Zespół stresu pourazowego
Rokowania, prognozy i postęp choroby

Zespół stresu pourazowego (PTSD) jest zaburzeniem psychicznym rozwijającym się u 5-10% osób po ekspozycji na traumatyczne wydarzenia, z częstością około 8% w populacji ogólnej i 11-20% wśród weteranów z Iraku i Afganistanu. Objawy pojawiają się zwykle w ciągu 3 miesięcy od traumy, ale mogą się utrzymywać latami i współistnieć z depresją, uzależnieniami oraz innymi schorzeniami somatycznymi i psychicznymi. Rokowanie jest zróżnicowane: około 30% pacjentów osiąga pełną remisję po leczeniu, a 40% doświadcza poprawy z utrzymującymi się łagodnymi do umiarkowanymi objawami. Terapie psychologiczne prowadzą do remisji u 53% pacjentów, a farmakoterapia u 42%. Wczesne rozpoczęcie leczenia znacząco poprawia rokowanie, natomiast brak terapii sprzyja przewlekłości i rozwojowi powikłań, w tym zwiększonego ryzyka śmiertelności (OR 1,47; HR 1,32). Weterani z PTSD mają dwukrotnie wyższe ryzyko zgonu z powodu samobójstwa, urazów i wirusowego zapalenia wątroby. Zaburzenie wiąże się także z podwyższonym ryzykiem chorób sercowo-naczyniowych, co potwierdzają badania funkcjonalnej oceny rozszerzalności naczyń (FMD).

Wprowadzenie do zespołu stresu pourazowego

Zespół stresu pourazowego (PTSD) to zaburzenie psychiczne, które może wystąpić u osób, które doświadczyły lub były świadkami traumatycznego wydarzenia lub serii traumatycznych wydarzeń. Pacjenci często doświadczają tych wydarzeń jako emocjonalnie lub fizycznie szkodliwych lub zagrażających życiu. Mimo iż w przeszłości zaburzenie to nazywano „sercem żołnierza”, „wstrząsem pourazowym” czy „zmęczeniem bojowym”, obecnie medycyna rozpoznaje je jako odrębną jednostkę chorobową.123

PTSD jest stosunkowo powszechnym zaburzeniem, rozwijającym się u 5-10% osób, które doświadczyły traumy. Narodowe Centrum PTSD w USA szacuje, że około 8% populacji doświadczy PTSD w pewnym momencie życia. Wskaźniki są znacznie wyższe wśród weteranów, gdzie częstość występowania PTSD u osób służących w Iraku lub Afganistanie wynosi około 11-20%.45

Wiele osób rozwija objawy w ciągu trzech miesięcy od traumy, jednak mogą one pojawić się później i często utrzymują się przez miesiące, a czasem lata. PTSD często współwystępuje z innymi schorzeniami, takimi jak depresja, uzależnienia, problemy z pamięcią i inne problemy zdrowia fizycznego i psychicznego.6

Prognozy dla pacjentów z PTSD

Rokowanie w przypadku zespołu stresu pourazowego może być zróżnicowane, jednak leczenie często przynosi poprawę. Badania wskazują, że około 30% pacjentów z PTSD osiąga pełną remisję po leczeniu. U około 40% osób następuje poprawa, ale mogą utrzymywać się łagodne do umiarkowanych objawy. U niektórych osób objawy PTSD ustępują z czasem przy wsparciu bliskich i bez profesjonalnego leczenia.7

Dane z Narodowego Centrum PTSD wskazują, że 53 na 100 pacjentów, którzy otrzymują jedną z trzech głównych terapii psychologicznych, nie będzie już spełniać kryteriów diagnostycznych PTSD. W przypadku samego leczenia farmakologicznego, 42 na 100 pacjentów osiągnie remisję.8

Warto podkreślić, że wczesne rozpoczęcie leczenia znacząco poprawia rokowanie. Badania wskazują, że im wcześniej pacjent otrzyma odpowiednią pomoc, tym większa szansa na pełne wyzdrowienie. Bez leczenia PTSD może stać się przewlekłe i prowadzić do innych problemów zdrowia psychicznego, takich jak depresja i zaburzenia lękowe.910

Wzrost ryzyka śmiertelności u pacjentów z PTSD

Systematyczne przeglądy i metaanalizy wykazały, że PTSD jest związane ze zwiększonym ryzykiem śmiertelności. Badania wskazują, że PTSD wiąże się z 47% (95% CI: 1,06-2,04) większym ryzykiem śmiertelności w sześciu badaniach raportujących OR/RR, oraz 32% zwiększonym ryzykiem w 18 badaniach, które oceniały czas do zgonu (HR: 1,32, 95% CI: 1,10-1,59). Istniało znacząco zwiększone ryzyko śmiertelności z powodu PTSD wśród populacji cywilnej, ale nie w podgrupie weteranów.1112

Badanie opublikowane w 2019 roku, prowadzone przez badaczy z White River VA Medical Center w Vermont, wykazało, że weterani leczeni z powodu PTSD mają dwukrotnie większe prawdopodobieństwo śmierci z powodu samobójstwa, przypadkowych obrażeń i wirusowego zapalenia wątroby w porównaniu do ogólnej populacji.13

PTSD a schorzenia współistniejące

PTSD zostało powiązane ze śmiercią związaną z rakiem i chorobami układu sercowo-naczyniowego, przy czym wcześniejsze badania opisywały również związek między PTSD a występowaniem tych chorób. Weterani jako grupa są szczególnie narażeni na ryzyko rozwoju chorób serca.1415

Badania z 2016 roku prowadzone przez naukowców z San Francisco VA Medical Center i Uniwersytetu Kalifornijskiego wykazały, że naczynia krwionośne weteranów z PTSD nie są w stanie normalnie rozszerzać się w odpowiedzi na bodźce, w porównaniu z weteranami bez PTSD. Badacze wykorzystali standardowy test zwany rozszerzeniem zależnym od przepływu (FMD), aby ocenić, jak dobrze tętnica w ramieniu rozszerza się w odpowiedzi na ucisk mankietu ciśnieniomierza.16

Badania wykazały również, że angażowanie się w ryzykowne zachowania, będące objawem PTSD, może z kolei prowadzić do nasilenia objawów PTSD, co tworzy potencjalnie niebezpieczne błędne koło.17

Przewidywanie przebiegu i wyników leczenia PTSD

Biomarkery i predyktory odpowiedzi na leczenie

Postępy w badaniach nad zespołem stresu pourazowego umożliwiły identyfikację potencjalnych biomarkerów, które mogą przewidywać odpowiedź na leczenie. Badania wykorzystujące funkcjonalny rezonans magnetyczny w stanie spoczynku (rs-fMRI) wykazały, że reakcja na psychoterapię skoncentrowaną na traumie może być przewidywana dla indywidualnych pacjentów z PTSD przy użyciu analizy uczenia maszynowego. To badanie typu proof-of-concept demonstruje możliwość opracowania biomarkerów neuroobrazowych dla odpowiedzi na leczenie, co zwiększy personalizację leczenia pacjentów z PTSD.18

Inne badania wykazały, że zwiększona aktywacja grzbietowej przedniej części kory zakrętu obręczy (dACC), wyspy i ciała migdałowatego przed leczeniem stanowiły istotne predyktory utrzymywania się objawów. Wyniki te podkreślają wzorzec aktywacji mózgu, który może przewidywać słabą odpowiedź na leczenie PTSD i mogą przyczynić się do opracowania alternatywnych lub dodatkowych terapii.19

Zwiększona aktywacja dACC, wyspy i ciała migdałowatego, głównych węzłów sieci istotności, wskazuje na tendencyjność uwagi w kierunku bodźców negatywnych. Ta hiperaktywacja może zapobiegać przetwarzaniu informacji o bezpieczeństwie, które są niezbędne dla skutecznej terapii skoncentrowanej na traumie.20

Heterogeniczność PTSD i jej znaczenie prognostyczne

Badania pokazują, że PTSD jest bardzo heterogenicznym zaburzeniem, mimo że dziedzina ta często traktuje je jako jednolite zjawisko. Co więcej, ta różnica ma duże konsekwencje, ponieważ osoby, które są neurobiologicznie odmienne, mają mniejsze szanse na wyzdrowienie.2122

Pacjentów z przetrwałym PTSD należy uważać za specyficzną podgrupę pacjentów o odrębnych cechach neurobiologicznych. Dla takich osób można wysunąć hipotezę, że niezbędne są nowe metody leczenia, które zmieniają funkcjonowanie określonych regionów mózgu.23

Informacje z obecnych badań mogą być wykorzystane do rozważenia alternatywnych metod leczenia, takich jak ukierunkowanie na dACC za pomocą treningu poznawczego, neurofeedbacku lub stymulacji mózgu. Te podejścia stanowią krytyczny krok w kierunku identyfikacji parametrów umożliwiających indywidualizację leczenia PTSD w przyszłości.2425

Nowoczesne metody prognozowania w PTSD

Wykorzystanie uczenia maszynowego

Zastosowanie metod uczenia maszynowego (ML) do badania PTSD otwiera nowe możliwości w prognozowaniu przebiegu tego zaburzenia. Tradycyjne poleganie na ogólnych modelach liniowych stanowi barierę dla replikacji, ponieważ modele te nie są zaprojektowane do badania złożonych interakcji między zmiennymi o różnych wzorcach dystrybucji, identyfikacji czynników dotyczących subpopulacji i wnioskowania złożonych relacji predykcyjnych.26

W jednym z badań zastosowano nadzorowane i nienadzorowane metody ML do zbadania relacji między czynnikami tła, środowiskowymi i neuroendokrynologicznymi a rozwojem PTSD w ciągu 5 miesięcy po ekspozycji na traumę. Zidentyfikowano dwie trajektorie: Grupę z poprawą (82,8% próby), charakteryzującą się początkowym wynikiem w momencie diagnozy, przybliżającym się do klinicznego punktu odcięcia dla PTSD, i znaczącym spadkiem nasilenia objawów w czasie, oraz grupę bez remisji (17,2%), która wykazywała początkowy wynik w zakresie ciężkim i brak znaczącej zmiany w wynikach PTSD w czasie.27

Metody maszyn wektorów nośnych (SVM) zapewniły lepszą niż przypadkowa dokładność predykcyjną na podstawie informacji o tle, dobrą dokładność na podstawie tła i zmiennych ER, dobrą na podstawie danych do 1 tygodnia i doskonałą dokładność dla danych do 1 miesiąca. Analiza sieci wykazała, że obniżony poziom kortyzolu był związany ze zwiększonym ryzykiem braku remisji PTSD.28

Zarówno algorytmy sieciowe, jak i klasyfikacyjne wskazują, że interakcja między wieloma czynnikami indywidualnymi zwiększa ryzyko braku remisji. Znajomość tych ścieżek może być bezpośrednio istotna dla klinicznej opieki nad osobami zidentyfikowanymi po urazie w ogólnej medycznej izbie przyjęć.29

Prognozowanie na podstawie danych biomedycznych

Konieczność wystąpienia traumatycznego wydarzenia poprzedzającego rozwój zespołu stresu pourazowego teoretycznie pozwala na zastosowanie działań profilaktycznych i wczesnych interwencji w początkowym okresie po takich wydarzeniach.30

Badanie z wykorzystaniem danych biomedycznych rutynowo zbieranych w ciągu 48 godzin po urazie wykazało dobrą predykcję podłużnych trajektorii objawów PTSD (wieloklasowe AUC = 0,89) i PTSD ocenianego przez klinicystów po 12 miesiącach (AUC = 0,89). Oznacza to, że indywidualne ryzyko długoterminowego PTSD można dokładnie prognozować na podstawie informacji biomedycznych.31

Modele prognostyczne zawierały również kilka nowych kategorii farmakoterapii przepisanej w ostrym okresie po urazie, oprócz wcześniej badanych efektów blokerów receptorów beta-adrenergicznych, opiatów, kortykosteroidów systemowych i benzodiazepin. Zidentyfikowane modele prognostyczne dokładnie przewidywały przebieg nasilenia objawów PTSD i końcowy status diagnostyczny PTSD, wykorzystując wyłącznie dane biomedyczne zebrane natychmiast po przybyciu do izby przyjęć i w ciągu pierwszych 48 godzin po przyjęciu.32

W przypadku potwierdzenia, wyniki te mają istotne implikacje dla zdrowia publicznego i informują o nowych strategiach optymalizacji efektywnego ukierunkowanego przydziału interwencji profilaktycznych we wczesnym okresie po urazie.33

Zawodowe czynniki ryzyka PTSD i ich wpływ na rokowanie

Przegląd systematyczny z metaanalizą 33 badań (obejmujących 5 719 236 uczestników) zidentyfikował szereg zawodowych ekspozycji związanych z PTSD, szczególnie u osób w siłach zbrojnych i w zawodach pierwszej reakcji. Ekspozycje te zwiększają ryzyko PTSD o 15%-89% i obejmują liczbę wojskowych oddelegowań, narażenie na działania bojowe, oddelegowanie wojskowe i konfrontację ze śmiercią.34

Zidentyfikowano również dodatkowe ekspozycje w innych zawodach, takich jak pracownicy banków, pracownicy transportu publicznego i personel medyczny. Obejmowały one zagrożenia życia, obecność podczas ataku i słyszenie o traumie kolegi. Wyniki te są istotne dla opracowywania interwencji profilaktycznych i wytycznych dotyczących zdrowia zawodowego.35

Kierunki przyszłych badań i interwencji

Potrzebne są dalsze badania, aby wyjaśnić heterogeniczność w ramach PTSD i opisać, w jaki sposób różnice w funkcjonowaniu neuronalnym są związane z wynikami leczenia. Konieczne są również dalsze badania wśród ludności cywilnej, obejmujące kobiety i osoby z krajów słabo rozwiniętych.3637

Artykuł z 2017 roku przygotowany przez grupę badaczy VA zalecił, aby znalezienie skutecznych leków na PTSD powinno być krajowym priorytetem zdrowia psychicznego. Inicjatywa ta wzywa do nowych propozycji od badaczy VA i obejmuje szkolenia w zakresie badań klinicznych i inne środki mające na celu przyspieszenie badań w tej dziedzinie. Obecnie finansowanych jest jedenaście badań nad lekami.38

Zespół badaczy ma nadzieję, że ich praca doprowadzi do wcześniejszego testowania w kierunku PTSD zanim ludzie wykażą objawy, aby zidentyfikować osoby najbardziej zagrożone tym zaburzeniem i rozpocząć wczesne leczenie.39

Narodowe Centrum PTSD (NCPTSD) jest wiodącym na świecie centrum badawczym i edukacyjnym w zakresie PTSD i innych konsekwencji stresu traumatycznego, które systematycznie pracuje nad poprawą zrozumienia, diagnozowania, oceny i leczenia tego zaburzenia.40

Kluczową kwestią pozostaje wczesne przewidywanie i identyfikacja celów wczesnej interwencji, co jest szczególnie istotne przy założeniu, że mechanizmy leżące u podstaw rozwoju zaburzenia można manipulować, aby zapobiec jego rozwojowi.41

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  1. 11.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Psychiatry.org – What is Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?
    https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/ptsd/what-is-ptsd
    Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition that may occur in people who have experienced or witnessed a traumatic event or series of traumatic events. The individual often experience the event or events as emotionally or physically harmful or life-threatening. Examples include, but are not limited to, abuse (physical, sexual, emotional), natural disasters, serious accidents, terrorist acts, war/combat exposure, intimate partner violence, and medical illness. However, most individuals who experience traumas do not go on to develop PTSD. […] Many individuals develop symptoms within three months of the trauma, but symptoms may appear later and often persist for months and sometimes years. PTSD often occurs with other related conditions, such as depression, substance use, memory problems and other physical and mental health problems.
  • #2 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
    https://www.research.va.gov/topics/ptsd.cfm
    In earlier wars, it was called „soldier’s heart,” „shell shock,” or „combat fatigue.” Today, doctors recognize these issues as a distinct medical condition called posttraumatic stress disorder, or PTSD. […] PTSD can affect individuals who have experienced a wide range of life-threatening events. VAs National Center for PTSD estimates that about 8% of the population will have PTSD at some point in their lives. In Veterans, PTSD is commonly associated with combat trauma. It has taken a significant toll on many Veterans who currently use VA health care. For example, according to the National Center for PTSD the prevalence of PTSD in Veterans who have served in Iraq or Afghanistan is about 1120%. […] VA is committed to funding research to better understand, diagnose, assess, and treat PTSD. VA research has led the way in developing effective psychotherapies for PTSD and exploring other approaches such as medications, behavioral interventions, and therapeutic devices.
  • #3 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) — symptoms and treatment | healthdirect
    https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd
    Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is mental health disorder that can occur after experiencing a traumatic event. […] If these symptoms continue to persist more than a month after traumatic event, they may be a sign of PTSD. […] PTSD can be treated with psychological therapies and medicines without treatment, it can lead to other mental health problems. […] If you or someone you know appears to be experiencing symptoms of PTSD that are affecting work, school or day-to-day activities for longer than 2 weeks after a traumatic event, it’s important to talk to a doctor or other health professional. If you or someone you know are at a high risk of developing PTSD after a traumatic event, getting help early may help reduce this risk. […] PTSD may be diagnosed if you have a number of symptoms that are severe enough to interfere with your ability to function at work, socially or at home. […] For people whose symptoms last longer, PTSD can be treated with psychological therapies and sometimes medicines. […] The sooner treatment begins, the better. […] Without treatment, PTSD may become chronic and lead to other mental health problems such as depression and anxiety.
  • #4 PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder): Symptoms & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9545-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd
    PTSD is common. It develops in 5% to 10% of people who have experienced trauma. […] The prognosis (outlook) for PTSD can vary, but treatment often helps. With treatment, about 30% of people eventually recover from the condition. About 40% of people get better with treatment, but mild to moderate symptoms may remain. For some people, symptoms of PTSD go away over time with the support of loved ones and without professional treatment.
  • #5 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
    https://www.research.va.gov/topics/ptsd.cfm
    In earlier wars, it was called „soldier’s heart,” „shell shock,” or „combat fatigue.” Today, doctors recognize these issues as a distinct medical condition called posttraumatic stress disorder, or PTSD. […] PTSD can affect individuals who have experienced a wide range of life-threatening events. VAs National Center for PTSD estimates that about 8% of the population will have PTSD at some point in their lives. In Veterans, PTSD is commonly associated with combat trauma. It has taken a significant toll on many Veterans who currently use VA health care. For example, according to the National Center for PTSD the prevalence of PTSD in Veterans who have served in Iraq or Afghanistan is about 1120%. […] VA is committed to funding research to better understand, diagnose, assess, and treat PTSD. VA research has led the way in developing effective psychotherapies for PTSD and exploring other approaches such as medications, behavioral interventions, and therapeutic devices.
  • #6 Psychiatry.org – What is Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?
    https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/ptsd/what-is-ptsd
    Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition that may occur in people who have experienced or witnessed a traumatic event or series of traumatic events. The individual often experience the event or events as emotionally or physically harmful or life-threatening. Examples include, but are not limited to, abuse (physical, sexual, emotional), natural disasters, serious accidents, terrorist acts, war/combat exposure, intimate partner violence, and medical illness. However, most individuals who experience traumas do not go on to develop PTSD. […] Many individuals develop symptoms within three months of the trauma, but symptoms may appear later and often persist for months and sometimes years. PTSD often occurs with other related conditions, such as depression, substance use, memory problems and other physical and mental health problems.
  • #7 PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder): Symptoms & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9545-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd
    PTSD is common. It develops in 5% to 10% of people who have experienced trauma. […] The prognosis (outlook) for PTSD can vary, but treatment often helps. With treatment, about 30% of people eventually recover from the condition. About 40% of people get better with treatment, but mild to moderate symptoms may remain. For some people, symptoms of PTSD go away over time with the support of loved ones and without professional treatment.
  • #8 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
    https://www.research.va.gov/topics/ptsd.cfm
    VA’s National Center for PTSD (NCPTSD) is the worlds leading research and educational center of excellence on PTSD and other consequences of traumatic stress. […] According to the National Center for PTSD, 53 of 100 patients who receive one of these three therapies will no longer have PTSD. With medication alone, 42 of 100 will achieve remission. […] A 2017 article by a group of VA researchers recommended that finding effective drug treatments for PTSD should be a national mental health priority. […] The initiative calls for new proposals from VA investigators, and includes clinical trials training and other measures to expedite research in this area. Eleven medication studies are currently being funded. […] PTSD and mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) often share similar symptoms such as irritability, restlessness, hypersensitivity to stimulation, memory loss, fatigue, and dizziness.
  • #9 Psychiatry.org – What is Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?
    https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/ptsd/what-is-ptsd
    PTSD can occur in anyone of any ethnicity, nationality or culture, and at any age. The prevalence of PTSD in the U.S. is estimated to be approximately 4% of U.S. adults and 8% of U.S. adolescents aged 13-18. The lifetime prevalence in the U.S. is estimated to be 6%. […] It is important to note that not everyone who experiences trauma develops PTSD, and not everyone who develops PTSD requires psychiatric treatment. For some people, symptoms of PTSD subside or disappear over time. […] The earlier a person gets treatment, the better chance of recovery. […] Psychiatrists and other mental health professionals use various effective and research-proven methods to help people recover from PTSD. Both talk therapy (psychotherapy) and medication provide effective evidence-based treatments for PTSD. […] Medication can help to control the symptoms of PTSD. In addition, the symptom relief that medication provides allows many people to participate more effectively in psychotherapy.
  • #10 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) — symptoms and treatment | healthdirect
    https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd
    Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is mental health disorder that can occur after experiencing a traumatic event. […] If these symptoms continue to persist more than a month after traumatic event, they may be a sign of PTSD. […] PTSD can be treated with psychological therapies and medicines without treatment, it can lead to other mental health problems. […] If you or someone you know appears to be experiencing symptoms of PTSD that are affecting work, school or day-to-day activities for longer than 2 weeks after a traumatic event, it’s important to talk to a doctor or other health professional. If you or someone you know are at a high risk of developing PTSD after a traumatic event, getting help early may help reduce this risk. […] PTSD may be diagnosed if you have a number of symptoms that are severe enough to interfere with your ability to function at work, socially or at home. […] For people whose symptoms last longer, PTSD can be treated with psychological therapies and sometimes medicines. […] The sooner treatment begins, the better. […] Without treatment, PTSD may become chronic and lead to other mental health problems such as depression and anxiety.
  • #11 Lifetime posttraumatic stress disorder as a predictor of mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis | BMC Psychiatry | Full Text
    https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-023-04716-w
    Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) could potentially increase the risk of mortality, and there is a need for a meta-analysis to quantify this association. This study aims to determine the extent to which PTSD is a predictor of mortality. […] PTSD was associated with a 47% (95% CI: 1.062.04) greater risk of mortality across six studies that reported OR/RR, and a 32% increased risk across 18 studies which reported time to death (HR: 1.32, 95% CI: 1.101.59). […] PTSD is associated with increased mortality risk, however further research is required amongst civilians, involving women, and in individuals from underdeveloped countries. […] Meta-analyses indicated that PTSD increased mortality risk by approximately 47% in six studies reporting OR/RR, and 32% in 18 studies examining time to death, when compared to individuals without PTSD.
  • #12 Lifetime posttraumatic stress disorder as a predictor of mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis | BMC Psychiatry | Full Text
    https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-023-04716-w
    There was a significantly increased risk of mortality with PTSD among civilian populations, but not among the veteran subgroup. […] PTSD was associated with cancer-related and CVD-related death, with previous studies also describing a relationship between PTSD and incidence of these diseases. […] Our systematic review and meta-analysis is the first comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis to provide evidence of PTSD increasing the risk of mortality.
  • #13 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
    https://www.research.va.gov/topics/ptsd.cfm
    Researchers with the National Center for PTSD found in 2017 that engaging in risky behavior, a symptom of PTSD, could in turn lead to worse PTSD symptoms. […] A study published in 2019, led by researchers at the White River VA Medical Center in Vermont, found that Veterans who have been treated for PTSD are twice as likely as other Americans to die from suicide, accidental injury, and viral hepatitis (a viral infection that causes liver inflammation). […] As a group, Veterans are at especially high risk for developing heart disease. […] The investigators used a standard test called flow-mediated dilation (FMD) to gauge how well an artery in the arm expands in response to the squeezing of a blood pressure cuff. […] A 2016 study led by researchers at the San Francisco VA Medical Center and the University of California found that blood vessels of Veterans with PTSD are unable to expand normally in response to stimuli, compared with Veterans without PTSD.
  • #14 Lifetime posttraumatic stress disorder as a predictor of mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis | BMC Psychiatry | Full Text
    https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-023-04716-w
    There was a significantly increased risk of mortality with PTSD among civilian populations, but not among the veteran subgroup. […] PTSD was associated with cancer-related and CVD-related death, with previous studies also describing a relationship between PTSD and incidence of these diseases. […] Our systematic review and meta-analysis is the first comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis to provide evidence of PTSD increasing the risk of mortality.
  • #15 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
    https://www.research.va.gov/topics/ptsd.cfm
    Researchers with the National Center for PTSD found in 2017 that engaging in risky behavior, a symptom of PTSD, could in turn lead to worse PTSD symptoms. […] A study published in 2019, led by researchers at the White River VA Medical Center in Vermont, found that Veterans who have been treated for PTSD are twice as likely as other Americans to die from suicide, accidental injury, and viral hepatitis (a viral infection that causes liver inflammation). […] As a group, Veterans are at especially high risk for developing heart disease. […] The investigators used a standard test called flow-mediated dilation (FMD) to gauge how well an artery in the arm expands in response to the squeezing of a blood pressure cuff. […] A 2016 study led by researchers at the San Francisco VA Medical Center and the University of California found that blood vessels of Veterans with PTSD are unable to expand normally in response to stimuli, compared with Veterans without PTSD.
  • #16 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
    https://www.research.va.gov/topics/ptsd.cfm
    Researchers with the National Center for PTSD found in 2017 that engaging in risky behavior, a symptom of PTSD, could in turn lead to worse PTSD symptoms. […] A study published in 2019, led by researchers at the White River VA Medical Center in Vermont, found that Veterans who have been treated for PTSD are twice as likely as other Americans to die from suicide, accidental injury, and viral hepatitis (a viral infection that causes liver inflammation). […] As a group, Veterans are at especially high risk for developing heart disease. […] The investigators used a standard test called flow-mediated dilation (FMD) to gauge how well an artery in the arm expands in response to the squeezing of a blood pressure cuff. […] A 2016 study led by researchers at the San Francisco VA Medical Center and the University of California found that blood vessels of Veterans with PTSD are unable to expand normally in response to stimuli, compared with Veterans without PTSD.
  • #17 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
    https://www.research.va.gov/topics/ptsd.cfm
    Researchers with the National Center for PTSD found in 2017 that engaging in risky behavior, a symptom of PTSD, could in turn lead to worse PTSD symptoms. […] A study published in 2019, led by researchers at the White River VA Medical Center in Vermont, found that Veterans who have been treated for PTSD are twice as likely as other Americans to die from suicide, accidental injury, and viral hepatitis (a viral infection that causes liver inflammation). […] As a group, Veterans are at especially high risk for developing heart disease. […] The investigators used a standard test called flow-mediated dilation (FMD) to gauge how well an artery in the arm expands in response to the squeezing of a blood pressure cuff. […] A 2016 study led by researchers at the San Francisco VA Medical Center and the University of California found that blood vessels of Veterans with PTSD are unable to expand normally in response to stimuli, compared with Veterans without PTSD.
  • #18 Individual prediction of psychotherapy outcome in posttraumatic stress disorder using neuroimaging data | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-019-0663-7
    Trauma-focused psychotherapy is the first-line treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) but 30-50% of patients do not benefit sufficiently. […] To improve treatment response rates it is important to better understand differences between responders and non-responders, and identify reliable predictors for treatment outcome. […] The current study shows that treatment response to trauma-focused psychotherapy can be predicted for individual patients with PTSD using machine learning analysis of rs-fMRI data. This proof-of-concept study demonstrates the feasibility to develop neuroimaging biomarkers for treatment response, which will enhance the personalized treatment of patients with PTSD.
  • #19 Predicting Treatment Outcome in PTSD: A Longitudinal Functional MRI Study on Trauma-Unrelated Emotional Processing
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4748440/
    In about 30-50% of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), symptoms persist after treatment. […] Higher dACC, insula, and amygdala activation before treatment were significant predictors of symptom persistence. […] Our results highlight a pattern of brain activation that may predict poor response to PTSD treatment. […] These findings can contribute to the development of alternative or additional therapies. […] Further research is needed to elucidate the heterogeneity within PTSD and describe how differences in neural function are related to treatment outcome. […] Here, we demonstrate that increased activation of the dACC, insula, and amygdala in response to trauma-unrelated negative stimuli predicts persistence of PTSD after trauma-focused therapy. […] This demonstrates that PTSD is a very heterogeneous disorder, even though the field often acts as if it is a unified phenomenon.
  • #20 Predicting Treatment Outcome in PTSD: A Longitudinal Functional MRI Study on Trauma-Unrelated Emotional Processing
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4748440/
    The present study has potential implications for the prognosis and prediction of treatment success for individuals with PTSD. […] Increased activation of the dACC, insula, and amygdala, the core nodes of the salience network, indicate an attentional bias to negative stimuli. […] This hyperactivation can prevent the processing of safety information, which is essential for successful trauma-focused therapy. […] These approaches constitute a critical step towards the identification of parameters to individualize PTSD treatment in the future.
  • #21 Predicting Treatment Outcome in PTSD: A Longitudinal Functional MRI Study on Trauma-Unrelated Emotional Processing
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4748440/
    In about 30-50% of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), symptoms persist after treatment. […] Higher dACC, insula, and amygdala activation before treatment were significant predictors of symptom persistence. […] Our results highlight a pattern of brain activation that may predict poor response to PTSD treatment. […] These findings can contribute to the development of alternative or additional therapies. […] Further research is needed to elucidate the heterogeneity within PTSD and describe how differences in neural function are related to treatment outcome. […] Here, we demonstrate that increased activation of the dACC, insula, and amygdala in response to trauma-unrelated negative stimuli predicts persistence of PTSD after trauma-focused therapy. […] This demonstrates that PTSD is a very heterogeneous disorder, even though the field often acts as if it is a unified phenomenon.
  • #22 Predicting Treatment Outcome in PTSD: A Longitudinal Functional MRI Study on Trauma-Unrelated Emotional Processing
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4748440/
    Moreover, it shows that this difference is of great consequence as these individuals who are neurobiologically distinct are less likely to recover. […] Here, we provide potential predictive biomarkers for individual prognosis of PTSD, which is relevant for an early differentiation between patients who are likely to recover and those patients for whom alternative or additional treatment might be beneficial. […] Our results indicate that PTSD patients cannot be considered a homogenous patient group. […] Persistent PTSD patients are a specific subgroup of patients with distinct neurobiological characteristics. […] For such individuals, one would hypothesize that new treatments that alter the functioning of these regions are warranted. […] The information of the current study can be used to consider alternative treatments, such as targeting the dACC with cognitive training, neurofeedback, or brain stimulation.
  • #23 Predicting Treatment Outcome in PTSD: A Longitudinal Functional MRI Study on Trauma-Unrelated Emotional Processing
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4748440/
    Moreover, it shows that this difference is of great consequence as these individuals who are neurobiologically distinct are less likely to recover. […] Here, we provide potential predictive biomarkers for individual prognosis of PTSD, which is relevant for an early differentiation between patients who are likely to recover and those patients for whom alternative or additional treatment might be beneficial. […] Our results indicate that PTSD patients cannot be considered a homogenous patient group. […] Persistent PTSD patients are a specific subgroup of patients with distinct neurobiological characteristics. […] For such individuals, one would hypothesize that new treatments that alter the functioning of these regions are warranted. […] The information of the current study can be used to consider alternative treatments, such as targeting the dACC with cognitive training, neurofeedback, or brain stimulation.
  • #24 Predicting Treatment Outcome in PTSD: A Longitudinal Functional MRI Study on Trauma-Unrelated Emotional Processing
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4748440/
    Moreover, it shows that this difference is of great consequence as these individuals who are neurobiologically distinct are less likely to recover. […] Here, we provide potential predictive biomarkers for individual prognosis of PTSD, which is relevant for an early differentiation between patients who are likely to recover and those patients for whom alternative or additional treatment might be beneficial. […] Our results indicate that PTSD patients cannot be considered a homogenous patient group. […] Persistent PTSD patients are a specific subgroup of patients with distinct neurobiological characteristics. […] For such individuals, one would hypothesize that new treatments that alter the functioning of these regions are warranted. […] The information of the current study can be used to consider alternative treatments, such as targeting the dACC with cognitive training, neurofeedback, or brain stimulation.
  • #25 Predicting Treatment Outcome in PTSD: A Longitudinal Functional MRI Study on Trauma-Unrelated Emotional Processing
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4748440/
    The present study has potential implications for the prognosis and prediction of treatment success for individuals with PTSD. […] Increased activation of the dACC, insula, and amygdala, the core nodes of the salience network, indicate an attentional bias to negative stimuli. […] This hyperactivation can prevent the processing of safety information, which is essential for successful trauma-focused therapy. […] These approaches constitute a critical step towards the identification of parameters to individualize PTSD treatment in the future.
  • #26 Utilization of machine learning for prediction of post-traumatic stress: a re-examination of cortisol in the prediction and pathways to non-remitting PTSD | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/tp201738
    To date, studies of biological risk factors have revealed inconsistent relationships with subsequent post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). […] The reliance on general linear models constitutes a barrier to replication because these models are not designed to examine complex interactions between variables of various distributional patterns, identify factors that concern a subpopulation and infer complex predictive relationships. […] Early prediction and the identification of early intervention targets are of significant interest, under the assumption that mechanisms underlying the development of the disorder can be manipulated to prevent its development. […] The selection of outcome is of equal importance in any research related to the development of PTSD. […] In the current investigation, we apply supervised and unsupervised ML methods to examine the relationship between background, environmental and neuroendocrine risk factors and PTSD development over 5 months that follow trauma exposure.
  • #27 Utilization of machine learning for prediction of post-traumatic stress: a re-examination of cortisol in the prediction and pathways to non-remitting PTSD | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/tp201738
    The two identified trajectories included: Recovery (82.8% of the sample) was characterized by an initial intercept at the 1-week time point, approximating the clinical cutoff for PTSD diagnostic status, a significant negative slope over time and a high average latent class probability for most likely latent class membership, and non-remitters (17.2%) demonstrated an initial intercept in the severe range, a nonsignificant slope indicating no significant change in PTSD scores over time and a high latent class probability for most likely latent class membership. […] SVMs provided better than chance predictive accuracy based on background information alone, good accuracy based on background and ER variables, good based on data through 1 week, and excellent accuracy for data through 1 month. […] Network analyses revealed that decreased levels of cortisol was associated with increased risk for PTSD non-remission.
  • #28 Utilization of machine learning for prediction of post-traumatic stress: a re-examination of cortisol in the prediction and pathways to non-remitting PTSD | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/tp201738
    The two identified trajectories included: Recovery (82.8% of the sample) was characterized by an initial intercept at the 1-week time point, approximating the clinical cutoff for PTSD diagnostic status, a significant negative slope over time and a high average latent class probability for most likely latent class membership, and non-remitters (17.2%) demonstrated an initial intercept in the severe range, a nonsignificant slope indicating no significant change in PTSD scores over time and a high latent class probability for most likely latent class membership. […] SVMs provided better than chance predictive accuracy based on background information alone, good accuracy based on background and ER variables, good based on data through 1 week, and excellent accuracy for data through 1 month. […] Network analyses revealed that decreased levels of cortisol was associated with increased risk for PTSD non-remission.
  • #29 Utilization of machine learning for prediction of post-traumatic stress: a re-examination of cortisol in the prediction and pathways to non-remitting PTSD | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/tp201738
    Both network and classification algorithms indicate that the interaction between multiple individual factors confers risk for non-remission. […] Knowledge of these pathways may be directly relevant to clinical care of individuals identified following trauma in the general medical ER. […] The current findings demonstrate that the neuroendocrine response contributes to an accurate predictive signal of PTSD trajectory of response to trauma. […] Further, this work identifies subpopulations for which the cortisol response following trauma is most relevant.
  • #30 Forecasting individual risk for long-term Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in emergency medical settings using biomedical data: A machine learning multicenter cohort study
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7843920/
    The necessary requirement of a traumatic event preceding the development of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, theoretically allows for administering preventive and early interventions in the early aftermath of such events. […] Good prediction of longitudinal PTSD symptom trajectories (multiclass AUC = 0.89) and clinician-rated PTSD at 12 months (AUC = 0.89) was achieved. […] Thus, individual risk for long-term PTSD was accurately forecasted from biomedical information routinely collected within 48 h post-trauma. […] These results facilitate future targeted preventive interventions by enabling future early risk detection and provide further insights into the complex etiology of PTSD. […] Importantly, our study is the first to apply multinomial prognostic ML models for PTSD outcome, allowing us for the first time to forecast the full spectrum of heterogeneous PTSD trajectories upon trauma-exposure within one prognostic model.
  • #31 Forecasting individual risk for long-term Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in emergency medical settings using biomedical data: A machine learning multicenter cohort study
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7843920/
    The necessary requirement of a traumatic event preceding the development of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, theoretically allows for administering preventive and early interventions in the early aftermath of such events. […] Good prediction of longitudinal PTSD symptom trajectories (multiclass AUC = 0.89) and clinician-rated PTSD at 12 months (AUC = 0.89) was achieved. […] Thus, individual risk for long-term PTSD was accurately forecasted from biomedical information routinely collected within 48 h post-trauma. […] These results facilitate future targeted preventive interventions by enabling future early risk detection and provide further insights into the complex etiology of PTSD. […] Importantly, our study is the first to apply multinomial prognostic ML models for PTSD outcome, allowing us for the first time to forecast the full spectrum of heterogeneous PTSD trajectories upon trauma-exposure within one prognostic model.
  • #32 Forecasting individual risk for long-term Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in emergency medical settings using biomedical data: A machine learning multicenter cohort study
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7843920/
    Our prognostic models also included several new categories of pharmacotherapy prescribed within the acute post-trauma period, on top of previously investigated effects of beta-adrenergic receptor blockers, opiates, systemic corticosteroids and benzodiazepines. […] The identified prognostic models accurately forecasted PTSD symptom severity course and end-point PTSD diagnostic status by only using biomedical data collected immediately upon arrival in the ED and within the first 48 h after admission. […] If replicated, our results have important public health implications and inform new strategies to optimize efficient targeted allocation of preventive interventions early post-injury.
  • #33 Forecasting individual risk for long-term Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in emergency medical settings using biomedical data: A machine learning multicenter cohort study
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7843920/
    Our prognostic models also included several new categories of pharmacotherapy prescribed within the acute post-trauma period, on top of previously investigated effects of beta-adrenergic receptor blockers, opiates, systemic corticosteroids and benzodiazepines. […] The identified prognostic models accurately forecasted PTSD symptom severity course and end-point PTSD diagnostic status by only using biomedical data collected immediately upon arrival in the ED and within the first 48 h after admission. […] If replicated, our results have important public health implications and inform new strategies to optimize efficient targeted allocation of preventive interventions early post-injury.
  • #34 What work-related exposures are associated with post-traumatic stress disorder? A systematic review with meta-analysis | BMJ Open
    https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/11/8/e049651
    Objectives Although there is evidence that work-related exposures cause post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), there are few quantitative studies assessing the degree to which these factors contribute to PTSD. This systematic review with meta-analysis identified work-related exposures associated with PTSD, and quantified their contribution to this disorder. […] We identified various work-related exposures associated with PTSD and quantified their contribution. While exposure assessment, PTSD ascertainment and inconsistency may have biased our findings, our data are of importance for development of preventive interventions and occupational health guidelines. […] In this systematic review with meta-analysis of 33 studies (with n=5719236 participants), based on moderate quality evidence at best, we identified a number of work-related exposures (mainly involving individuals in the armed forces and in first responder occupations) that increase the risk of PTSD (by 15%89%). These exposures include number of army deployments, combat exposure, army deployment and confrontation with death, for which we found a moderate contribution to the development of PTSD. We identified additional exposures in other occupations, such as bank workers, public transport workers and medics. These included life threats, being present during an attack and hearing about a colleagues trauma. Although exposure assessment, PTSD ascertainment and inconsistency may have biased our findings, the results of this review are quite robust and are of importance for the development of preventive interventions and occupational health guidelines.
  • #35 What work-related exposures are associated with post-traumatic stress disorder? A systematic review with meta-analysis | BMJ Open
    https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/11/8/e049651
    Objectives Although there is evidence that work-related exposures cause post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), there are few quantitative studies assessing the degree to which these factors contribute to PTSD. This systematic review with meta-analysis identified work-related exposures associated with PTSD, and quantified their contribution to this disorder. […] We identified various work-related exposures associated with PTSD and quantified their contribution. While exposure assessment, PTSD ascertainment and inconsistency may have biased our findings, our data are of importance for development of preventive interventions and occupational health guidelines. […] In this systematic review with meta-analysis of 33 studies (with n=5719236 participants), based on moderate quality evidence at best, we identified a number of work-related exposures (mainly involving individuals in the armed forces and in first responder occupations) that increase the risk of PTSD (by 15%89%). These exposures include number of army deployments, combat exposure, army deployment and confrontation with death, for which we found a moderate contribution to the development of PTSD. We identified additional exposures in other occupations, such as bank workers, public transport workers and medics. These included life threats, being present during an attack and hearing about a colleagues trauma. Although exposure assessment, PTSD ascertainment and inconsistency may have biased our findings, the results of this review are quite robust and are of importance for the development of preventive interventions and occupational health guidelines.
  • #36 Lifetime posttraumatic stress disorder as a predictor of mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis | BMC Psychiatry | Full Text
    https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-023-04716-w
    Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) could potentially increase the risk of mortality, and there is a need for a meta-analysis to quantify this association. This study aims to determine the extent to which PTSD is a predictor of mortality. […] PTSD was associated with a 47% (95% CI: 1.062.04) greater risk of mortality across six studies that reported OR/RR, and a 32% increased risk across 18 studies which reported time to death (HR: 1.32, 95% CI: 1.101.59). […] PTSD is associated with increased mortality risk, however further research is required amongst civilians, involving women, and in individuals from underdeveloped countries. […] Meta-analyses indicated that PTSD increased mortality risk by approximately 47% in six studies reporting OR/RR, and 32% in 18 studies examining time to death, when compared to individuals without PTSD.
  • #37 Predicting Treatment Outcome in PTSD: A Longitudinal Functional MRI Study on Trauma-Unrelated Emotional Processing
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4748440/
    In about 30-50% of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), symptoms persist after treatment. […] Higher dACC, insula, and amygdala activation before treatment were significant predictors of symptom persistence. […] Our results highlight a pattern of brain activation that may predict poor response to PTSD treatment. […] These findings can contribute to the development of alternative or additional therapies. […] Further research is needed to elucidate the heterogeneity within PTSD and describe how differences in neural function are related to treatment outcome. […] Here, we demonstrate that increased activation of the dACC, insula, and amygdala in response to trauma-unrelated negative stimuli predicts persistence of PTSD after trauma-focused therapy. […] This demonstrates that PTSD is a very heterogeneous disorder, even though the field often acts as if it is a unified phenomenon.
  • #38 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
    https://www.research.va.gov/topics/ptsd.cfm
    VA’s National Center for PTSD (NCPTSD) is the worlds leading research and educational center of excellence on PTSD and other consequences of traumatic stress. […] According to the National Center for PTSD, 53 of 100 patients who receive one of these three therapies will no longer have PTSD. With medication alone, 42 of 100 will achieve remission. […] A 2017 article by a group of VA researchers recommended that finding effective drug treatments for PTSD should be a national mental health priority. […] The initiative calls for new proposals from VA investigators, and includes clinical trials training and other measures to expedite research in this area. Eleven medication studies are currently being funded. […] PTSD and mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) often share similar symptoms such as irritability, restlessness, hypersensitivity to stimulation, memory loss, fatigue, and dizziness.
  • #39 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
    https://www.research.va.gov/topics/ptsd.cfm
    The research team performed magnetic resonance imaging brain scans and examined blood samples from 200 Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans whose health information is part of a database maintained by VA’s Translational Research Center for TBI and Stress Disorders. […] The team hopes their work will lead to earlier testing for PTSD before people show symptoms, to identify those at greatest risk for the disorder and to begin early treatment.
  • #40 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
    https://www.research.va.gov/topics/ptsd.cfm
    VA’s National Center for PTSD (NCPTSD) is the worlds leading research and educational center of excellence on PTSD and other consequences of traumatic stress. […] According to the National Center for PTSD, 53 of 100 patients who receive one of these three therapies will no longer have PTSD. With medication alone, 42 of 100 will achieve remission. […] A 2017 article by a group of VA researchers recommended that finding effective drug treatments for PTSD should be a national mental health priority. […] The initiative calls for new proposals from VA investigators, and includes clinical trials training and other measures to expedite research in this area. Eleven medication studies are currently being funded. […] PTSD and mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) often share similar symptoms such as irritability, restlessness, hypersensitivity to stimulation, memory loss, fatigue, and dizziness.
  • #41 Utilization of machine learning for prediction of post-traumatic stress: a re-examination of cortisol in the prediction and pathways to non-remitting PTSD | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/tp201738
    To date, studies of biological risk factors have revealed inconsistent relationships with subsequent post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). […] The reliance on general linear models constitutes a barrier to replication because these models are not designed to examine complex interactions between variables of various distributional patterns, identify factors that concern a subpopulation and infer complex predictive relationships. […] Early prediction and the identification of early intervention targets are of significant interest, under the assumption that mechanisms underlying the development of the disorder can be manipulated to prevent its development. […] The selection of outcome is of equal importance in any research related to the development of PTSD. […] In the current investigation, we apply supervised and unsupervised ML methods to examine the relationship between background, environmental and neuroendocrine risk factors and PTSD development over 5 months that follow trauma exposure.