveillance encompasses the overall epidemiology of acute COVID-19 and longer-term impacts, such as post-COVID condition or new or worsening chronic disease. […] Virologic surveillance identifies, tracks and evaluates the specific lineages of SARS-CoV-2. […] Severe outcome surveillance monitors hospitalizations and deaths associated with COVID-19. […] Vaccine and immunity monitoring provides information on vaccination coverage, vaccine safety and effectiveness, the impact of vaccination on COVID-19 outcomes, and serological studies of immunity levels in Canada’s population.

• #2 COVID-19 surveillance – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance

  At least 24 countries have established digital surveillance of their citizens. The digital surveillance technologies include COVID-19 apps, location data and electronic tags. The Center For Disease Control and Prevention in USA tracks the travel information of individuals using airline passenger data.

• #2 COVID-19 Surveillance Data: A Primer for Epidemiology and Data Science

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7958032/

  Although moving averages are a welcome smoothing technique to noisy cumulative count data, we should advocate collecting data that our collective experience says really matter, not only what is convenient or intended to produce news breakers and capture readers attention. […] Other concerns are variability in the predictive value of specific tests, changes in testing eligibility and coverage, differences between presumptive and confirmed case definitions, and repeated testing. […] These were critical in the early phases, but now that we are more than a year into the pandemic it is time to emphasize experiments, enacted interventions and their impact evaluation, and causal inference. […] When reported daily, the assumption is that these factors do not change over time, which is clearly unsubstantiated.

• #2 COVID-19 Surveillance Data: A Primer for Epidemiology and Data Science

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7958032/

  In the current pandemic, surveillance data distributed by state health departments are used to produce rapid observations of the burden and distribution of disease in terms of person, place, and time. Specific metrics include the number and proportion of positive tests, hospitalizations, viral reproduction numbers, and deaths. […] Despite eye-popping sample sizes, the underlying data as currently reported have fundamental limitations that constrain our ability to make valid epidemiological inferences. […] The solution to the inference vacuum relies on large-scale population-based sampling to reliably establish disease incidence or impacts. […] We have observed that many analyses make untenable and unstated assumptions about the representativeness of positive SARS-CoV-2 tests and COVID-19 deaths on a given date.

• #2 Changes to Public Health Surveillance Methods Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Scoping Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10837764/

  The COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent public health response led to a pivot in public health priorities. As the urgency to understand and respond to COVID-19 transmission grew, many public health teams prioritized pandemic response including the redeployment of many staff to contact tracing and eventually mass vaccination. […] The singular worldwide focus on COVID-19 allowed for an unprecedented dedication of resources (time, money, and intellect) to leverage pre-existing surveillance processes, creating the opportunity to apply these learnings to nonCOVID-19 disease surveillance contexts. […] The severity of the COVID-19 pandemic necessitated a further push in the development of innovative surveillance methods to track and manage SARS-CoV-2 transmission. […] The COVID-19 pandemic also highlighted the importance of interjurisdictional data systems which can enable timely access to data across jurisdictional boundaries to inform public health functions. […] The ethical implications of digital surveillance, in particular, were discussed in 80 included papers. […] The heavy focus on COVID-19 in the surveillance literature reflects public health’s drastic reallocation of resources to the pandemic response.

• #2 COVID-19, surveillance and the threat to your rights – Amnesty InternationalCOVID-19, surveillance and the threat to your rights – Amnesty International

  https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/04/covid-19-surveillance-threat-to-your-rights/

  However, increased surveillance measures will be unlawful unless they can meet strict criteria. […] Governments must be able to show that measures implemented are provided for by law and are necessary, proportionate, time-bound, and that they are implemented with transparency and adequate oversight. […] What this means in practice is that surveillance measures must be the least intrusive available to achieve the desired result. […] Lessons learnt from recent history tell us that there is a real danger surveillance measures become permanent fixtures. […] Many countries are using cell phone data to track people’s movements in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. […] Other countries are using cell phone data but without the added protections of anonymization or aggregation. […] In South Korea, authorities have been sending health advisory texts which have been accompanied with personal details of infected patients, including hyperlinks which open to detailed data about their movements.

• #2

  https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/who-policy-brief-covid-19-surveillance

  Countries are advised to sustain collaborative surveillance for COVID-19, in order to provide a basis for situational awareness and risk assessment and the detection of significant changes in virus characteristics, virus spread, disease severity and population immunity, as per the WHO Director-Generals standing recommendations for COVID-19. […] Integration of COVID-19 surveillance with surveillance for other respiratory infections, e.g. influenza, should be prioritized, to provide baselines relative to other circulating viruses. […] WHO urges countries to report epidemiological and laboratory information in a timely manner to established WHO regional or global platforms, through RespiMart and the expanded activities of the Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS). […] Multiple approaches should be applied to SARS-CoV-2 surveillance, including monitoring infections in populations at highest risk of severe disease, characterizing new SARS-CoV-2 variants and investigating post COVID-19 condition.

• #2

  https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/who-policy-brief-covid-19-surveillance

  SARS-CoV-2 testing should continue strategically and be integrated into existing infectious disease (e.g. respiratory pathogen) surveillance systems. […] It is crucial to continue genomic surveillance for SARS-CoV-2 and other pathogens with epidemic and pandemic potential using capacities that were strengthened for COVID-19. Testing, reporting and risk assessment for SARS-CoV-2 continues to be needed and should utilize genomic surveillance and phenotypic assessment. […] Strengthened COVID-19 surveillance systems enhance pandemic preparedness for respiratory pathogens. Countries are urged to maintain operational readiness for surges of COVID-19 and other emerging and re-emerging pathogens. […] WHO encourages its Member States to improve data linkage, share data and experiences and explore more innovative and collaborative approaches to timely detection of outbreaks, understanding risks and vulnerabilities.

• #2 COVID-19 Wastewater Surveillance | Department of Health

  https://coronavirus.health.ny.gov/covid-19-wastewater-surveillance

  COVID-19 Wastewater Concentration Dashboard […] Wastewater surveillance is an important tool to track the spread of COVID-19 and help predict a rise in cases within a community. […] Wastewater surveillance can detect the SARS-CoV-2 virus in wastewater as many as three to seven days before we see increases in the percentage of people who test positive or are hospitalized with COVID-19. […] The SARS-CoV-2 detection level is displayed in three categories – Low, Moderate, and High showing how much viral RNA was detected in the wastewater sample. High detection levels include four additional subcategories, based on each sites historical data. Levels are based on the highest detection reported from the most recent three samples. These detection levels have been shown to correlate with estimated community transmission levels.

• #2 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  Epidemiology is essential to the fight against any disease. The study of how diseases spread, and why, has loomed large in the struggle to understand, contain and respond to COVID-19. Analyses of data on infections and deaths, and projections from studies that model the virus’s spread, have driven policy decisions all over the world. […] Epidemiology will be important as the pandemic progresses for example, in understanding the potential impact of the new variants that are currently wreaking havoc around the world. […] By about the middle of January, epidemiologists began reporting the results of modelling studies, which indicated that case numbers were likely to be much higher than had initially been documented. […] These studies found, for example, that the R0 rate which describes the number of people an infected person will pass the virus on to, on average, if the virus is allowed to spread uncontrolled to be between 2 and 4.

• #2 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  As more data became available, epidemiologists were able to confirm that the virus could be transmitted by people showing no symptoms and that it had high pandemic potential. […] At the end of January, the World Health Organization declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern, which included advice for countries on implementing public-health measures, including testing and isolating infected people, and tracing and quarantining their contacts. […] The epidemiological community also began turning its attention to evaluating measures that might help to contain the virus. […] Researchers began modelling the effectiveness of what are called non-pharmaceutical interventions. […] Their models suggested that infections and deaths could be reduced if people wore face masks and maintained a degree of distance from one another, and if more people stayed at home.

• #2 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  Studies from outside China also later affirmed that transmission dropped considerably after educational institutions were closed, gatherings limited and essential businesses closed. […] Epidemiologists will need to re-evaluate, on the basis of more recent data, whether guidelines on interventions such as social distancing need to be revised and made more stringent to account for the different ways the new variants behave. […] Another new challenge for epidemiologists is measuring how the vaccines currently being rolled out around the world affect the virus’s spread. […] The pandemic has changed epidemiology. […] The US government has announced that it will establish a National Center for Epidemic Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics. […] Epidemiology itself is expanding, with the involvement of researchers from other fields, such as physics, mathematics, computer science and network science, who have been contributing their ideas and expertise. […] Epidemiologists need to communicate both the certainty and the uncertainty of their findings so that the best decisions can be reached. […] If the past year has taught us anything, it is that knowledge of public-health tools and access to data are not enough to control a pandemic.

• #2 COVID-19 Influenced the Epidemiology of Facial Trauma: A Narrative Review, 2020–2024

  https://www.mdpi.com/2673-8112/5/5/69

  Arguably, the principal finding of our literature review was that 83% (n = 52) of the studies that were reviewed revealed a significant decrease in the number of facial trauma presentations to tertiary referral centers. The mean reduction was 39%, ranging from 2% to 95%. Falls (n = 35 studies) in the home (n = 13 studies) were identified as the predominant cause and place of injury. […] A notable secondary finding was that the widespread imposition of lockdown laws was seemingly responsible for altering the etiological causes of maxillofacial trauma presentation. Historically, the global leading causes of facial trauma can be attributed to road traffic accidents and interpersonal violence, which is supported by Pereira et al.’s recent systematic review. Significantly, our research identified alterations to this amongst the COVID cohorts when subjected to various restrictions, which resulted in an increase in falls as the leading cause with a concomitant reduction in road traffic accidents and interpersonal violence. […] The importance of these observations is that changing human behavior and activity can result in considerable alterations to the frequency and etiology of maxillofacial trauma.

• #2 Surveillance of COVID-19 after the pandemic. How do we do it? | Medicina Clínica (English Edition)

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-medicina-clinica-english-edition–462-articulo-surveillance-covid-19-after-pandemic-how-S2387020622004582?covid=Dr56DrLjUdaMjzAgze452SzSInMN&rfr=truhgiz&y=kEzTXsahn8atJufRpNPuIGh67s1

  Surveillance of COVID-19 after the pandemic. How do we do it? […] Since the emergence of the omicron variant and the end of the sixth wave, a sharp decline in SARS-CoV-2 virulence, hospitalisation and mortality has begun to be observed, which may indicate that we are witnessing a turnaround in the pandemic. This has led to the development of an interesting debate on the virological and epidemiological surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 following an approach similar to that of influenza. […] Therefore, the aim of this paper is to outline the steps necessary to carry out future surveillance of COVID-19 in a similar way to influenza, based on various documents from national and international bodies that have already made statements in this regard. […] The current epidemiological situation of COVID-19 in Spain suggests an evolution to an influenza-like surveillance model in the medium term.

• #2 Surveillance of COVID-19 after the pandemic. How do we do it? | Medicina Clínica (English Edition)

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-medicina-clinica-english-edition–462-articulo-surveillance-covid-19-after-pandemic-how-S2387020622004582?covid=Dr56DrLjUdaMjzAgze452SzSInMN&rfr=truhgiz&y=kEzTXsahn8atJufRpNPuIGh67s1

  In this same document, the Ministry of Health justifies the transition of surveillance to a new model in which this decrease in severity makes it possible not to depend on mass screening using molecular methods or rapid tests. […] The transition to influenza-like surveillance of COVID-19 requires attention to 2 major aspects. […] COVID-19 therefore becomes a biweekly-reporting ND with special emphasis on continuous sequencing of samples to further characterise the virus in order to identify the potential emergence of new variants. […] On an international level, the World Health Organisation (WHO) updated its Global Influenza Programme (GIP) on 31 January 2022 to address the combined and joint surveillance of influenza and SARS-CoV-2 through the 70-year-old reference laboratory logistics infrastructure, the Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS).

• #2 Changes to Public Health Surveillance Methods Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Scoping Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10837764/

  Public health surveillance plays a vital role in informing public health decision-making. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020 caused a widespread shift in public health priorities. Global efforts focused on COVID-19 monitoring and contact tracing. Existing public health programs were interrupted due to physical distancing measures and reallocation of resources. […] This scoping review aims to explore emergent public health surveillance methods during the early COVID-19 pandemic to characterize the impact of the pandemic on surveillance methods. […] The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated advancements in surveillance and the adoption of new technologies, especially for digital and wastewater surveillance methods. Given the investments in these systems, further applications for public health surveillance are likely. The literature for surveillance methods was dominated by surveillance of infectious diseases, particularly COVID-19. A substantial amount of literature on the ethical, legal, security, and equity implications of these emerging surveillance methods also points to a need for cautious consideration of potential harm.

• #3 COVID-19 surveillance – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance

  COVID-19 surveillance involves monitoring the spread of the coronavirus disease in order to establish the patterns of disease progression. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends active surveillance, with focus of case finding, testing and contact tracing in all transmission scenarios. COVID-19 surveillance is expected to monitor epidemiological trends, rapidly detect new cases, and based on this information, provide epidemiological information to conduct risk assessment and guide disease preparedness. […] The WHO recommends reporting probable and confirmed cases of COVID-19 infection within 48 hours of identification. Countries should report on a case-by-case basis as far as possible but, in case of limitation in resources, aggregate weekly reporting is also possible. […] Virological surveillance is done by using molecular tests for COVID-19. WHO has published resources for laboratories on how to perform testing for COVID-19. In the European Union, laboratory confirmed cases of COVID-19 are reported within 24 hours of identification. Several countries conduct virological surveillance on wastewater to test for the presence or prevalence of COVID-19 in the population residing in a wastewater catchment.

• #3 The World Health Organization COVID-19 surveillance database | International Journal for Equity in Health | Full Text

  https://equityhealthj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12939-022-01767-5

  COVID-19 global surveillance aims to monitor the extension of the pandemic across countries, the severity of the disease and risk factors, and the impact of control measures. Data collection tools and standardized surveillance methods were documented in the interim guidance Public Health Surveillance for SARS-CoV-2. […] Two years after the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, many aspects of epidemiological surveillance remain challenging despite many achievements and lessons learnt. This paper documents the construction of the WHO-HQ COVID-19 surveillance database by describing its data collection, storage, and dissemination mechanisms, followed by a discussion of the use of these data in facilitating analysis of inequalities. […] The objectives of the surveillance were to monitor areas and population affected by COVID-19 and to understand the epidemiological characteristics of the illness (incubation period, secondary attack rate, serial interval, case fatality rate) including age, sex, co-morbidities, settings of transmission, and nature of contacts to identify vulnerable groups at highest risk of exposure or severe disease.

• #3 National surveillance for Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection/health-professionals/interim-guidance-surveillance-human-infection.html

  The pandemic public health response goal is to minimize serious illness and overall deaths while minimizing societal disruption. […] They were developed to improve Canada’s understanding of COVID-19 epidemiology in the context of evolving public health interventions. […] The COVID-19 surveillance system is comprised of multiple data streams and is organized into the following components. […] Community surveillance encompasses the overall epidemiology of acute COVID-19 and longer-term impacts, such as post-COVID condition or new or worsening chronic disease. […] Virologic surveillance identifies, tracks and evaluates the specific lineages of SARS-CoV-2. […] Severe outcome surveillance monitors hospitalizations and deaths associated with COVID-19. […] Vaccine and immunity monitoring provides information on vaccination coverage, vaccine safety and effectiveness, the impact of vaccination on COVID-19 outcomes, and serological studies of immunity levels in Canada’s population.

• #3 COVID-19 surveillance – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance

  At least 24 countries have established digital surveillance of their citizens. The digital surveillance technologies include COVID-19 apps, location data and electronic tags. The Center For Disease Control and Prevention in USA tracks the travel information of individuals using airline passenger data.

• #3 COVID-19 Surveillance Data: A Primer for Epidemiology and Data Science

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7958032/

  Although moving averages are a welcome smoothing technique to noisy cumulative count data, we should advocate collecting data that our collective experience says really matter, not only what is convenient or intended to produce news breakers and capture readers attention. […] Other concerns are variability in the predictive value of specific tests, changes in testing eligibility and coverage, differences between presumptive and confirmed case definitions, and repeated testing. […] These were critical in the early phases, but now that we are more than a year into the pandemic it is time to emphasize experiments, enacted interventions and their impact evaluation, and causal inference. […] When reported daily, the assumption is that these factors do not change over time, which is clearly unsubstantiated.

• #3 Changes to Public Health Surveillance Methods Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Scoping Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10837764/

  The COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent public health response led to a pivot in public health priorities. As the urgency to understand and respond to COVID-19 transmission grew, many public health teams prioritized pandemic response including the redeployment of many staff to contact tracing and eventually mass vaccination. […] The singular worldwide focus on COVID-19 allowed for an unprecedented dedication of resources (time, money, and intellect) to leverage pre-existing surveillance processes, creating the opportunity to apply these learnings to nonCOVID-19 disease surveillance contexts. […] The severity of the COVID-19 pandemic necessitated a further push in the development of innovative surveillance methods to track and manage SARS-CoV-2 transmission. […] The COVID-19 pandemic also highlighted the importance of interjurisdictional data systems which can enable timely access to data across jurisdictional boundaries to inform public health functions. […] The ethical implications of digital surveillance, in particular, were discussed in 80 included papers. […] The heavy focus on COVID-19 in the surveillance literature reflects public health’s drastic reallocation of resources to the pandemic response.

• #3 COVID-19, surveillance and the threat to your rights – Amnesty InternationalCOVID-19, surveillance and the threat to your rights – Amnesty International

  https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/04/covid-19-surveillance-threat-to-your-rights/

  However, increased surveillance measures will be unlawful unless they can meet strict criteria. […] Governments must be able to show that measures implemented are provided for by law and are necessary, proportionate, time-bound, and that they are implemented with transparency and adequate oversight. […] What this means in practice is that surveillance measures must be the least intrusive available to achieve the desired result. […] Lessons learnt from recent history tell us that there is a real danger surveillance measures become permanent fixtures. […] Many countries are using cell phone data to track people’s movements in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. […] Other countries are using cell phone data but without the added protections of anonymization or aggregation. […] In South Korea, authorities have been sending health advisory texts which have been accompanied with personal details of infected patients, including hyperlinks which open to detailed data about their movements.

• #3

  https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/who-policy-brief-covid-19-surveillance

  Countries are advised to sustain collaborative surveillance for COVID-19, in order to provide a basis for situational awareness and risk assessment and the detection of significant changes in virus characteristics, virus spread, disease severity and population immunity, as per the WHO Director-Generals standing recommendations for COVID-19. […] Integration of COVID-19 surveillance with surveillance for other respiratory infections, e.g. influenza, should be prioritized, to provide baselines relative to other circulating viruses. […] WHO urges countries to report epidemiological and laboratory information in a timely manner to established WHO regional or global platforms, through RespiMart and the expanded activities of the Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS). […] Multiple approaches should be applied to SARS-CoV-2 surveillance, including monitoring infections in populations at highest risk of severe disease, characterizing new SARS-CoV-2 variants and investigating post COVID-19 condition.

• #3

  https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/who-policy-brief-covid-19-surveillance

  SARS-CoV-2 testing should continue strategically and be integrated into existing infectious disease (e.g. respiratory pathogen) surveillance systems. […] It is crucial to continue genomic surveillance for SARS-CoV-2 and other pathogens with epidemic and pandemic potential using capacities that were strengthened for COVID-19. Testing, reporting and risk assessment for SARS-CoV-2 continues to be needed and should utilize genomic surveillance and phenotypic assessment. […] Strengthened COVID-19 surveillance systems enhance pandemic preparedness for respiratory pathogens. Countries are urged to maintain operational readiness for surges of COVID-19 and other emerging and re-emerging pathogens. […] WHO encourages its Member States to improve data linkage, share data and experiences and explore more innovative and collaborative approaches to timely detection of outbreaks, understanding risks and vulnerabilities.

• #3 COVID-19 Wastewater Surveillance | Department of Health

  https://coronavirus.health.ny.gov/covid-19-wastewater-surveillance

  COVID-19 Wastewater Concentration Dashboard […] Wastewater surveillance is an important tool to track the spread of COVID-19 and help predict a rise in cases within a community. […] Wastewater surveillance can detect the SARS-CoV-2 virus in wastewater as many as three to seven days before we see increases in the percentage of people who test positive or are hospitalized with COVID-19. […] The SARS-CoV-2 detection level is displayed in three categories – Low, Moderate, and High showing how much viral RNA was detected in the wastewater sample. High detection levels include four additional subcategories, based on each sites historical data. Levels are based on the highest detection reported from the most recent three samples. These detection levels have been shown to correlate with estimated community transmission levels.

• #3 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  Epidemiology is essential to the fight against any disease. The study of how diseases spread, and why, has loomed large in the struggle to understand, contain and respond to COVID-19. Analyses of data on infections and deaths, and projections from studies that model the virus’s spread, have driven policy decisions all over the world. […] Epidemiology will be important as the pandemic progresses for example, in understanding the potential impact of the new variants that are currently wreaking havoc around the world. […] By about the middle of January, epidemiologists began reporting the results of modelling studies, which indicated that case numbers were likely to be much higher than had initially been documented. […] These studies found, for example, that the R0 rate which describes the number of people an infected person will pass the virus on to, on average, if the virus is allowed to spread uncontrolled to be between 2 and 4.

• #3 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  As more data became available, epidemiologists were able to confirm that the virus could be transmitted by people showing no symptoms and that it had high pandemic potential. […] At the end of January, the World Health Organization declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern, which included advice for countries on implementing public-health measures, including testing and isolating infected people, and tracing and quarantining their contacts. […] The epidemiological community also began turning its attention to evaluating measures that might help to contain the virus. […] Researchers began modelling the effectiveness of what are called non-pharmaceutical interventions. […] Their models suggested that infections and deaths could be reduced if people wore face masks and maintained a degree of distance from one another, and if more people stayed at home.

• #3 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  Studies from outside China also later affirmed that transmission dropped considerably after educational institutions were closed, gatherings limited and essential businesses closed. […] Epidemiologists will need to re-evaluate, on the basis of more recent data, whether guidelines on interventions such as social distancing need to be revised and made more stringent to account for the different ways the new variants behave. […] Another new challenge for epidemiologists is measuring how the vaccines currently being rolled out around the world affect the virus’s spread. […] The pandemic has changed epidemiology. […] The US government has announced that it will establish a National Center for Epidemic Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics. […] Epidemiology itself is expanding, with the involvement of researchers from other fields, such as physics, mathematics, computer science and network science, who have been contributing their ideas and expertise. […] Epidemiologists need to communicate both the certainty and the uncertainty of their findings so that the best decisions can be reached. […] If the past year has taught us anything, it is that knowledge of public-health tools and access to data are not enough to control a pandemic.

• #3 Changes to Public Health Surveillance Methods Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Scoping Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10837764/

  Public health surveillance plays a vital role in informing public health decision-making. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020 caused a widespread shift in public health priorities. Global efforts focused on COVID-19 monitoring and contact tracing. Existing public health programs were interrupted due to physical distancing measures and reallocation of resources. […] This scoping review aims to explore emergent public health surveillance methods during the early COVID-19 pandemic to characterize the impact of the pandemic on surveillance methods. […] The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated advancements in surveillance and the adoption of new technologies, especially for digital and wastewater surveillance methods. Given the investments in these systems, further applications for public health surveillance are likely. The literature for surveillance methods was dominated by surveillance of infectious diseases, particularly COVID-19. A substantial amount of literature on the ethical, legal, security, and equity implications of these emerging surveillance methods also points to a need for cautious consideration of potential harm.

• #4 COVID-19 surveillance – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance

  COVID-19 surveillance involves monitoring the spread of the coronavirus disease in order to establish the patterns of disease progression. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends active surveillance, with focus of case finding, testing and contact tracing in all transmission scenarios. COVID-19 surveillance is expected to monitor epidemiological trends, rapidly detect new cases, and based on this information, provide epidemiological information to conduct risk assessment and guide disease preparedness. […] The WHO recommends reporting probable and confirmed cases of COVID-19 infection within 48 hours of identification. Countries should report on a case-by-case basis as far as possible but, in case of limitation in resources, aggregate weekly reporting is also possible. […] Virological surveillance is done by using molecular tests for COVID-19. WHO has published resources for laboratories on how to perform testing for COVID-19. In the European Union, laboratory confirmed cases of COVID-19 are reported within 24 hours of identification. Several countries conduct virological surveillance on wastewater to test for the presence or prevalence of COVID-19 in the population residing in a wastewater catchment.

• #4 National surveillance for Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection/health-professionals/interim-guidance-surveillance-human-infection.html

  The pandemic public health response goal is to minimize serious illness and overall deaths while minimizing societal disruption. […] They were developed to improve Canada’s understanding of COVID-19 epidemiology in the context of evolving public health interventions. […] The COVID-19 surveillance system is comprised of multiple data streams and is organized into the following components. […] Community surveillance encompasses the overall epidemiology of acute COVID-19 and longer-term impacts, such as post-COVID condition or new or worsening chronic disease. […] Virologic surveillance identifies, tracks and evaluates the specific lineages of SARS-CoV-2. […] Severe outcome surveillance monitors hospitalizations and deaths associated with COVID-19. […] Vaccine and immunity monitoring provides information on vaccination coverage, vaccine safety and effectiveness, the impact of vaccination on COVID-19 outcomes, and serological studies of immunity levels in Canada’s population.

• #4 COVID-19 Surveillance Data: A Primer for Epidemiology and Data Science

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7958032/

  Although moving averages are a welcome smoothing technique to noisy cumulative count data, we should advocate collecting data that our collective experience says really matter, not only what is convenient or intended to produce news breakers and capture readers attention. […] Other concerns are variability in the predictive value of specific tests, changes in testing eligibility and coverage, differences between presumptive and confirmed case definitions, and repeated testing. […] These were critical in the early phases, but now that we are more than a year into the pandemic it is time to emphasize experiments, enacted interventions and their impact evaluation, and causal inference. […] When reported daily, the assumption is that these factors do not change over time, which is clearly unsubstantiated.

• #4 Changes to Public Health Surveillance Methods Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Scoping Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10837764/

  The COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent public health response led to a pivot in public health priorities. As the urgency to understand and respond to COVID-19 transmission grew, many public health teams prioritized pandemic response including the redeployment of many staff to contact tracing and eventually mass vaccination. […] The singular worldwide focus on COVID-19 allowed for an unprecedented dedication of resources (time, money, and intellect) to leverage pre-existing surveillance processes, creating the opportunity to apply these learnings to nonCOVID-19 disease surveillance contexts. […] The severity of the COVID-19 pandemic necessitated a further push in the development of innovative surveillance methods to track and manage SARS-CoV-2 transmission. […] The COVID-19 pandemic also highlighted the importance of interjurisdictional data systems which can enable timely access to data across jurisdictional boundaries to inform public health functions. […] The ethical implications of digital surveillance, in particular, were discussed in 80 included papers. […] The heavy focus on COVID-19 in the surveillance literature reflects public health’s drastic reallocation of resources to the pandemic response.

• #4

  https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/who-policy-brief-covid-19-surveillance

  Countries are advised to sustain collaborative surveillance for COVID-19, in order to provide a basis for situational awareness and risk assessment and the detection of significant changes in virus characteristics, virus spread, disease severity and population immunity, as per the WHO Director-Generals standing recommendations for COVID-19. […] Integration of COVID-19 surveillance with surveillance for other respiratory infections, e.g. influenza, should be prioritized, to provide baselines relative to other circulating viruses. […] WHO urges countries to report epidemiological and laboratory information in a timely manner to established WHO regional or global platforms, through RespiMart and the expanded activities of the Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS). […] Multiple approaches should be applied to SARS-CoV-2 surveillance, including monitoring infections in populations at highest risk of severe disease, characterizing new SARS-CoV-2 variants and investigating post COVID-19 condition.

• #4

  https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/who-policy-brief-covid-19-surveillance

  SARS-CoV-2 testing should continue strategically and be integrated into existing infectious disease (e.g. respiratory pathogen) surveillance systems. […] It is crucial to continue genomic surveillance for SARS-CoV-2 and other pathogens with epidemic and pandemic potential using capacities that were strengthened for COVID-19. Testing, reporting and risk assessment for SARS-CoV-2 continues to be needed and should utilize genomic surveillance and phenotypic assessment. […] Strengthened COVID-19 surveillance systems enhance pandemic preparedness for respiratory pathogens. Countries are urged to maintain operational readiness for surges of COVID-19 and other emerging and re-emerging pathogens. […] WHO encourages its Member States to improve data linkage, share data and experiences and explore more innovative and collaborative approaches to timely detection of outbreaks, understanding risks and vulnerabilities.

• #4 COVID-19 Wastewater Surveillance | Department of Health

  https://coronavirus.health.ny.gov/covid-19-wastewater-surveillance

  COVID-19 Wastewater Concentration Dashboard […] Wastewater surveillance is an important tool to track the spread of COVID-19 and help predict a rise in cases within a community. […] Wastewater surveillance can detect the SARS-CoV-2 virus in wastewater as many as three to seven days before we see increases in the percentage of people who test positive or are hospitalized with COVID-19. […] The SARS-CoV-2 detection level is displayed in three categories – Low, Moderate, and High showing how much viral RNA was detected in the wastewater sample. High detection levels include four additional subcategories, based on each sites historical data. Levels are based on the highest detection reported from the most recent three samples. These detection levels have been shown to correlate with estimated community transmission levels.

• #4 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  Epidemiology is essential to the fight against any disease. The study of how diseases spread, and why, has loomed large in the struggle to understand, contain and respond to COVID-19. Analyses of data on infections and deaths, and projections from studies that model the virus’s spread, have driven policy decisions all over the world. […] Epidemiology will be important as the pandemic progresses for example, in understanding the potential impact of the new variants that are currently wreaking havoc around the world. […] By about the middle of January, epidemiologists began reporting the results of modelling studies, which indicated that case numbers were likely to be much higher than had initially been documented. […] These studies found, for example, that the R0 rate which describes the number of people an infected person will pass the virus on to, on average, if the virus is allowed to spread uncontrolled to be between 2 and 4.

• #4 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  As more data became available, epidemiologists were able to confirm that the virus could be transmitted by people showing no symptoms and that it had high pandemic potential. […] At the end of January, the World Health Organization declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern, which included advice for countries on implementing public-health measures, including testing and isolating infected people, and tracing and quarantining their contacts. […] The epidemiological community also began turning its attention to evaluating measures that might help to contain the virus. […] Researchers began modelling the effectiveness of what are called non-pharmaceutical interventions. […] Their models suggested that infections and deaths could be reduced if people wore face masks and maintained a degree of distance from one another, and if more people stayed at home.

• #4 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  Studies from outside China also later affirmed that transmission dropped considerably after educational institutions were closed, gatherings limited and essential businesses closed. […] Epidemiologists will need to re-evaluate, on the basis of more recent data, whether guidelines on interventions such as social distancing need to be revised and made more stringent to account for the different ways the new variants behave. […] Another new challenge for epidemiologists is measuring how the vaccines currently being rolled out around the world affect the virus’s spread. […] The pandemic has changed epidemiology. […] The US government has announced that it will establish a National Center for Epidemic Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics. […] Epidemiology itself is expanding, with the involvement of researchers from other fields, such as physics, mathematics, computer science and network science, who have been contributing their ideas and expertise. […] Epidemiologists need to communicate both the certainty and the uncertainty of their findings so that the best decisions can be reached. […] If the past year has taught us anything, it is that knowledge of public-health tools and access to data are not enough to control a pandemic.

• #5 COVID-19 surveillance – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance

  COVID-19 surveillance involves monitoring the spread of the coronavirus disease in order to establish the patterns of disease progression. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends active surveillance, with focus of case finding, testing and contact tracing in all transmission scenarios. COVID-19 surveillance is expected to monitor epidemiological trends, rapidly detect new cases, and based on this information, provide epidemiological information to conduct risk assessment and guide disease preparedness. […] The WHO recommends reporting probable and confirmed cases of COVID-19 infection within 48 hours of identification. Countries should report on a case-by-case basis as far as possible but, in case of limitation in resources, aggregate weekly reporting is also possible. […] Virological surveillance is done by using molecular tests for COVID-19. WHO has published resources for laboratories on how to perform testing for COVID-19. In the European Union, laboratory confirmed cases of COVID-19 are reported within 24 hours of identification. Several countries conduct virological surveillance on wastewater to test for the presence or prevalence of COVID-19 in the population residing in a wastewater catchment.

• #5 National surveillance for Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection/health-professionals/interim-guidance-surveillance-human-infection.html

  The pandemic public health response goal is to minimize serious illness and overall deaths while minimizing societal disruption. […] They were developed to improve Canada’s understanding of COVID-19 epidemiology in the context of evolving public health interventions. […] The COVID-19 surveillance system is comprised of multiple data streams and is organized into the following components. […] Community surveillance encompasses the overall epidemiology of acute COVID-19 and longer-term impacts, such as post-COVID condition or new or worsening chronic disease. […] Virologic surveillance identifies, tracks and evaluates the specific lineages of SARS-CoV-2. […] Severe outcome surveillance monitors hospitalizations and deaths associated with COVID-19. […] Vaccine and immunity monitoring provides information on vaccination coverage, vaccine safety and effectiveness, the impact of vaccination on COVID-19 outcomes, and serological studies of immunity levels in Canada’s population.

• #5 Changes to Public Health Surveillance Methods Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Scoping Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10837764/

  The COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent public health response led to a pivot in public health priorities. As the urgency to understand and respond to COVID-19 transmission grew, many public health teams prioritized pandemic response including the redeployment of many staff to contact tracing and eventually mass vaccination. […] The singular worldwide focus on COVID-19 allowed for an unprecedented dedication of resources (time, money, and intellect) to leverage pre-existing surveillance processes, creating the opportunity to apply these learnings to nonCOVID-19 disease surveillance contexts. […] The severity of the COVID-19 pandemic necessitated a further push in the development of innovative surveillance methods to track and manage SARS-CoV-2 transmission. […] The COVID-19 pandemic also highlighted the importance of interjurisdictional data systems which can enable timely access to data across jurisdictional boundaries to inform public health functions. […] The ethical implications of digital surveillance, in particular, were discussed in 80 included papers. […] The heavy focus on COVID-19 in the surveillance literature reflects public health’s drastic reallocation of resources to the pandemic response.

• #5 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  Epidemiology is essential to the fight against any disease. The study of how diseases spread, and why, has loomed large in the struggle to understand, contain and respond to COVID-19. Analyses of data on infections and deaths, and projections from studies that model the virus’s spread, have driven policy decisions all over the world. […] Epidemiology will be important as the pandemic progresses for example, in understanding the potential impact of the new variants that are currently wreaking havoc around the world. […] By about the middle of January, epidemiologists began reporting the results of modelling studies, which indicated that case numbers were likely to be much higher than had initially been documented. […] These studies found, for example, that the R0 rate which describes the number of people an infected person will pass the virus on to, on average, if the virus is allowed to spread uncontrolled to be between 2 and 4.

• #5 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  As more data became available, epidemiologists were able to confirm that the virus could be transmitted by people showing no symptoms and that it had high pandemic potential. […] At the end of January, the World Health Organization declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern, which included advice for countries on implementing public-health measures, including testing and isolating infected people, and tracing and quarantining their contacts. […] The epidemiological community also began turning its attention to evaluating measures that might help to contain the virus. […] Researchers began modelling the effectiveness of what are called non-pharmaceutical interventions. […] Their models suggested that infections and deaths could be reduced if people wore face masks and maintained a degree of distance from one another, and if more people stayed at home.

• #5 How epidemiology has shaped the COVID pandemic

  https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00183-z

  Studies from outside China also later affirmed that transmission dropped considerably after educational institutions were closed, gatherings limited and essential businesses closed. […] Epidemiologists will need to re-evaluate, on the basis of more recent data, whether guidelines on interventions such as social distancing need to be revised and made more stringent to account for the different ways the new variants behave. […] Another new challenge for epidemiologists is measuring how the vaccines currently being rolled out around the world affect the virus’s spread. […] The pandemic has changed epidemiology. […] The US government has announced that it will establish a National Center for Epidemic Forecasting and Outbreak Analytics. […] Epidemiology itself is expanding, with the involvement of researchers from other fields, such as physics, mathematics, computer science and network science, who have been contributing their ideas and expertise. […] Epidemiologists need to communicate both the certainty and the uncertainty of their findings so that the best decisions can be reached. […] If the past year has taught us anything, it is that knowledge of public-health tools and access to data are not enough to control a pandemic.

• #6 COVID-19 surveillance – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance

  COVID-19 surveillance involves monitoring the spread of the coronavirus disease in order to establish the patterns of disease progression. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends active surveillance, with focus of case finding, testing and contact tracing in all transmission scenarios. COVID-19 surveillance is expected to monitor epidemiological trends, rapidly detect new cases, and based on this information, provide epidemiological information to conduct risk assessment and guide disease preparedness. […] The WHO recommends reporting probable and confirmed cases of COVID-19 infection within 48 hours of identification. Countries should report on a case-by-case basis as far as possible but, in case of limitation in resources, aggregate weekly reporting is also possible. […] Virological surveillance is done by using molecular tests for COVID-19. WHO has published resources for laboratories on how to perform testing for COVID-19. In the European Union, laboratory confirmed cases of COVID-19 are reported within 24 hours of identification. Several countries conduct virological surveillance on wastewater to test for the presence or prevalence of COVID-19 in the population residing in a wastewater catchment.

• #7 COVID-19 surveillance – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance

  COVID-19 surveillance involves monitoring the spread of the coronavirus disease in order to establish the patterns of disease progression. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends active surveillance, with focus of case finding, testing and contact tracing in all transmission scenarios. COVID-19 surveillance is expected to monitor epidemiological trends, rapidly detect new cases, and based on this information, provide epidemiological information to conduct risk assessment and guide disease preparedness. […] The WHO recommends reporting probable and confirmed cases of COVID-19 infection within 48 hours of identification. Countries should report on a case-by-case basis as far as possible but, in case of limitation in resources, aggregate weekly reporting is also possible. […] Virological surveillance is done by using molecular tests for COVID-19. WHO has published resources for laboratories on how to perform testing for COVID-19. In the European Union, laboratory confirmed cases of COVID-19 are reported within 24 hours of identification. Several countries conduct virological surveillance on wastewater to test for the presence or prevalence of COVID-19 in the population residing in a wastewater catchment.

• #8 COVID-19 surveillance – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance

  COVID-19 surveillance involves monitoring the spread of the coronavirus disease in order to establish the patterns of disease progression. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends active surveillance, with focus of case finding, testing and contact tracing in all transmission scenarios. COVID-19 surveillance is expected to monitor epidemiological trends, rapidly detect new cases, and based on this information, provide epidemiological information to conduct risk assessment and guide disease preparedness. […] The WHO recommends reporting probable and confirmed cases of COVID-19 infection within 48 hours of identification. Countries should report on a case-by-case basis as far as possible but, in case of limitation in resources, aggregate weekly reporting is also possible. […] Virological surveillance is done by using molecular tests for COVID-19. WHO has published resources for laboratories on how to perform testing for COVID-19. In the European Union, laboratory confirmed cases of COVID-19 are reported within 24 hours of identification. Several countries conduct virological surveillance on wastewater to test for the presence or prevalence of COVID-19 in the population residing in a wastewater catchment.

• #9 COVID-19 surveillance – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance

  COVID-19 surveillance involves monitoring the spread of the coronavirus disease in order to establish the patterns of disease progression. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends active surveillance, with focus of case finding, testing and contact tracing in all transmission scenarios. COVID-19 surveillance is expected to monitor epidemiological trends, rapidly detect new cases, and based on this information, provide epidemiological information to conduct risk assessment and guide disease preparedness. […] The WHO recommends reporting probable and confirmed cases of COVID-19 infection within 48 hours of identification. Countries should report on a case-by-case basis as far as possible but, in case of limitation in resources, aggregate weekly reporting is also possible. […] Virological surveillance is done by using molecular tests for COVID-19. WHO has published resources for laboratories on how to perform testing for COVID-19. In the European Union, laboratory confirmed cases of COVID-19 are reported within 24 hours of identification. Several countries conduct virological surveillance on wastewater to test for the presence or prevalence of COVID-19 in the population residing in a wastewater catchment.

• #10 COVID-19 surveillance – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance

  COVID-19 surveillance involves monitoring the spread of the coronavirus disease in order to establish the patterns of disease progression. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends active surveillance, with focus of case finding, testing and contact tracing in all transmission scenarios. COVID-19 surveillance is expected to monitor epidemiological trends, rapidly detect new cases, and based on this information, provide epidemiological information to conduct risk assessment and guide disease preparedness. […] The WHO recommends reporting probable and confirmed cases of COVID-19 infection within 48 hours of identification. Countries should report on a case-by-case basis as far as possible but, in case of limitation in resources, aggregate weekly reporting is also possible. […] Virological surveillance is done by using molecular tests for COVID-19. WHO has published resources for laboratories on how to perform testing for COVID-19. In the European Union, laboratory confirmed cases of COVID-19 are reported within 24 hours of identification. Several countries conduct virological surveillance on wastewater to test for the presence or prevalence of COVID-19 in the population residing in a wastewater catchment.

• #11 COVID-19 surveillance – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_surveillance

  COVID-19 surveillance involves monitoring the spread of the coronavirus disease in order to establish the patterns of disease progression. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends active surveillance, with focus of case finding, testing and contact tracing in all transmission scenarios. COVID-19 surveillance is expected to monitor epidemiological trends, rapidly detect new cases, and based on this information, provide epidemiological information to conduct risk assessment and guide disease preparedness. […] The WHO recommends reporting probable and confirmed cases of COVID-19 infection within 48 hours of identification. Countries should report on a case-by-case basis as far as possible but, in case of limitation in resources, aggregate weekly reporting is also possible. […] Virological surveillance is done by using molecular tests for COVID-19. WHO has published resources for laboratories on how to perform testing for COVID-19. In the European Union, laboratory confirmed cases of COVID-19 are reported within 24 hours of identification. Several countries conduct virological surveillance on wastewater to test for the presence or prevalence of COVID-19 in the population residing in a wastewater catchment.

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