Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, assessment, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-in-adults-epidemiology-pathophysiology-clinical-features-assessment-and-diagnosis

  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been described as „the complex somatic, cognitive, affective, and behavioral effects of psychological trauma”. PTSD is characterized by intrusive thoughts, nightmares and flashbacks of past traumatic events, avoidance of reminders of trauma, hypervigilance, and sleep disturbance, all of which lead to considerable social, occupational, and interpersonal dysfunction. […] The epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, course, and diagnosis of PTSD are discussed here. […] Many different types of trauma have been found to result in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). […] PTSD prevalence — The lifetime prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) ranges from 6.1 to 9.2 percent in national samples of the general adult population in the United States and Canada, with one-year prevalence rates of 3.5 to 4.7 percent.

• #1

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  An estimated 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives. […] Most people exposed to potentially traumatic events do not develop PTSD. […] The likelihood of developing PTSD varies depending on the type of traumatic event experienced. […] For example, rates of PTSD are more than three times (15.3%) higher among people exposed to violent conflict or war. […] PTSD rates are especially high following sexual violence. […] An estimated 3.9% of the world population has experienced PTSD at some point in their lives. […] There are many effective treatments for PTSD. […] PTSD, like other mental health conditions, results from interacting social, psychological and biological factors. […] Women are more likely to experience PTSD than men.

• #1 Posttraumatic stress disorder in the World Mental Health Surveys | Psychological Medicine | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-in-the-world-mental-health-surveys/7DB941D95BB33FCC18BF52DFB3F78197

  Traumatic events are common globally; however, comprehensive population-based cross-national data on the epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), the paradigmatic trauma-related mental disorder, are lacking. […] The cross-national lifetime prevalence of PTSD was 3.9% in the total sample and 5.6% among the trauma exposed. […] Treatment seeking in high-income countries (53.5%) was roughly double that in low-lower middle income (22.8%) and upper-middle income (28.7%) countries. […] Social disadvantage, including younger age, female sex, being unmarried, being less educated, having lower household income, and being unemployed, was associated with increased risk of lifetime PTSD among the trauma exposed. […] PTSD is prevalent cross-nationally, with half of all global cases being persistent.

• #1 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

  https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop after exposure to a potentially traumatic event that is beyond a typical stressor. […] About one half of all U.S. adults will experience at least one traumatic event in their lives, but most do not develop PTSD. […] Based on diagnostic interview data from National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R), Figure 1 shows past year prevalence of PTSD among U.S. adults aged 18 or older. An estimated 3.6% of U.S. adults had PTSD in the past year. […] Past year prevalence of PTSD among adults was higher for females (5.2%) than for males (1.8%). […] The lifetime prevalence of PTSD was 6.8%. […] Of adults with PTSD in the past year, degree of impairment ranged from mild to serious. […] An estimated 36.6% had serious impairment, 33.1% had moderate impairment, and 30.2% had mild impairment.

• #1 A Public Health Perspective of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

  https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/11/6474

  Trauma exposure is one of the most important and prevalent risk factors for mental and physical ill-health. Prolonged or excessive stress exposure increases the risk of a wide variety of mental and physical symptoms, resulting in a condition known as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). […] The lifetime prevalence of traumatic stress ranges from 0.56% to 6.67% in Europe, with high prevalence rates in the Netherlands, the UK, France, and Germany. […] The most frequent disorder resulting from traumatic stress is PTSD. […] PTSD is a severe, chronic, and disabling disorder, which develops after exposure to a traumatic event in susceptible individuals, involving actual or threatened injury to themselves or others. […] Many models are developed aiming to predict the development of PTSD.

• #1 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

  https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

  Based on diagnostic interview data from National Comorbidity Survey Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A), Figure 3 shows lifetime prevalence of PTSD among U.S. adolescents aged 13-18. An estimated 5.0% of adolescents had PTSD, and an estimated 1.5% had severe impairment. […] The prevalence of PTSD among adolescents was higher for females (8.0%) than for males (2.3%).

• #1 Post-traumatic stress disorder in a national sample of preadolescent children 9 to 10 years old: Prevalence, correlates, clinical sequelae, and treatment utilization | Translational Psychiatry

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-024-02868-1

  Although posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been well characterized in adults, its epidemiology in children is unclear. The current study provides the first population-based examination of the prevalence of PTSD, sociodemographic and psychiatric correlates, clinical sequelae, and associations with psychiatric treatment in preadolescents 9-10 years old in the United States. […] Current and lifetime PTSD prevalence were estimated, as was treatment use among children with PTSD. […] After the application of propensity weights, lifetime prevalence of PTSD was 2.17%. […] Nearly one in three children with lifetime PTSD did not receive psychiatric treatment, despite negative long-term outcomes of PTSD and significant psychiatric comorbidity. […] The current study aimed to provide the first comprehensive assessment of PTSD in a population-based sample of preadolescent children 9-10 years old. Specifically, its objectives were: (i) to estimate the lifetime prevalence of preadolescent PTSD in the general population; (ii) to assess sociodemographic and psychiatric correlates of this disorder; (iii) to evaluate PTSD as a predictor of subsequent onset of new psychopathology; (iv) to generate estimates of the prevalence of lifetime psychiatric treatment among preadolescents with PTSD, thereby providing a sense of the scope of potential unmet treatment needs in the general population; and (v) to evaluate PTSD diagnosis in preadolescence in relation to psychiatric treatment utilization.

• #1 Epidemiology of PTSD | BrainLine

  https://www.brainline.org/article/epidemiology-ptsd

  The National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R) estimated the lifetime prevalence of PTSD among adult Americans to be 6.8%. Current past year PTSD prevalence was estimated at 3.5%. The lifetime prevalence of PTSD among men was 3.6% and among women was 9.7%. The twelve month prevalence was 1.8% among men and 5.2% among women. […] The estimated prevalence of lifetime PTSD was 7.8% in the general population. Women (10.4%) were more than twice as likely as men (5%) to have PTSD at some point in their lives. […] Prevalence estimates from studies of this type vary greatly; however, research indicates that children exposed to traumatic events may have a higher prevalence of PTSD than adults in the general population. […] The estimated lifetime prevalence of PTSD among these Veterans was 30.9% for men and 26.9% for women.

• #1 Prevalence and associated factors of post-traumatic stress disorder in pediatric populations in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis | BMC Psychiatry | Full Text

  https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-024-06106-2

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a prevalent challenge faced by individuals following traumatic events. […] This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to quantify the prevalence of PTSD and identify associated factors in this vulnerable population. […] The pooled prevalence estimate for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among pediatric individuals was 36% (95% CI: 28-44%). […] Notably, older children and those who experienced family deaths due to traumatic events were at a significantly higher risk of developing PTSD. […] The prevalence of PTSD among pediatric individuals is substantial, affecting approximately 34% of the studied population. […] The significant heterogeneity among the studies (I2=98.5%) suggests that PTSD risk factors and manifestations can vary widely. […] Children above 14 years of age appear to be more vulnerable to PTSD. […] Children who experienced family deaths due to traumatic events are at increased risk of developing PTSD.

• #1 Epidemiology of Trauma, PTSD, and Other Posttrauma Disorders | Office of Justice Programs

  https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/epidemiology-trauma-ptsd-and-other-posttrauma-disorders

  Epidemiological studies have reported that the majority of community residents in the United States have experienced traumatic events with a severity that carries the potential for developing posttraumatic stress disorder as defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV); however, less than 10 percent of trauma victims develop PTSD. […] The Detroit Area Survey of Trauma found that the overall lifetime prevalence of exposure to any traumatic event was 89.6 percent. […] The conditional risk of PTSD associated with any trauma was 13 percent for females and 6.2 percent for males. […] The overall sex difference was due primarily to females’ greater risk of PTSD following exposure to assaultive violence; specifically, the conditional risk of PTSD associated with assaultive violence was 35.7 percent for females compared with 6 percent for males.

• #1 Recognizing PTSD in Patients | Tethered to PTSD

  https://www.tetheredtoptsd.com/epidemiology

  Approximately 13 million adults in the US are estimated to have PTSD. […] The overall risk of developing PTSD after a traumatic exposure is 4.0%. This risk varies dramatically by trauma type, with the highest risk of 29.5% being associated with sexual relationship violence, and an 11.7% risk being associated with physical abuse by a partner. […] Taken together, prevalence of trauma exposure and conditional risk of PTSD inform the patient burden across the wider population. […] PTSD can affect all ethnic groups, with prevalence ranging from 8.7% of Blacks, to 7.4% and 7.0% of whites and Hispanics, respectively, to 4.0% of Asian Americans. […] The majority of patients with PTSD (80%) are in the civilian population rather than the military population. […] Increased risk of PTSD has been associated with a higher odds ratio (OR) in adults in the US with exposure to at least 1 traumatic event.

• #1 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288154-overview

  Exposure to traumatic events is common. Among adults in the United States, as many as 50% of women and 60% of men have experienced a traumatic event. Most of these individuals will not develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). […] The lifetime prevalence of PTSD in adults ranges from 6.1% to 9.2% in the United States and Canada. One-year prevalence rates range from 3.5% to 4.7%. These rates vary considerably depending on the specific population being considered. […] In the United States, Native Americans living on reservations and refugees from countries where traumatic stress was endemic have higher rates of PTSD. In a meta-analysis of 19 studies of mental disorders among Native Americans in the United States, Canada, and Latin America, indigenous peoples had 1.4 greater odds of lifetime PTSD compared with nonindigenous peoples with similar socio-demographic features.

• #1 Posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, assessment, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-in-adults-epidemiology-pathophysiology-clinical-manifestations-course-assessment-and-diagnosis

  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been described as „the complex somatic, cognitive, affective, and behavioral effects of psychological trauma”. PTSD is characterized by intrusive thoughts, nightmares and flashbacks of past traumatic events, avoidance of reminders of trauma, hypervigilance, and sleep disturbance, all of which lead to considerable social, occupational, and interpersonal dysfunction. […] The epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, course, and diagnosis of PTSD are discussed here. […] PTSD prevalence — The lifetime prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) ranges from 6.1 to 9.2 percent in national samples of the general adult population in the United States and Canada, with one-year prevalence rates of 3.5 to 4.7 percent. […] Higher rates of PTSD have been found in population subgroups in the United States compared with the general US population, including Native Americans living on reservations and refugees from countries where traumatic stress was endemic.

• #1 Epidemiology and Impact of PTSD – PTSD: National Center for PTSD

  https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/epidemiology.asp

  Estimates of the prevalence of PTSD depend on both sample characteristics and study methods. Sample characteristics include the population of study (e.g., general population, Veterans; U.S. versus other countries; treatment-seeking versus not treatment-seeking). […] According to the NESARC-III survey, which included over 3,100 Veterans among the total participants, the lifetime prevalence of PTSD among Veterans is 7%. […] Estimates of PTSD prevalence in the overall Veteran population do not generalize to Veterans who use VA health care. According to the NHRVS national survey of Veterans, the prevalence of lifetime PTSD was 23% in VA users and 7% in Veterans who do not use VA. […] PTSD can affect all aspects of a person’s functioning and well-being. For example, in the NESARC-III study, PTSD was associated with greater likelihood of comorbid substance use disorder, mood disorder, anxiety disorder, and personality disorder.

• #1 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – PsychDB

  https://www.psychdb.com/trauma-and-stressors/ptsd

  Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a mental disorder diagnosed after an exposure to trauma, including actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violation. It is characterized by intrusive and distressing memories or dreams, dissociative reactions, and substantial psychological or physiological distress related to the event. A diagnosis of PTSD requires evidence of exposure to trauma, and is characterized by intrusive and dissociative symptoms. […] The lifetime prevalence of PTSD is around 6-9%, and up to 30% in US Vietnam War veterans. Rates are also higher in emergency service personnel, including fire fighters, police officers, and paramedics. Survivors of rape, military combat, captivity, and wars are also at increased risk. […] It is more frequent in women than in men (2:1), with an onset generally in the mid to late 20s. PTSD is associated with high rates of functional impairment, somatic complaints, suicide risk, and comorbid psychiatric disorders.

• #1 Psychiatry.org – What is Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/ptsd/what-is-ptsd

  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition that may occur in people who have experienced or witnessed a traumatic event or series of traumatic events. The individual often experience the event or events as emotionally or physically harmful or life-threatening. Examples include, but are not limited to, abuse (physical, sexual, emotional), natural disasters, serious accidents, terrorist acts, war/combat exposure, intimate partner violence, and medical illness. However, most individuals who experience traumas do not go on to develop PTSD. […] The prevalence of PTSD in the U.S. is estimated to be approximately 4% of U.S. adults and 8% of U.S. adolescents aged 13-18. The lifetime prevalence in the U.S. is estimated to be 6%. […] PTSD risk factors include: Prior history of trauma (and the severity and frequency of events; perceived lack of support following event(s)), Childhood adversity/trauma, Female gender, Member of a marginalized group (such as non-white, LGBTQ+, living with a disability), Immigrant status.

• #1 Post-traumatic stress disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder

  There is debate over the rates of PTSD found in populations, but, despite changes in diagnosis and the criteria used to define PTSD between 1997 and 2013, epidemiological rates have not changed significantly. […] Most of the current reliable data regarding the epidemiology of PTSD is based on DSM-IV criteria, as the DSM-5 was not introduced until 2013. […] As of 2017, the cross-national lifetime prevalence of PTSD was 3.9%, based on a survey where 5.6% had been exposed to trauma. […] The primary factor impacting treatment-seeking behavior, which can help to mitigate PTSD development after trauma was income, while being younger, female, and having less social status (less education, lower individual income, and being unemployed) were all factors associated with less treatment-seeking behavior.

• #1 National and regional prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis | PLOS Medicine

  https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1003090

  People living in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are disproportionately exposed to trauma and may be at increased risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). […] This manuscript sought to calculate pooled PTSD prevalence estimates from nationally and regionally representative surveys in SSA. […] The overall pooled prevalence of probable PTSD was 22% (95% CI 13%32%), while the current prevalence defined as 1 week to 1 month was 25% (95% CI 16%36%); […] conflict-unexposed regions had a pooled prevalence of probable PTSD of 8% (95% CI 3%15%), while conflict-exposed regions had a pooled prevalence of probable PTSD of 30% (95% CI 21%40%; p 0.001); and […] there was no significant difference in the pooled prevalence of PTSD for men and women. […] In this study, PTSD symptoms consistent with a probable diagnosis were found to be common in SSA, especially in regions exposed to armed conflict.

• #1 Global burden of post-traumatic stress disorder and major depression in countries affected by war between 1989 and 2019: a systematic review and meta-analysis | BMJ Global Health

  https://gh.bmj.com/content/6/7/e006303

  Extensive research has demonstrated high prevalences of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depression (MD) in war-surviving populations. […] We aimed at estimating the absolute global prevalence and disease burden of adult survivors of recent wars (1989-2019) affected by PTSD and/or MD. […] Random effects meta-analyses yielded point prevalences of 26.51% for PTSD and 23.31% for MD. […] The extrapolation yielded 316 million adult war-survivors globally who suffered from PTSD and/or MD in 2019. […] War-survivors were almost exclusively living in low/middle-income countries (LMICs) and carried a burden of 3,105,387 and 4,083,950 DALYs associated with PTSD and MD, respectively. […] The number of war survivors experiencing PTSD and/or MD creates a massive mental health burden, which is primarily borne by LMICs.

• #1 Symptoms of Depression, Anxiety, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and Suicidal Ideation Among State, Tribal, Local, and Territorial Public Health Workers During the COVID-19 Pandemic — United States, March–April 2021 | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/wr/mm7026e1.htm

  Among 26,174 surveyed state, tribal, local, and territorial public health workers, 53.0% reported symptoms of at least one mental health condition in the past 2 weeks. […] Symptoms of PTSD disproportionately affected public health workers who experienced work-related traumatic stressors (e.g., felt inadequately compensated or felt unappreciated at work), particularly those factors that affect workers personal lives (e.g., felt disconnected from family and friends because of workload). […] The overall prevalence of symptoms of mental health conditions among public health workers was higher than previously reported in the general population (approximately 40.9%). […] Prevalences of symptoms of depression and anxiety among public health workers were similar to those in previous reports among health care workers; however, prevalence of PTSD symptoms among public health workers was 10%20% higher than that previously reported among health care workers, frontline personnel, and the general public.

• #1 Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adult critical care survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis | Critical Care | Full Text

  https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13054-019-2489-3

  As more patients are surviving intensive care, mental health concerns in survivors have become a research priority. Among these, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can have an important impact on the quality of life of critical care survivors. However, data on its burden are conflicting. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the prevalence of PTSD symptoms in adult critical care patients after intensive care unit (ICU) discharge. […] Overall prevalence of PTSD symptoms was 19.83% (95% confidence interval [CI], 16.72-23.13; I2 =90%, low quality of evidence). Prevalence varied widely across studies, with a wide range of expected prevalence (from 3.70 to 43.73% in 95% of settings). […] PTSD symptoms may affect 1 in every 5 adult critical care survivors, with a high expected prevalence 12 months after discharge. ICU survivors should be screened for PTSD symptoms and cared for accordingly, given the potential negative impact of PTSD on quality of life.

• #1 Breakthrough study on post-traumatic stress disorder | University of California

  https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/breakthrough-study-post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  The Psychiatric Genetics Consortium (PGC), a consortium of researchers led by scientists at University of California San Diego School of Medicine has made significant advancements in the understanding of the neurobiology of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a condition the World Health Organization says affects some 250 million people around the world. […] The paper underscores the importance of heritability in PTSD risk and notes that the identified genes influence processes related to PTSD symptoms such as stress, fear and threat responses. […] The paper represents a milestone in the understanding of the genetic component of PTSD, Nievergelt said. […] Its the first time that we actually have a very strong genetic signal, said Maihofer, who analyzed the data. The genetic signal essentially a mapping of RNA or DNA activity relevant to PTSD allowed the consortium to pinpoint specific genes and analyze pathways of gene expression for future research or even for eventual treatment strategies, Maihofer explained.

• #1 Causes – Post-traumatic stress disorder – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/causes/

  PTSD develops in about 1 in 3 people who experience severe trauma. […] It’s not fully understood why some people develop the condition while others do not. […] But certain factors appear to make some people more likely to develop PTSD. […] If you have had depression or anxiety in the past, or you do not receive much support from family or friends, you may be more likely to develop PTSD after a traumatic event. […] There may also be a genetic factor involved in PTSD. […] Studies have shown that people with PTSD have abnormal levels of stress hormones. […] People with PTSD have been found to continue to produce high amounts of fight or flight hormones even when there’s no danger. […] In people with PTSD, parts of the brain involved in emotional processing appear different in brain scans.

• #1 Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in Canada during the COVID-19 pandemic: results from the Survey on COVID-19 and Mental Health, 2020, HPCDP: Vol 45(1), January 2025 – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/reports-publications/health-promotion-chronic-disease-prevention-canada-research-policy-practice/vol-45-no-1-2025/survey-results-prevalence-ptsd-canada-covid-19-pandemic.html

  This study provides a descriptive overview of the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in Canada, across sociodemographic characteristics, mental health-related variables and negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. […] The overall prevalence of PTSD was 6.9%. […] Ongoing and enhanced surveillance of PTSD in Canada is important to better understand and address the burden and impacts of this condition. […] A 2018 systematic review found Canadian PTSD prevalence estimates to be largely dated, based on insufficient data (e.g. nonrepresentative or small samples) and varying greatly in terms of study population (e.g. clinical or general population), PTSD assessment method (clinical assessment, screening tool or self-reported diagnosis) and time frame (e.g. lifetime, past year or past month).

• #1 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/anxiety-and-stressor-related-disorders/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

  Lifetime prevalence of PTSD approaches 9%, with a 12-month prevalence of approximately 4% (1). […] Combat, sexual assault, and natural or man-made disasters are common causes of PTSD. PTSD can lead to serious social, occupational, and interpersonal dysfunction. […] PTSD is often overlooked. The trauma may not be obvious to the clinician, and the patient may not be motivated to discuss a difficult topic. The trauma can lead to a complex swirl of cognitive, affective, behavioral, and somatic symptoms. Diagnosis is often further complicated by the existence of a co-occurring depressive disorder, anxiety disorder, and/or substance use disorder. […] Evidence for pharmacotherapy in PTSD is less robust than that for trauma-focused psychotherapy (4). Most often, medications are used to treat co-existing psychiatric disorders, or especially prominent PTSD symptoms, such as depression or anxiety.

• #1 Prevalence & Risk Factors of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in Patients with Lower Limb Fractures in South Africa. — Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences

  https://www.ndorms.ox.ac.uk/publications/2120426

  Fractures occur at disproportionately higher rates in low-income and middle-income countries (LMIC) and commonly occur following a traumatic event. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence and risk factors of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among patients following lower limb trauma in South Africa. The rate of PTSD within the study population was found to be 7.1% (18/254), and the risk of developing PTSD was 13.4% (34/254). […] This study found the rate of PTSD to be lower compared with that in high-income countries, but still higher than the general population in South Africa. Our study indicates that screening for PTSD in patients with lower limb trauma in LMICs could be beneficial. Early identification of patients at risk of developing PTSD would enable appropriate resources, support, and treatment to be provided.

• #1 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Evaluation and Treatment | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2023/0300/posttraumatic-stress-disorder.html

  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is common, with a lifetime prevalence of approximately 6%. […] PTSD can occur in civilian and veteran populations in response to a broad range of traumatic events. […] PTSD affects people of all ages, and women are twice as likely to receive a diagnosis compared with men. […] Two-thirds of patients with PTSD report moderate to severe symptoms. […] PTSD may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and other medical conditions commonly seen in primary care. […] The high prevalence of PTSD shows the importance of diagnosis and treatment by family physicians. […] PTSD may develop at least one month after a qualifying traumatic event, specifically an event that involves the threat of death or harm to physical integrity. […] Although trauma is common, affecting one-half of adults, less than 10% of patients with traumatic experiences develop PTSD.

• #1 Epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: prevalence, correlates and consequences

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4452282/

  This review discusses recent findings from epidemiological surveys of traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) globally, including their prevalence, risk factors, and consequences in the community. […] A number of studies on the epidemiology of PTSD have recently been published from diverse countries, with new methodological innovations introduced. Such work has not only documented the prevalence of PTSD in different settings, but has also shed new light on the PTSD conditional risk associated with specific traumatic events, and on the morbidity and comorbidities associated with these events. […] Recent community studies show that trauma exposure is higher in lower-income countries compared with high-income countries. PTSD prevalence rates are largely similar across countries, however, with the highest rates being found in postconflict settings. Trauma and PTSD-risk factors are distributed differently in lower-income countries compared with high-income countries, with sociodemographic factors contributing more to this risk in high-income than low-income countries.

• #1 PTSD Stats – PTSD UK

  https://www.ptsduk.org/ptsd-stats/

  Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a condition that some people develop after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic life-threatening event or serious injury. Despite it’s prevalence, there has been limited research undertaken in the UK in previous years, although this is slowly improving. PTSD prevalence estimates vary widely, partly due to different study designs, populations, differences regarding trauma exposure, exposure to war and combat events, cultural factors, health care utilisation and methodologies, and recent nationally representative estimates were lacking. Efforts to increase PTSD screening and improve the awareness may not only allow for better detection, but to support those who are affected by it. […] The NHS states that around 33% of people who experience a trauma may go on to develop Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. This figure can vary widely between studies, populations and communities researched. For example, the most recent study in the UK, looking at prevalence of PTSD after COVID 19 pandemic, estimated the overall pooled estimate of PTSD prevalence to be 17.52% (double and almost triple than previous estimates)

• #1

  https://scholars.duke.edu/individual/pub1370165

  Despite the emphasis placed on childhood trauma in psychiatry, comparatively little is known about the epidemiology of trauma and trauma-related psychopathology in young people. […] We therefore aimed to evaluate the prevalence, clinical features, and risk factors associated with trauma exposure and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in young people. […] The key outcomes were the prevalence, clinical features, and risk factors associated with trauma exposure and PTSD. […] We found that 642 (311%) of 2064 participants reported trauma exposure and 160 (78%) of 2063 experienced PTSD by age 18 years. […] Trauma exposure and PTSD are associated with complex psychiatric presentations, high risk, and significant impairment in young people. […] Improved screening, reduced barriers to care provision, and comprehensive clinical assessment are needed to ensure that trauma-exposed young people and those with PTSD receive appropriate treatment.

• #2 Posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, assessment, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-in-adults-epidemiology-pathophysiology-clinical-manifestations-course-assessment-and-diagnosis

  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been described as „the complex somatic, cognitive, affective, and behavioral effects of psychological trauma”. PTSD is characterized by intrusive thoughts, nightmares and flashbacks of past traumatic events, avoidance of reminders of trauma, hypervigilance, and sleep disturbance, all of which lead to considerable social, occupational, and interpersonal dysfunction. […] The epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, course, and diagnosis of PTSD are discussed here. […] PTSD prevalence — The lifetime prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) ranges from 6.1 to 9.2 percent in national samples of the general adult population in the United States and Canada, with one-year prevalence rates of 3.5 to 4.7 percent. […] Higher rates of PTSD have been found in population subgroups in the United States compared with the general US population, including Native Americans living on reservations and refugees from countries where traumatic stress was endemic.

• #2 Posttraumatic stress disorder in the World Mental Health Surveys | Psychological Medicine | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-in-the-world-mental-health-surveys/7DB941D95BB33FCC18BF52DFB3F78197

  Only half of those with severe PTSD report receiving any treatment and only a minority receive specialty mental health care. […] Striking disparities in PTSD treatment exist by country income level. […] The lifetime prevalence of PTSD in the population was 3.9% with significant variation across countries: High income countries (5.0%) had twice the proportion of PTSD cases as upper-middle income (2.3%) and lower-low middle income countries (2.1%). […] Among respondents who experienced a TE, the lifetime prevalence of PTSD was 5.6% and varied significantly across countries, income groups, and World Health Organization (WHO) regions, with lifetime prevalence of PTSD higher among trauma-exposed individuals in high-income countries (6.9%) than in upper-middle income (3.9%), and low-lower middle income countries (3.0%).

• #2 Post-traumatic stress disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder

  PTSD affects about 5% of the US adult population each year. […] The National Comorbidity Survey Replication has estimated that the lifetime prevalence of PTSD among adult Americans is 6.8%, with women (9.7%) more than twice as likely as men (3.6%) to have PTSD at some point in their lives. […] More than 60% of men and more than 60% of women experience at least one traumatic event in their life. […] The most frequently reported traumatic events by men are rape, combat, and childhood neglect or physical abuse. […] Women most frequently report instances of rape, sexual molestation, physical attack, being threatened with a weapon and childhood physical abuse. […] 88% of men and 79% of women with lifetime PTSD have at least one comorbid psychiatric disorder.

• #2 Epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: prevalence, correlates and consequences

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4452282/

  Apart from PTSD, trauma exposure is also associated with several chronic physical conditions. These findings indicate a high burden of trauma exposure in low-income countries and postconflict settings, where access to trained mental health professionals is typically low. […] Early work on the epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) demonstrated high disorder prevalence in high-income countries, sociodemographic correlates (e.g., female sex), and the associated significant subsequent comorbidity and morbidity. […] Recent epidemiological studies from around the world have included low and middle-income countries, providing novel evidence on the distribution of trauma and PTSD cross-nationally. […] Lifetime prevalence of PTSD also varies across the WMH surveys when examining prevalence using a randomly selected traumatic event rather than the worst event. Lifetime prevalence is similar in South Africa (2.3%), Spain (2.2%), and Italy (2.4%), whereas the prevalence was lower in Japan (1.3%). Northern Ireland, in contrast, reported the highest lifetime PTSD prevalence of 8.8%.

• #2 How Common is PTSD in Adults? – PTSD: National Center for PTSD

  https://www.ptsd.va.gov/understand/common/common_adults.asp

  About 5 out of every 100 adults (or 5%) in the U.S. has PTSD in any given year. In 2020, about 13 million Americans had PTSD. […] Women are more likely to develop PTSD than men. About 8 of every 100 women (or 8%) and 4 of every 100 men (or 4%) will have PTSD at some point in their life. This is in part due to the types of traumatic events that women are more likely to experience such as sexual assault compared to men. […] Veterans are more likely to have PTSD than civilians. Veterans who deployed to a war zone are also more likely to have PTSD than those who did not deploy.

• #2 Posttraumatic stress disorder in the World Mental Health Surveys | Psychological Medicine | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-in-the-world-mental-health-surveys/7DB941D95BB33FCC18BF52DFB3F78197

  The 12-month prevalence of PTSD among lifetime cases, which is one indicator of symptom persistence or reduction of PTSD among respondents who ever develop the disorder, varied by country, country income group, and WHO region. […] Fewer than half of respondents with 12-month PTSD reported seeking any type of treatment. […] Individuals in high income countries were approximately twice as likely to seek treatment (53.5%) as those in low-lower middle income (22.8%) and upper-middle income countries (28.7%). […] All sociodemographic correlates were significantly associated with a lifetime diagnosis of PTSD among the trauma exposed. […] Respondents who were younger, female, not employed, not currently married, having a lower education level, and a lower household income were more likely to develop PTSD. […] The WMH Surveys show that half of PTSD cases are persistent and that, among respondents reporting PTSD symptoms in the last 12 months, only half received any type of treatment.

• #2 Posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, assessment, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-in-adults-epidemiology-pathophysiology-clinical-features-assessment-and-diagnosis

  Higher rates of PTSD have been found in population subgroups in the United States compared with the general US population, including Native Americans living on reservations and refugees from countries where traumatic stress was endemic. […] PTSD risk factors — The likelihood of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the presentation of the disorder appear to be affected by a number of individual and societal risk factors. […] The frequency with which PTSD occurs after a traumatic event has been found to be influenced by characteristics of the individual and the inciting event. […] Types of trauma — Sexual assault is the most frequent type of trauma experienced by women with PTSD. […] A meta-analysis of 145 studies of 64,332 refugees and other conflict-affected individuals internationally found a mean PTSD prevalence rate of 30.6 percent.

• #2 PTSD Stats – PTSD UK

  https://www.ptsduk.org/ptsd-stats/

  In the UK, that’s around 6,665,000 people who are expected to develop PTSD or C-PTSD at some point in their life, yet it is still an incredibly misunderstood, often misdiagnosed and stigmatised condition. […] 4 in 100 people in the UK are expected to have PTSD at any given time (this stat doesn’t include C-PTSD), but still equates to 2,612,000 people in the UK. […] It’s estimated there will be as many as 230,000 new PTSD referrals between 2020/21 and 2022/23 in England, which suggests a rise of about 77,000 cases a year on average. […] Estimated risk for developing PTSD for those who have experienced the following traumatic events: Rape (49 percent), Severe beating or physical assault (31.9 percent), Other sexual assault (23.7 percent), Serious accident or injury, for example, car or train accident (16.8 percent), Shooting or stabbing (15.4 percent), Sudden, unexpected death of family member or friend (14.3 percent), Child’s life-threatening illness (10.4 percent), Witness to killing or serious injury (7.3 percent), Natural disaster (3.8 percent).

• #2 Posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, assessment, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-in-adults-epidemiology-pathophysiology-clinical-manifestations-course-assessment-and-diagnosis

  A World Health Organization study found a lifetime prevalence of PTSD in upper-middle income and lower-middle income countries of 2.3 and 2.1 percent respectively. […] PTSD risk factors — The likelihood of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the presentation of the disorder appear to be affected by a number of individual and societal risk factors. […] The frequency with which PTSD occurs after a traumatic event has been found to be influenced by characteristics of the individual and the inciting event. […] Types of trauma — Many different types of trauma can result in PTSD, including military combat, sexual or physical assault, disasters, childhood sexual abuse, sudden death of a loved one, severe physical injury or sudden-onset medical illness, and intensive care unit hospitalization.

• #2

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  Other factors, including a family history of mental health conditions, younger age, and lower levels of education, can also increase the likelihood of developing PTSD after a potentially traumatic experience. […] The nature of the event experienced can also affect the chances of developing PTSD. […] Receiving social support following potentially traumatic events can reduce the risk for PTSD. […] There are many effective treatments for people with PTSD. […] The psychological interventions with the most evidence for effective treatment of PTSD are those based on cognitive behavioural therapy with a trauma focus and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). […] PTSD is included in the priority conditions covered by WHO’s mhGAP Programme, which includes guidelines for managing PTSD.

• #2 Recognizing PTSD in Patients | Tethered to PTSD

  https://www.tetheredtoptsd.com/epidemiology

  PTSD has been shown to incur higher costs per individual than heart disease and certain psychiatric mental illnesses. […] PTSD is associated with a high economic burden and homelessness, and higher proportions of individuals living below the poverty line report PTSD symptoms compared to those without PTSD.

• #2 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder | PTSD Prevalence | Lykos

  https://lykospbc.com/research-and-development/post-traumatic-stress-disorder/

  These symptoms can impact nearly all aspects of a person’s life including interpersonal relationships, work and daily activities. PTSD can also be a chronic condition with a World Health Organization study showing that after ten years post-trauma, nearly a quarter of people had not recovered. […] Several validated diagnostic tools are available to assess individuals for PTSD; however, misdiagnosed or undiagnosed PTSD is a significant problem that can result from several factors. In general, there is a lack of awareness of PTSD. The symptoms of PTSD can also overlap with other mental health conditions and result in misdiagnosis or delayed diagnosis. Stigma surrounding PTSD may also lead to underdiagnosis as people may not be willing to disclose their trauma or PTSD symptoms. […] People with PTSD frequently experience anxiety, depression, substance use disorder and suicidal ideation. They also may have a greater incidence of medical conditions that impact their physical health, including heart disease, metabolic syndrome and asthma. U.S. Army veterans who developed PTSD after military service have been shown to have an approximately two times greater risk of mortality than U.S. Army veterans who did not develop PTSD after military service.

• #2 Epidemiology of PTSD | BrainLine

  https://www.brainline.org/article/epidemiology-ptsd

  The prevalence of current PTSD in this sample of Gulf War Veterans was 12.1%. Further, the authors estimated the prevalence of PTSD among the total Gulf War Veteran population to be 10.1%. […] Among the 1,938 participants, the prevalence of current PTSD was 13.8%. […] Numerous studies have been conducted to assess the prevalence of PTSD across different populations.

• #2 Brief Report: Prevalence of Screening Positive for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Among Service Members Following Combat-Related Injury | Health.mil

  https://www.health.mil/News/Articles/2021/08/01/Brief-Report-Prev-MSMR

  Approximately 39% of WWRP participants screened positive for PTSD, which is higher than the 28% identified in a previous study using the same instrument among military personnel with high combat exposure. The finding of increasing prevalence by time since injury suggests that PTSD may develop or persist several years after combat-related injury, and underscores the need for continual assessment. […] The results of this study highlight the importance of screening for PTSD after combat-related injury even after long periods of time. Both the Post-Deployment Health Assessment and Periodic Health Assessment should continue to be used to identify and refer individuals at risk for PTSD.

• #2 Global burden of post-traumatic stress disorder and major depression in countries affected by war between 1989 and 2019: a systematic review and meta-analysis | BMJ Global Health

  https://gh.bmj.com/content/6/7/e006303

  The findings generally illustrate the importance of peace-building and maintenance. […] We aimed to estimate the absolute global number of war survivors with PTSD and/or MD, as well as the absolute associated disease burden. […] Extrapolation informed by meta-analysis yielded about 316 million adult survivors of war experiencing PTSD and/or MD globally. […] Almost all war survivors of recent wars reside in LMICs carrying a global accumulated burden of 3 million PTSD-associated DALYs and 4 million MD-associated DALYs.

• #2 Symptoms of Depression, Anxiety, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and Suicidal Ideation Among State, Tribal, Local, and Territorial Public Health Workers During the COVID-19 Pandemic — United States, March–April 2021 | MMWR

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/wr/mm7026e1.htm

  Traumatic and stressful work experiences related to the COVID-19 pandemic might have played a role in elevating the risk for experiencing symptoms of PTSD among public health workers. […] Addressing work practices that contribute to stress and trauma is critical to managing workers adverse mental health status during emergency responses.

• #2 Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adult critical care survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis | Critical Care | Full Text

  https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13054-019-2489-3

  In this systematic review and meta-analysis of 48 studies, we found that 1 in every 5 adult survivors of critical care (19.83%) develops PTSD symptoms in the year following ICU discharge. […] The pooled prevalence of PTSD symptoms was 25.69% when measured shortly after ICU discharge (less than 3 months). However, such a high early prevalence of PTSD symptoms may reflect acute stress disorder rather than PTSD. […] Despite the high prevalence of PTSD, this disorder is probably underdiagnosed in the post-ICU population. ICU survivors should be screened for PTSD symptoms and cared for accordingly, given the high rates and potential negative impact of PTSD on quality of life.

• #2 Causes – Post-traumatic stress disorder – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/causes/

  In people with PTSD, the hippocampus appears smaller in size. […] It’s thought that changes in this part of the brain may be related to fear and anxiety, memory problems and flashbacks. […] The malfunctioning hippocampus may prevent flashbacks and nightmares being properly processed, so the anxiety they generate does not reduce over time. […] Treatment of PTSD results in proper processing of the memories so, over time, the flashbacks and nightmares gradually disappear.

• #2 A Public Health Perspective of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

  https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/11/6474

  Differences in diagnostic definition and criteria of PTSD might hinder a precise and equal detection and diagnosis and can thereby limit effective and timely management. […] As part of management and patient care, prevention plays an important role in averting the disease before it develops or minimizing complications and morbidity if the disease already ensued. […] This review provides an insight into the burden of traumatic stress and its complications, some of the known causes of traumatic stress, factors believed to influence the response to stress, and integrating with the public health prevention model applied for traumatic stress. […] PTSD remains the most frequently encountered disorder as a result of traumatic stress. Due to the high lifetime prevalence and significant consequences, the burden of the disease, both on the patient and the community, is expected to be high.

• #2 National and regional prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis | PLOS Medicine

  https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1003090

  Given the enormous heterogeneity expected across the continent, and also within countries and regions, this review cannot speak to rates of PTSD in any regions not included in this review. […] More research on population-level prevalence is needed to determine the burden of trauma symptoms and PTSD in SSA and to identify acceptable and feasible approaches to address this burden given limited mental healthcare resources.

• #3 Epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: prevalence, correlates and consequences

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4452282/

  In general, however, the lifetime prevalence rates in the WMH surveys are lower than those found in previous studies that employed the worst event method. […] Increasing use of the random event method in community surveys of trauma and PTSD will, therefore, generate more accurate population-level statistics on PTSD risk, and facilitate cross-national comparisons of traumatic event exposure and PTSD-conditional risk. […] Conditional risk of PTSD refers to the prevalence of PTSD among those exposed to traumatic events, as opposed to the overall prevalence of PTSD regardless of traumatic event exposure. […] The unique role of witnessing trauma in causing PTSD in South Africa has been attributed to the history of political and criminal violence that often occurs in public settings in South Africa.

• #3 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Evaluation and Treatment | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2023/0300/posttraumatic-stress-disorder.html

  People with more exposure to traumatic events are more likely to develop and have persistent PTSD and report severe PTSD symptoms. […] This association between cumulative trauma and PTSD partially explains why populations at high risk of recurrent trauma carry a higher PTSD disease burden. […] The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed., text revision (DSM-5-TR) lists the diagnostic criteria for PTSD. […] Although presenting symptoms of PTSD often involve psychological symptoms such as hyperarousal, reexperiencing traumatic events, and sleep disturbance, patients often report somatic complaints, such as gastrointestinal distress or musculoskeletal problems. […] This makes diagnosing PTSD challenging and requires physicians to maintain a low threshold for asking about past trauma for a range of symptoms without other psychological or physiologic explanations.

• #3 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder | PTSD Prevalence | Lykos

  https://lykospbc.com/research-and-development/post-traumatic-stress-disorder/

  In addition to the significant personal impact, PTSD has an enormous economic impact resulting in an estimated annual cost of over $232 billion in the United States. […] Without an accurate diagnosis, individuals with PTSD may not receive appropriate treatment for their condition. This can increase the risk of adverse outcomes, including suicide attempts and continued long-term symptoms, underscoring the need to improve the rate and accuracy of diagnosis for PTSD. Addressing barriers to care including PTSD education, stigma and access to healthcare resources are also important for the future treatment of individuals with PTSD. Current treatments for PTSD have been shown to be “reasonably efficacious”; however, some people do not respond to treatment or stop treatment early, underscoring the urgent need for new evidence-based therapies and approaches to address this important public health issue.

• #3 A Public Health Perspective of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

  https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/11/6474

  The economic burden can be mainly categorized into direct healthcare costs, productivity loss, societal cost, and non-healthcare costs. […] The medical burden is the impact a disease has on a population, which can be measured by indicators such as morbidity, mortality, and cost. […] PTSD in military personnel is a common subject of psychiatric and psychological research, and tends to be correlated to the severity of the injury experienced. […] The prevalence of PTSD was found to be higher in studies that focused on individual victims of disasters than on the general population. […] The COVID-19 pandemic deserves a mention here, as some authors attempted the assessment of its impact on mental health. […] The social-ecological model, a four-level model that aims to identify the factors contributing to disease development and poor health outcome at these levels: individual, relationship, community, and society. […] Integrating biomarkers along with the clinical assessment would provide a powerful means of managing PTSD and other psychiatric disorders.

• #3 Posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, assessment, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-in-adults-epidemiology-pathophysiology-clinical-features-assessment-and-diagnosis

  PTSD occurring after combat injury appears to be strongly correlated with the extent of injury and with the occurrence and severity of traumatic brain injury. […] PTSD is commonly a chronic condition, with only one-third of patients recovering at one-year follow-up and one-third still symptomatic 10 years after the exposure to the trauma. […] Individuals with one or more PTSD symptoms are more likely to experience occupational problems, have poorer social supports, have higher rates of problems with intimate relationships, and have more disability than controls. […] Military personnel and veterans who have experienced combat and traumatically injured civilians should be systematically screened for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

• #3 Posttraumatic stress disorder in the World Mental Health Surveys | Psychological Medicine | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-in-the-world-mental-health-surveys/7DB941D95BB33FCC18BF52DFB3F78197

  The 12-month prevalence of PTSD among lifetime cases, which is one indicator of symptom persistence or reduction of PTSD among respondents who ever develop the disorder, varied by country, country income group, and WHO region. […] Fewer than half of respondents with 12-month PTSD reported seeking any type of treatment. […] Individuals in high income countries were approximately twice as likely to seek treatment (53.5%) as those in low-lower middle income (22.8%) and upper-middle income countries (28.7%). […] All sociodemographic correlates were significantly associated with a lifetime diagnosis of PTSD among the trauma exposed. […] Respondents who were younger, female, not employed, not currently married, having a lower education level, and a lower household income were more likely to develop PTSD. […] The WMH Surveys show that half of PTSD cases are persistent and that, among respondents reporting PTSD symptoms in the last 12 months, only half received any type of treatment.

• #3 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Evaluation and Treatment | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2023/0300/posttraumatic-stress-disorder.html

  Despite the high prevalence of PTSD, there are no standardized recommendations for universal adult screening. […] A previous American Family Physician article on care of the military veteran has more information on screening. […] Although intervention after trauma is an opportunity to prevent PTSD, there is no consensus on how to prevent PTSD for patients with traumatic exposures. […] A single session debriefing is not effective at preventing PTSD development. […] However, early psychological treatments may be helpful. […] Many medications have been proposed to reduce the likelihood of PTSD after trauma, but most show no evidence of benefit. […] PTSD can be treated in primary care, especially in systems with integrated behavioral health services.

• #4 Epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: prevalence, correlates and consequences

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4452282/

  Findings in the other WMH surveys argue for a more conventional argument that people are often reluctant to report details of events that carry the highest risk of PTSD. […] Unexpected death of a loved one was associated with a high conditional risk of PTSD and was also responsible for a large proportion of all PTSD cases in several of the WMH European surveys. […] In this review, we have identified several key issues emerging from recent epidemiological work on trauma and PTSD. […] First, although traumatic event prevalence rates are higher in countries emerging from conflict, the distribution of traumatic event types varies significantly by region. […] Second, lifetime prevalence of PTSD in most community surveys using the random event method is lower than in previous studies that used the worst event method of assessing PTSD.

• #5 Epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: prevalence, correlates and consequences

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4452282/

  Third, several sociodemographic factors are associated with traumatic event exposure and PTSD in high-income settings, but not in low-income and postconflict societies such as South Africa. […] Finally, we have reviewed recent data that shows the increasingly important role played by traumatic event exposure in the risk of developing chronic physical conditions.

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