Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Molar pregnancy – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/molar-pregnancy/symptoms-causes/syc-20375175

  A molar pregnancy is a rare complication of pregnancy. It involves unusual growth of cells called trophoblasts. These cells typically become the organ that feeds a growing fetus. That organ also is known as the placenta. […] An egg fertilized atypically causes a molar pregnancy. Human cells usually have 23 pairs of chromosomes. In a typical fertilization, one chromosome in each pair comes from the father, the other from the mother. […] In a complete molar pregnancy, one or two sperm fertilize an egg. The chromosomes from the mother’s egg are missing or don’t work. The father’s chromosomes are copied. There’s none from the mother. […] In a partial or incomplete molar pregnancy, the mother’s chromosomes are present, but the father supplies two sets of chromosomes. The embryo then has 69 chromosomes instead of 46. This most often occurs when two sperm fertilize an egg, resulting in an extra copy of the father’s genes.

• #2 Molar Pregnancy: Types, Symptoms, Causes & Treatments

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17889-molar-pregnancy

  A molar pregnancy occurs when an egg and sperm join incorrectly at fertilization and create a noncancerous tumor. […] Molar pregnancies are caused by genetic errors that occur during the fertilization of an egg by a sperm. […] Molar pregnancies contain an imbalance of chromosomes. In a complete molar pregnancy, the egg contains no chromosomes. The embryo gets 23 chromosomes from the sperm. In a partial molar pregnancy, an egg is fertilized by two sperm. This results in the embryo having 69 chromosomes. […] This genetic error leads to an unsuccessful pregnancy.

• #3 Risks and causes of molar pregnancy | Gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD) | Cancer Research UK

  https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/gestational-trophoblastic-disease-gtd/molar-pregnancy/risks-causes

  Molar pregnancies are caused by an imbalance in genetic material (chromosomes) in the pregnancy. […] Researchers haven’t yet been able to identify what causes molar pregnancies. […] Complete molar pregnancies are more common in women over the age of 45. […] Molar pregnancy is almost twice as common in Asian women compared to non-Asian women. […] If you’ve already had one molar pregnancy, you have about a 1 in 100 chance (1%) of having another one. […] If you have had two or more molar pregnancies your risk of having another is higher, at about 15 to 20 out of 100 (15 to 20%).

• #4 Hydatidiform Mole – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459155/

  Hydatidiform moles originate from aberrantly proliferated placental tissue. A complete mole results from the fertilization of an empty ovum by 1 or 2 sperms, resulting in paternally-derived haploid genetic material. Therefore, a complete mole comprises solely maternally derived mitochondrial DNA, while all its nuclear DNA originates paternally. The haploid paternal genetic material undergoes duplication, resulting in a diploid 46,XX or 46,XY molar pregnancy; 46,XX is the more common karyotype. […] Conversely, a partial mole arises when a viable ovum is fertilized by 2 or more sperms, with resultant karyotype 69,XXY. Partial molar pregnancies, therefore, feature a triploid diandrous monogynic genome, typically resulting from the fertilization of an ovum by 2 or more sperms or rarely from reduplications of a single sperm’s genetic material post-fertilization, resulting in a triploid 69,XXY; 69,XXX; or 69,XYY karyotypes.

• #5 Molar pregnancy | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/molar-pregnancy-2?lang=us

  Molar pregnancies, also called hydatidiform moles, are one of the most common forms of gestational trophoblastic disease. […] Molar pregnancies are one of the common complications of gestation, estimated to occur in one of every 1000-2000 pregnancies. […] These moles can occur in a pregnant woman of any age, but the rate of occurrence is higher in pregnant women in their teens or between the ages of 40-50 years. […] Ninety percent of complete hydatidiform moles have a 46XX diploid chromosomal pattern. […] All the chromosomes are derived from a single sperm in 90% or less likely two sperms, suggesting fertilization of a single egg that has lost its chromosomes. […] With partial moles, the karyotype is usually triploid (69XXY), the result of fertilization of a normal egg by two sperm, one bearing a 23X chromosomal pattern and the other a 23Y chromosomal pattern.

• #6 Educational Case: Hydatidiform Molar Pregnancy

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7863141/

  A molar pregnancy arises from aberrant fertilization. In a complete mole, genetic material is completely supplied by the paternal chromosome, with either 2 spermatozoa or a diploid sperm fertilizing an empty ovum that lacks maternal chromosomes. In approximately 90% of cases, the fertilized ovum is 46, XX. Morphologic studies of hysterectomy specimens provides evidence that hydatidiform moles arise from a transformation of the inner embryonic cell mass prior to differentiation into embryonic tissue. Without normal differentiation into the embryonic endoderm and ectoderm, the inner cell mass produces extraembryonic mesoderm and molar vesicles leading to the hydatidiform mole. […] A partial mole is an abnormal pregnancy that has a triploid karyotype with rare exceptions, caused by fertilization of a 23X ovum with 2 haploid sperm or a duplicate sperm. The most common karyotype is 69, XXY (70%), followed by 69, XXX (27%) and 69, XYY (3%). Complete moles have 3 classic histological findings: edema of the chorionic villi due to influx of water, avascular villi, and trophoblast proliferation surrounding the edematous villous circumference. Fetal tissue is absent.

• #7 Gestational trophoblastic disease – Knowledge @ AMBOSS

  https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/gestational-trophoblastic-disease/

  Gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD) is a class of neoplastic conditions characterized by abnormal trophoblast-cell growth in the uterus. […] Hydatidiform moles are typically treated via suction evacuation and curettage, whereas GTN treatment typically starts with chemotherapy. […] A type of GTD resulting from abnormal fertilization of an egg that can invade the uterus and metastasize. […] Complete mole: a type of hydatidiform mole typically resulting from fertilization by a single sperm of an abnormal egg that lacks maternal chromosomes. […] Partial mole: a type of hydatidiform mole typically resulting from fertilization of an egg by two sperm or a diploid sperm. […] Etiology: Fertilization of an egg containing a haploid set of chromosomes with two sperms. […] Fertilization of a normal (haploid) egg by two sperm.

• #8 Molar pregnancy | Pregnancy Birth and Baby

  https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/molar-pregnancy

  A molar pregnancy happens when the cells that normally form the placenta grow into abnormal cells instead. […] A molar pregnancy occurs when the cells that normally form a placenta grow into a clump of abnormal cells instead. […] In a complete molar pregnancy, an embryo does not develop at all. It usually occurs when an egg that does not contain any genetic material is fertilised by a sperm. […] In a partial molar pregnancy, a fetus can develop, but it will be abnormal and cannot survive. A partial molar pregnancy usually develops when a normal egg is fertilised by 2 sperm. […] If you have a molar pregnancy, it wasn’t caused by anything you did or didn’t do.

• #9 Molar pregnancy | March of Dimes

  https://www.marchofdimes.org/find-support/topics/miscarriage-loss-grief/molar-pregnancy

  A molar pregnancy is caused when theres a problem with an embryos chromosomes. […] Molar pregnancy happens when there are two sets of chromosomes from the father. […] Complete molar pregnancy happens when chromosomes from the mothers egg are missing or not working, and chromosomes from the father are copied, so all 46 chromosomes come from the father. […] Partial molar pregnancy happens when the mother’s chromosomes are present, but the father provides two sets of chromosomes, giving the embryo 69 chromosomes instead of 46.

• #10

  https://myhealth.alberta.ca/Health/pages/conditions.aspx?hwid=hw165877

  A molar pregnancy is thought to be caused by a problem with the genetic information of an egg or sperm. […] Things that may increase your risk of having a molar pregnancy include: Age. The risk for complete molar pregnancy is higher if you are 15 or younger or 35 or older. […] A history of molar pregnancy, especially if you’ve had two or more. […] A history of miscarriage. […] A diet low in carotene. Carotene is a form of vitamin A.

• #11 Educational Case: Hydatidiform Molar Pregnancy

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7863141/

  Several risk factors are associated with molar pregnancies. A history of prior molar pregnancy increases the risk of a repeat molar pregnancy to 1%, which is approximately 10 times the risk for the general population. The risk of a complete mole is the highest at extremes of maternal age (15 years and 35 years), and data suggest that ova from older women are more susceptible to abnormal fertilizations. The risk for a complete mole is twice as likely in women 35 years and 7 times as likely in women 40 years. The association with maternal age is mostly correlated with risk of complete molar pregnancy, while the risk of partial molar pregnancy varies very little with age. […] Molar pregnancy is treated with suction curettage in patients who wish to preserve fertility and patients are monitored with weekly -hCG measurements until undetectable.

• #12 Molar pregnancy

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/molar-pregnancy/

  A molar pregnancy happens by chance. It’s not caused by either parent doing something wrong. […] You may be more likely to have a molar pregnancy if: you’re a young teenager or over 45 years old when you get pregnant; you’ve had a molar pregnancy before; you have an Asian background.

• #13 Understanding Molar Pregnancy

  https://www.natera.com/resource-library/anora/understanding-molar-pregnancy/

  A molar pregnancy is a rare but serious condition that occurs in approximately 1 in 1,000 pregnancies. […] A molar pregnancy occurs when an error happens during fertilization, leading to an additional set of chromosomes from the father. […] In all cases, the resulting fertilized egg will have chromosomal abnormalities related to an extra set of chromosomes from the father. […] A molar pregnancy cannot be prevented and is not caused by anything a mother does or doesn’t do. […] Unfortunately, having one molar pregnancy increases the risk of a future molar pregnancy by 1-2%.

• #14 Molar Pregnancy Information & Treatment

  https://www.columbiadoctors.org/health-library/condition/molar-pregnancy/

  A molar pregnancy means that tissue that normally becomes a fetus instead becomes a mass of abnormal tissue in your uterus. It is also called a hydatidiform mole. This abnormal tissue causes symptoms of pregnancy. […] Molar pregnancy is thought to be caused by a problem with the genetic information of an egg or sperm. There are two types of molar pregnancy: complete and partial. […] Complete molar pregnancy. An egg with no genetic information is fertilized by a sperm. It does not develop into a fetus. It continues to grow as a lump of abnormal tissue that looks a bit like a cluster of grapes and can fill the uterus. […] Partial molar pregnancy. An egg is fertilized by two sperm. The placenta develops into abnormal tissue. Any fetal tissue that forms is likely to have severe defects. […] Things that may increase your risk of having a molar pregnancy include: Age. The risk for complete molar pregnancy is higher if you are 15 or younger or 35 or older. […] A history of molar pregnancy, especially if you’ve had two or more. […] A history of miscarriage. […] A diet low in carotene. Carotene is a form of vitamin A.

• #15 Molar Pregnancy: Signs, Symptoms & Treatment | Live Science

  https://www.livescience.com/55508-molar-pregnancy.html

  A molar pregnancy, also called hydatidiform mole, is an abnormal growth of placental tissue in a woman’s uterus. […] There doesn’t seem to be a reason why it occurs aside from a woman’s age, he said. Becoming pregnant before age 20 or after age 40 increases a woman’s risk of having a molar pregnancy, Schorge said. […] Both types are caused by an abnormally fertilized egg. […] In a complete molar pregnancy, the embryo does not develop but placental tissue grows rapidly into an abnormal mass. […] In a partial molar pregnancy, a woman releases a normal egg, but two sperm fertilize the egg instead of one. […] For the most part, doctors don’t truly know what causes a molar pregnancy, Schorge said. Some dietary theories, such as a deficiency of carotene, a plant pigment found in some red and orange fruits and vegetables that is converted by the body into vitamin A, have been proposed as one possible reason, he explained.

• #16 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Causes-of-Molar-Pregnancy.aspx

  A pregnancy that results in the formation of a hydatidiform mole is referred to as a molar pregnancy. A hydatidiform mole is produced by an abnormal conception, resulting from a chromosomal anomaly. […] Both types of molar pregnancy fail to produce a healthy living baby due to the chromosomal anomaly. […] Women who have had one molar pregnancy already have a 6-fold increased risk of having a recurrence, and those who have had more than two previous molar pregnancies have a 120-fold increased risk. Certain genes are associated with this recurrence risk, namely, maternal homozygous and compound heterozygous recessive, such as NLRP7 and KHDC3L. […] The tissue in the complete hydatidiform mole is usually diploid, but the entire DNA comes from the father. […] In the case of a partial mole, the tissue is triploid. Two copies of the DNA come from the father (diandric) and one from the mother. The mechanism is either dispermic fertilization or fertilization by a sperm whose chromosomes were not reduced.

• #17 Hydatidiform Mole: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/254657-overview

  A hydatidiform mole (molar pregnancy) is a gestational trophoblastic disease. […] A diet deficient in animal fat and carotene may be a risk factor. […] More recently, Japanese investigators identified a novel homozygous nonsense mutation in the NLRP7 gene (c.584GA; p.W195X) in a patient that appears to be associated with recurrent hydatidiform mole. […] Germ line mutations in NLRP7 and KhDCL3 have been identified as causative in recurrent molar pregnancies. […] A recurrent form of biparental mole, which is familial and appears to be inherited as an autosomal recessive trait, has been described. […] With a partial mole, fetal tissue is often present. […] The chromosomal complement is usually 69,XXX or 69,XXY. […] This results from fertilization of a haploid ovum and duplication of the paternal haploid chromosomes or from dispermy.

• #18 Molar pregnancy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_pregnancy

  A molar pregnancy, also known as a hydatidiform mole, is an abnormal form of pregnancy in which a non-viable fertilized egg implants in the uterus. […] The occurrence of a molar pregnancy can be attributed to the fertilized egg lacking an original maternal nucleus. […] A complete mole is caused by either a single sperm (90% of the time) or two sperm (10% of the time) combining with an egg that has lost its DNA. […] The cause of this condition is not completely understood. Potential risk factors may include defects in the egg, abnormalities within the uterus, or nutritional deficiencies. […] The diploid set of sperm-only DNA means that all chromosomes have sperm-patterned methylation suppression of genes. […] Most partial moles are triploid (three chromosome sets). […] A small percentage of hydatidiform moles have biparental diploid genomes, as in normal living persons; they have two sets of chromosomes, one inherited from each biological parent. […] Some of these moles occur in women who carry mutations in the gene NLRP7, predisposing them towards molar pregnancy.

• #19 WHO EMRO | Short communication: Molar pregnancy and husband’s occupation: do soil and dust have any role? | Volume 14, issue 1 | EMHJ volume 14, 2008

  https://www.emro.who.int/emhj-volume-14-2008/volume-14-issue-1/article21.html

  This casecontrol study investigated the association between molar pregnancy and husbands work. […] The husbands of cases were more likely to have occupations involving physical work than non-physical work and this physical work more usually involved exposure to soil and dust. […] Among all occupations, the husbands of cases were more likely to have occupations which had exposure to soil and dust (P 0.01). […] Comparing all occupations that had exposure to soil and dust with all those who did not have this exposure (physical and non-physical) resulted in a statistically significant difference in the occurrence of molar pregnancy (P 0.001). […] Molar pregnancy (hydatidiform mole) is a pathological condition and has adverse effects on womens health. […] Although age, geographic location, ethnicity, low socioeconomic status, history of previous mole or abortion, history of oral contraceptive or intrauterine device use, blood group, radiation and artificial insemination have been suggested as risk factors, little is known about its etiology.

• #20 WHO EMRO | Short communication: Molar pregnancy and husband’s occupation: do soil and dust have any role? | Volume 14, issue 1 | EMHJ volume 14, 2008

  https://www.emro.who.int/emhj-volume-14-2008/volume-14-issue-1/article21.html

  The aim of the present study was to evaluate the relationship between molar pregnancy and husbands occupation and the role of soil and dust. […] The results indicate that such a relationship exists. […] Therefore it is possible that a husbands occupation can influence gonads and germ cells, through exposure to some environmental factors, which may in turn lead to abnormal fertilization as occurs in molar pregnancy. […] Further research into the association between occupation and molar pregnancy is recommended with larger samples and investigation of the spermatogenesis and fertilization processes.

• #21 Molar Pregnancy: Expert Explains Symptoms, Risk Factors, And Treatment Of This Rare Pregnancy Complication | OnlyMyHealth

  https://www.onlymyhealth.com/molar-pregnancy-symptoms-causes-risk-factors-diagnosis-treatment-and-post-follow-up-1715061755

  Molar pregnancy occurs when a fertilised egg does not develop normally. […] It is a rare complication that occurs when a fertilised egg doesn’t develop normally. Instead of a healthy embryo and placenta, abnormal tissue forms inside the uterus. […] Hydatidiform moles occur due to abnormal proliferation of trophoblasts and are of two subtypes – complete and partial, based on genetic and biopsy features, highlighted Dr Agarwal. […] According to a 2023 study, there is speculation that environmental elements, such as inadequate nutrition and high-altitude exposure may contribute to the onset of molar pregnancy, although further investigation is necessary to establish definitive findings. […] Dr Agarwal concluded, Molar pregnancies, while serious, are treatable. Molar pregnancies result from genetic problems that occur during conception that are beyond your control.

• #22 Molar pregnancy – The Miscarriage Association

  https://www.miscarriageassociation.org.uk/information/molar-pregnancy/

  Molar pregnancy is a chance event. Doctors understand how it happens but there are no obvious underlying causes or risk factors, except a previous molar pregnancy. It just happens.

• #23 Molar Pregnancy – Women’s Health Issues – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/women-s-health-issues/cancers-of-the-female-reproductive-system/molar-pregnancy

  Most often, a molar pregnancy is an abnormal fertilized egg that develops into a hydatidiform mole rather than a fetus. A molar pregnancy may also develop from cells that remain in the uterus after a miscarriage, a full-term pregnancy, or a mislocated pregnancy (ectopic pregnancy). Rarely, a molar pregnancy develops when there is a living fetus. In such cases, the fetus typically dies, and a miscarriage often occurs. […] Molar pregnancies are a type of gestational trophoblastic disease. […] An abnormal fertilized egg or abnormal placental tissue can overgrow, causing symptoms similar to those of pregnancy, but the abdomen becomes larger more rapidly. […] Approximately 80% of cases of gestational trophoblastic disease are not cancerous. […] The rest tend to persist and start to invade surrounding tissue. Approximately 2 to 3% of hydatidiform moles develop into choriocarcinomas. Choriocarcinomas can spread quickly through the lymphatic vessels or bloodstream. […] If a molar pregnancy or another type of gestational trophoblastic disease is present, the level is usually very high because these tumors produce a large amount of this hormone. […] If the molar pregnancy tissue has spread widely and is considered high risk, doctors refer women to a specialist.

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