Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Causes – Post-traumatic stress disorder – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/causes/

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop after a very stressful, frightening or distressing event, or after a prolonged traumatic experience. […] PTSD develops in about 1 in 3 people who experience severe trauma. […] It’s not fully understood why some people develop the condition while others do not. […] But certain factors appear to make some people more likely to develop PTSD. […] There may also be a genetic factor involved in PTSD. For example, having a parent with a mental health problem is thought to increase your chances of developing the condition. […] Although it’s not clear exactly why people develop PTSD, a number of possible reasons have been suggested. […] One suggestion is that the symptoms of PTSD are the result of an instinctive mechanism intended to help you survive further traumatic experiences.

• #1 PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder): Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9545-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a common mental health condition that can develop after a traumatic event. […] PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) is a mental health condition that some people develop after they experience or witness a traumatic event. […] PTSD develops in about 5% to 10% of this population. […] Its unclear why people respond differently to trauma. But studies show that people with PTSD have abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitters and hormones. They also experience brain changes. […] Studies show that people with PTSD have normal to low levels of cortisol (the stress hormone) and elevated levels of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) despite ongoing stress. […] PTSD is associated with changes in the functioning and anatomy of your brain. […] Theres no way to predict who will develop PTSD after a traumatic event. But PTSD is more common in people who have experienced certain types of trauma, particularly military combat or sexual assault.

• #1 Causes of PTSD: Risks, Genetics, Neurological Factors

  https://psychcentral.com/ptsd/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd-causes

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a condition that can occur after a distressing event. […] PTSD can be triggered by several distressing events. In essence, it can happen if you feel: intense horror, helplessness, fear of a loss of life. […] Common causes of PTSD include: being the victim of a crime, childbirth experiences, such as losing a baby, childhood or domestic abuse, homicide of a loved one, mass violence, such as a mall shooting, natural disaster, physical violence, serious medical events, like being in intensive care, severe accidents, sexual assault, torture, war or combat. […] The nature of war puts many people at risk for PTSD. […] Other factors can contribute to PTSD and other mental health conditions in veterans. […] Being exposed to a traumatic event can lead to lasting changes in brain regions linked to stress, the most pronounced being the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex.

• #1 PTSD: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a serious condition that can develop after someone experiences or witnesses a traumatic or terrifying event involving serious physical harm or the threat of it. Examples of things that can bring on PTSD include sexual or physical assault, the unexpected death of a loved one, an accident, a war, or a natural disaster. Families of victims can develop PTSD, as can emergency personnel and rescue workers. […] Everyone reacts to traumatic events differently. Each person is unique in their ability to manage fear, stress, and the threat posed by a traumatic event or situation. For that reason, not everyone who has a trauma will develop PTSD. Also, the type of help and support you get from friends, family members, and professionals following the trauma may influence whether you get PTSD and how serious the symptoms are.

• #1 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Symptoms, Causes, Help

  https://www.helpguide.org/mental-health/ptsd-trauma/ptsd-symptoms-self-help-treatment

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a condition that can develop following a traumatic event that threatens your safety. […] PTSD occurs when you experience too much stress in a situation. Even though the danger has passed, your nervous system is stuck, unable to return to its normal state of balance and you’re unable to move on from the event. Recovering from PTSD involves helping your nervous system become unstuck so you can heal and move on from the trauma. […] Any event that overwhelms your nervous system and makes you feel helpless and hopeless can lead to PTSD. Common examples include: War, Natural disasters, Car or plane crashes, Terrorist attacks, Sudden death of a loved one, Sexual or physical assault, Domestic abuse and neglect. […] Traumatic events are more likely to cause PTSD when they involve a severe threat to your life or personal safety: the more extreme and prolonged the threat, the greater the risk of developing PTSD in response.

• #1 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) — symptoms and treatment | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) occurs when fear and anxiety dont go away after experiencing a traumatic event. […] PTSD can occur after experiencing, witnessing or even hearing about a traumatic event such as a serious accident, assault, war or natural disaster. […] PTSD can be caused by experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. This could involve serious injury, sexual violence, a potentially life-threatening situation or death. It can also be caused by hearing about a traumatic event that happened to someone close to you. […] Experiences that can potentially lead to PTSD include serious accidents, natural disasters such as bushfires, floods and earthquakes, living in a war zone, or experiencing war in the military, sexual or physical assault, torture or terrorism, seeing people hurt or killed.

• #1 Cancer-related Post-traumatic Stress and PTSD | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/survivorship/long-term-health-concerns/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-and-cancer.html

  Anyone can develop post-traumatic stress (PTS) or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after a shocking, terrifying, or serious event. […] People who have, or had, cancer may experience some level of post-traumatic stress. This is sometimes called cancer-related PTS or CR-PTS. […] If it isnt managed, CR-PTS can become post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which is often harder to treat and can last for years. […] Studies show that more than 1 in 3 people who have, or had, cancer display signs of PTS or PTSD. […] Similar to other types of mental distress, there is usually not one single cause of cancer-related PTS and PTSD. […] But there are certain times or events during cancer or cancer treatment that might be more traumatizing or triggering for you. […] Not all people who have, or had, cancer develop PTS or PTSD.

• #1 Symptoms and causes of PTSD

  https://www.stpatricks.ie/media-centre/blogs-articles/2018/july/post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  Along with the scale of the trauma and the extent of the loss, certain other factors increase the likelihood of developing a PTSD. These include the predictability of the trauma, the sudden nature of its onset and the perception of loss of control. “If the patient is wounded or exposed to pain, heat or cold, the biological and psychological experience can be intensified… PTSD can occur in persons who have witnessed a violent injury or the unnatural death of another person and those who have learned that a loved one was involved in such an event. One study reported that PTSD developed in approximately 14% of those who experienced the sudden, unexpected death of a loved one, making this event the single most frequent traumatic event to occur in both men and women, accounting for 39% of cases of PTSD in men and 27% of cases in women.”

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  https://www.healthshare.com.au/questions/55971-what-can-cause-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/

  The situations that we find traumatic vary from person to person. There are many harmful events that can cause Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. These include life threatening events such as being in a car crash, traumatic childbirth, having a terminal illness, being kidnapped or held hostage and violent assault. […] Certain jobs are at higher risk of people developing PTSD due to the nature of the work e.g., working in the emergency services or armed forces where they witness or repeatedly hear of people being hurt or killed. […] Being raped or sexually assaulted can cause post-traumatic stress symptoms. […] Abuse, harassment or bullying including racism, sexism, homophobia, biphobia or transphobia and other types of abuse targeting identity can cause someone to develop PTSD.

• #1 Post-traumatic stress disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental disorder that develops from experiencing a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, domestic violence, child abuse, warfare and its associated traumas, natural disaster, traffic collision, or other threats on a person’s life or well-being. Symptoms may include disturbing thoughts, feelings, or dreams related to the events, mental or physical distress to trauma-related cues, attempts to avoid trauma-related cues, alterations in the way a person thinks and feels, and an increase in the fight-or-flight response. These symptoms last for more than a month after the event and can include triggers such as misophonia. Young children are less likely to show distress, but instead may express their memories through play. […] Most people who experience traumatic events do not develop PTSD. People who experience interpersonal violence such as rape, other sexual assaults, being kidnapped, stalking, physical abuse by an intimate partner, and childhood abuse are more likely to develop PTSD than those who experience non-assault based trauma, such as accidents and natural disasters.

• #1 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288154-overview

  Pre-existing factors include the following: Gender (increased in women), Prior traumatic exposure, Pre-existing mental illness, Lower socioeconomic status, Less education, lower intelligence, Childhood adversity. […] Peritraumatic factors include the following: Severity and nature of trauma, Interpersonal violence, Dissociation at the time of the traumatic event, Increased pulse right after the traumatic event. […] Posttraumatic factors include the following: Development of acute stress disorder, Other stresses such as financial problems, Subsequent adverse life events, Lack of social support.

• #1 Causes of PTSD – PTSD UK

  https://www.ptsduk.org/what-is-ptsd/causes-of-ptsd/

  There is a second, subtype of PTSD, called Complex PTSD, or C-PTSD. This is usually a result of repeated, or sustained traumas, and presents in a similar way to PTSD, but with some additional symptoms too. […] As much as science and research has continued to grow in the area, it’s still not clear why some people develop PTSD, whilst others who’ve been in a similar situation don’t develop the condition. We do however, know that anyone can develop PTSD, but some people are at greater risk. […] A ‘risk factor’ is something that increases your likelihood of getting a disease or condition. Risk factors for the development of PTSD following a trauma fall into three categories: pre-trauma, peri-trauma and post-trauma factors. […] Additionally, although we are still behind in gender- and sex-sensitive research and reporting, it’s been found that women have a two to three times higher risk of developing PTSD compared to men: The lifetime prevalence of PTSD is about 10–12% in women and 5–6% in men. […] Although there has been expansion of our understanding of PTSD during the last 30 years, numerous questions remain about the epidemiology and risk factors for development of PTSD.

• #1 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20355967

  Post-traumatic stress disorder can develop when you go through, see or learn about an event involving actual or threatened death, serious injury or sexual assault. […] Healthcare professionals aren’t sure why some people get PTSD. As with most mental health problems, a mix of factors probably causes it, including: […] Extremely stressful experiences, as well as the amount and severity of trauma you’ve gone through in your life. […] Inherited mental health risks, such as a family history of anxiety and depression. […] Inherited features of your personality often called your temperament. […] The way your brain regulates the chemicals and hormones your body releases in response to stress.

• #1 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559129/

  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a prevalent and complex psychiatric condition that arises in response to exposure to traumatic events, significantly impacting an individual’s mental well-being. […] PTSD can cause chronic impairments, lead to comorbid psychiatric illness, and lead to an increased risk of suicide. […] The DSM-5-TR defines trauma as an essential characteristic of those who develop PTSD. Trauma (in the context of PTSD) is defined as exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence. […] The presence or absence of support after trauma can both increase or decrease the risk of PTSD. […] The risk of PTSD after a traumatic event is further increased by lower educational level, lower socioeconomic status, childhood adversity, gender, race, physical injury (including traumatic brain injury), and initial severity of the reaction to the trauma.

• #1 Psychiatry.org – What is Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/ptsd/what-is-ptsd

  PTSD risk factors include: Prior history of trauma (and the severity and frequency of events; perceived lack of support following event(s)), Childhood adversity/trauma, Female gender, Member of a marginalized group (such as non-white, LGBTQ+, living with a disability), Immigrant status. […] It is important to note that not everyone who experiences trauma develops PTSD, and not everyone who develops PTSD requires psychiatric treatment. For some people, symptoms of PTSD subside or disappear over time. Others get better with the help of their support system (family, friends or clergy). But many people with PTSD need professional treatment to recover from psychological distress that can be intense and disabling. […] Psychiatrists and other mental health professionals use various effective and research-proven methods to help people recover from PTSD. Both talk therapy (psychotherapy) and medication provide effective evidence-based treatments for PTSD. […] Medication can help to control the symptoms of PTSD. In addition, the symptom relief that medication provides allows many people to participate more effectively in psychotherapy.

• #1 CPTSD (Complex PTSD): What It Is, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24881-cptsd-complex-ptsd

  Complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) can result from experiencing chronic trauma, such as prolonged child abuse or domestic violence. […] CPTSD is manageable with psychotherapy (talk therapy) and medication. […] Complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD, C-PTSD or cPTSD) is a mental health condition that can develop if you experience chronic (long-term) trauma. […] While CPTSD is often associated with chronic trauma in childhood, adults who experience chronic trauma can also develop the condition. […] Experts across the field of psychology disagree on if CPTSD is a distinct condition and diagnosis. […] The main differences between PTSD and CPTSD are the length of trauma and the symptoms. […] Traditionally, experts thought PTSD generally developed from short-term trauma, such as a vehicle accident or a natural disaster.

• #1 Posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, assessment, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-in-adults-epidemiology-pathophysiology-clinical-features-assessment-and-diagnosis

  PTSD risk factors — The likelihood of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the presentation of the disorder appear to be affected by a number of individual and societal risk factors. […] Pre- and peri-trauma risk factors for PTSD include: History of trauma exposure prior to the index traumatic event, Less education, Lower socioeconomic status, Childhood adversity (including childhood trauma/abuse), Personal and family psychiatric history, Gender, Race, Poor social support, Physical injury (including traumatic brain injury) as part of the traumatic event, Initial severity of reaction to the traumatic event. […] The frequency with which PTSD occurs after a traumatic event has been found to be influenced by characteristics of the individual and the inciting event. […] Types of trauma — Sexual assault is the most frequent type of trauma experienced by women with PTSD.

• #1 Causes – Post-traumatic stress disorder – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/causes/

  Studies have shown that people with PTSD have abnormal levels of stress hormones. […] People with PTSD have been found to continue to produce high amounts of fight or flight hormones even when there’s no danger. […] In people with PTSD, parts of the brain involved in emotional processing appear different in brain scans. […] In people with PTSD, the hippocampus appears smaller in size. […] It’s thought that changes in this part of the brain may be related to fear and anxiety, memory problems and flashbacks. […] The malfunctioning hippocampus may prevent flashbacks and nightmares being properly processed, so the anxiety they generate does not reduce over time.

• #1 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – Symptoms and Treatment | MedPark Hospital

  https://www.medparkhospital.com/en-US/disease-and-treatment/ptsd-post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  The hippocampus, which regulates motivation, emotions, learning, and memory, becomes smaller. […] The amygdala, which is crucial for processing emotions and triggering fear reactions, is hyperactive. […] The medial prefrontal cortex, responsible for regulating the emotional responses of the amygdala, shrinks in size and becomes less responsive.

• #1 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288154-overview

  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a syndrome resulting from exposure to real or threatened serious injury or sexual assault. The signs and symptoms of PTSD appear to arise from complex interactions of psychological and neurobiological factors. Studies have found alterations in the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and anterior cingulate, and corpus collosum as well as altered functioning of the hypothalamic pituitary axis (HPA). […] The etiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is experiencing a serious threat of physical injury or death, or sexual assault. Children who suffer repeated child abuse are at risk for complex trauma. Chronic PTSD represents a failure to recover from the trauma, in part due to inadequate resilience. Considerable effort has been spent in an attempt to determine which individuals will have prolonged, maladaptive responses to trauma. Numerous risk factors have been determined.

• #1 CPTSD (Complex PTSD): What It Is, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24881-cptsd-complex-ptsd

  Both CPTSD and PTSD involve symptoms of psychological and behavioral stress responses, such as flashbacks, hypervigilance and efforts to avoid distressing reminders of the traumatic event(s). […] People with CPTSD typically have additional symptoms, including chronic and extensive issues with emotion regulation, identity and sense of self, and relationships. […] According to the ICD-11, complex PTSD results from exposure to a traumatic event or series of events of an extremely threatening nature. […] The events are usually prolonged or repetitive and escape from the situation is impossible or dangerous. […] Examples of these types of traumatic situations include prolonged domestic violence, childhood sexual or physical abuse, torture, genocide, and slavery. […] Traumatic stress can change your brain’s chemistry and structure. […] Studies suggest that trauma is associated with permanent changes in key areas of your brain, including your amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex. […] Some neuroimaging studies show that brain changes are more severe in people with CPTSD compared to people with PTSD.

• #1 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – Symptoms and Treatment | MedPark Hospital

  https://www.medparkhospital.com/en-US/disease-and-treatment/ptsd-post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that occurs after exposure to severe traumas, impacting both body and mind. […] Traumatic events that cause psychological wounds are usually intense and life-threatening situations. […] Approximately 61-80% of the population experience a traumatic event in their lifetime, and about 5-10% of these individuals will develop PTSD. The reasons why people respond differently to traumatic events remain unclear. However, studies indicate that individuals with PTSD exhibit abnormal levels of hormones and neurotransmitters, leading to changes in the brain. […] When faced with stress, individuals with PTSD exhibit low levels of cortisol, the stress hormone, and elevated levels of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). […] Additionally, there is an alteration in the functioning of neurotransmitters such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, and serotonin in individuals with PTSD.

• #1 Post-traumatic stress disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder

  The intensity of the traumatic event is also associated with a subsequent risk of developing PTSD, with experiences related to witnessed death, or witnessed or experienced torture, injury, bodily disfigurement, traumatic brain injury being highly associated with the development of PTSD. Similarly, experiences that are unexpected or in which the victim cannot escape are also associated with a high risk of developing PTSD. […] PTSD has been associated with a wide range of traumatic events. The risk of developing PTSD after a traumatic event varies by trauma type and is the highest following exposure to sexual violence, particularly rape. […] The maintenance of fear has been shown to include the HPA axis, the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic systems, and the connections between the limbic system and frontal cortex. The HPA axis that coordinates the hormonal response to stress, which activates the LC-noradrenergic system, is implicated in the over-consolidation of memories that occurs in the aftermath of trauma. This over-consolidation increases the likelihood of one’s developing PTSD.

• #1 Post-traumatic stress disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder

  PTSD has a strong association with tinnitus, and speculation exists that PTSD may cause some tinnitus seen in association with the condition. […] There is evidence that susceptibility to PTSD is hereditary. Approximately 30% of the variance in PTSD is caused from genetics alone. […] PTSD symptoms may result when a traumatic event causes an over-reactive adrenaline response, which creates deep neurological patterns in the brain. These patterns can persist long after the event that triggered the fear, making an individual hyper-responsive to future fearful situations.

• #1 Posttraumatic stress disorder: from diagnosis to prevention | Military Medical Research | Full Text

  https://mmrjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40779-018-0179-0

  The mechanisms leading to posttraumatic stress disorder have not yet been fully elucidated. Recent literature suggests that both the neuroendocrine and immune systems are involved in the formulation and development of PTSD. After traumatic exposures, the stress response pathways of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous system are activated and lead to the abnormal release of glucocorticoids (GC) and catecholamines. […] Evidence indicates that the development of PTSD is also affected by genetic factors. Research has found that genetic and epigenetic factors account for up to 70% of the individual differences in PTSD development, with PTSD heritability estimated at 30%. […] PTSD is a high-profile clinical phenomenon with a complicated psychological and physical basis. The development of PTSD is associated with various factors, such as traumatic events and their severity, gender, genetic and epigenetic factors.

• #1 Causes of PTSD: Risks, Genetics, Neurological Factors

  https://psychcentral.com/ptsd/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd-causes

  For the majority of people, severe stress reactions are temporary. But for many, traumatic situations can lead to extreme mental distress and illness, including PTSD. […] The PTSD brain develops an overstimulated amygdala, responsible for identifying threats and infusing memories with emotion. […] PTSD may also lead to a smaller hippocampus, the part of the brain that regulates stress hormones and plays a major role in memory and learning, as well as fear learning and conditioning. […] Genetics appears to play a significant role in PTSD. […] The findings suggest that PTSD has just as strong of a genetic component as major depression and other mental health conditions. […] Research has come a long way in identifying the causes of PTSD.

• #1 Posttraumatic stress disorder: etiology, epidemiology, and treatment outcome – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17716068/

  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) results from exposure to a traumatic event that poses actual or threatened death or injury and produces intense fear, helplessness, or horror. U.S. population surveys reveal lifetime PTSD prevalence rates of 7% to 8%. Potential reasons for varying prevalence rates across gender, cultures, and samples exposed to different traumas are discussed. […] Drawing upon a conditioning model of PTSD, we review risk factors for PTSD, including pre-existing individual-based factors, features of the traumatic event, and posttrauma social support. Characteristics of the trauma, particularly peritraumatic response and related cognitions, and posttrauma social support appear to confer the greatest risk for PTSD. Further work is needed to disentangle the interrelationships among these factors and elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

• #1 Causes of PTSD – PTSD UK

  https://www.ptsduk.org/what-is-ptsd/causes-of-ptsd/

  Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is condition that some people develop after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. It’s estimated that 50% of people will experience a trauma at some point in their life and although the majority of people exposed to traumatic events only experience some short-term distress, around 20% of people who experience a trauma go on to develop PTSD (so around 1 in 10 people at some point in their lives). […] PTSD is essentially a memory filing error caused by a traumatic event. When you experience something really traumatic your body suspends ‘normal operations’ and so temporarily shuts down some bodily functions such as digestion, skin repair and crucially, memory processing. […] The prevalence of PTSD and C-PTSD as a result of certain traumas is something that continues to be monitored and researched, but current estimates show the following figures (please note this doesn’t include ALL causes of PTSD and is based on a wide variety of resources).

• #1 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://www.rwjbh.org/treatment-care/mental-health-and-behavioral-health/conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder/

  Hearing about a traumatic event. Learning about a grave incident that has impacted someone you care for, like a family member or a friend, can also lead to PTSD. […] Continuous exposure to trauma. For those whose occupations constantly expose them to traumatic scenes like law enforcement, firefighting or emergency medical services the relentless barrage of distressing experiences can lead to PTSD. […] While our bodies and brains are designed to navigate through stress, offering a temporary state of heightened alertness or distress followed by a return to equilibrium, PTSD seems to lock the brain in a perpetual state of alert.

• #1 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) | Psychlinks Forum — Archive Only (2004-2022)

  https://forum.psychlinks.ca/threads/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd.7807/

  While disaster-preparedness training is generally seen as a good idea in terms of improving the immediate physical safety and logistical issues involved with a traumatic event, such training may also provide important protective factors against developing PTSD. […] Some medications have been found to help prevent the development of PTSD. […] Some medicines that treat depression, decrease the heart rate, or increase the action of other body chemicals are thought to be effective tools in the prevention of PTSD when given in the days immediately after an individual experiences a traumatic event. […] PTSD has a lifetime prevalence of seven up to 30%, with about 5 million people suffering from the illness in any one year. […] Complex posttraumatic stress disorder (C-PTSD) usually results from prolonged exposure to traumatic event(s) and is characterized by long-lasting problems that affect many aspects of emotional and social functioning.

• #1 PTSD History and Overview – PTSD: National Center for PTSD

  https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/history_ptsd.asp

  One important finding, which was not apparent when PTSD was first proposed as a diagnosis in 1980, is that it is relatively common. […] If an individual meets diagnostic criteria for PTSD, it is likely that he or she will meet DSM-5 criteria for one or more additional diagnoses. […] PTSD is no longer considered an Anxiety Disorder but has been reclassified as a Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorder because it has a number of clinical presentations, as discussed previously. […] PTSD has also been criticized from the perspective of cross-cultural psychology and medical anthropology, especially with respect to refugees, asylum seekers, and political torture victims from non-Western regions.

• #1 Psychiatry.org – What is Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/ptsd/what-is-ptsd

  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition that may occur in people who have experienced or witnessed a traumatic event or series of traumatic events. The individual often experience the event or events as emotionally or physically harmful or life-threatening. Examples include, but are not limited to, abuse (physical, sexual, emotional), natural disasters, serious accidents, terrorist acts, war/combat exposure, intimate partner violence, and medical illness. However, most individuals who experience traumas do not go on to develop PTSD. […] Many individuals develop symptoms within three months of the trauma, but symptoms may appear later and often persist for months and sometimes years. PTSD often occurs with other related conditions, such as depression, substance use, memory problems and other physical and mental health problems.

• #1 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

  A health practitioner may diagnose PTSD if a person has symptoms in each of these four areas for a month or more, which lead to significant distress or impacts on their ability to work and study, their relationships and day-to-day life. […] When PTSD goes on for some time, it is not unusual for people to experience other mental health problems at the same time. In fact, up to 80 per cent of people who have long-standing PTSD develop additional problems – most commonly depression, anxiety, and alcohol or other substance misuse. These may have developed directly in response to the traumatic event or as a result of the effects of having PTSD. […] If you are still experiencing problems after two weeks, a doctor or mental health professional may discuss starting treatment. Effective treatments are available. Most involve psychological treatment such as counselling to understand what is happening and to develop ways of managing reactions, but medication can also be helpful.

• #1 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) | Psychlinks Forum — Archive Only (2004-2022)

  https://forum.psychlinks.ca/threads/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd.7807/

  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an emotional illness that develops as a result of a terribly frightening, life-threatening, or otherwise highly unsafe experience. […] PTSD has also been called „battle fatigue” and „shell shock.” […] Approximately 7%-8% of people in the United States will likely develop PTSD in their lifetime, with the lifetime occurrence (prevalence) in combat veterans and rape victims ranging from 10% to as high as 30%. […] Some of that difference is thought to be due to higher rates of dissociation soon before and after the traumatic event (peritraumatic); a tendency for individuals from minority ethnic groups to blame themselves, have less social support, and an increased perception of racism for those ethnic groups; as well as differences between how ethnic groups may express distress.

• #1 Causes and Risk Factor of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Adult Asylum Seekers and Refugees

  https://www.mdpi.com/2673-5318/2/4/32

  Causes and Risk Factor of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Adult Asylum Seekers and Refugees […] Objectives: To assess the causes and risk factors of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adult asylum seekers and refugees. To explore whether the causes and risk factors of PTSD between male and female adult refugees/asylum seekers are different. […] Traumatic events experienced by refugees/asylum seekers are the most frequently reported pre-migration causes of PTSD development, while acculturative stress is the most common post-migration stressor. […] PTSD is most notoriously known to affect war veterans. However, recent events of hardship and war—especially in Middle Eastern countries—have seen a large number of people flee their homeland, and consequently, rates of PTSD have significantly increased among those vulnerable groups. Asylum seekers and refugees are 10 times more prone to suffer from mental health conditions compared to the general population. […] The leading cause of pre-migration stressors is the total number of traumatic events experienced, i.e., near-death encounters, as concluded from the literature. In regard to post-migration risk factors, the inability to adapt to new surroundings is the strongest cause linked to PTSD. […] The intensity and frequency of traumatic events encountered by refugees/asylum seekers is, by far, the most widely reported risk factor for PTSD development. In addition, acculturative stress was the leading post-migration stressor for PTSD. […] The magnitude and number of traumatic events and acculturation stressors are the most commonly reported pre- and post-migration causes of PTSD in asylum seekers/refugees.

• #1 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder | CAMH

  https://www.camh.ca/en/health-info/mental-illness-and-addiction-index/posttraumatic-stress-disorder

  Protective factors that may reduce the risk of developing PTSD include: having support from other people, such as friends and family, participating in a support group after a traumatic event, feeling confident about ones own actions regarding the event, having a coping strategy or a way of getting through the traumatic event, being able to act and respond effectively despite feeling fear.

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• #1 PTSD or Post Traumatic Stress Disorder – Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://www.apollohospitals.com/diseases-and-conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd-causes-symptoms-and-treatment

  PTSD can create an overwhelming situation that may lead to memory loss, which begins with confusion and, eventually, memory loss. […] PTSD shrinks this organ by 8 per cent hence leading to memory loss. […] Memory loss through Post Traumatic Stress Disorders does not limit to occasional forgetfulness. […] People cannot certainly prevent a traumatic event. However, they can take specific steps that can aid them in the prevention of PTSD. […] Seeking help at the right time can considerably help in improving PTSD or even prevent the chances of developing one. […] If the patient does not take help, PTSD can last for the remainder of his life.

• #1 Posttraumatic stress disorder: from diagnosis to prevention | Military Medical Research | Full Text

  https://mmrjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40779-018-0179-0

  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a chronic impairment disorder that occurs after exposure to traumatic events. Its pathogenesis is multifactorial, including the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, immune response, or even genetic discrepancy. The morphological alternation of subcortical brain structures may also correlate with PTSD symptoms. […] Despite numerous investigations and multiple revisions of the diagnostic criteria for PTSD, it remains unclear which type and what extent of stress are capable of inducing PTSD. Fear responses, especially those related to combat injury, are considered to be sufficient enough to trigger symptoms of PTSD. However, a number of other types of stressors were found to correlate with PTSD, including shame and guilt, which represent moral injury resulting from transgressions during a war in military personnel with deeply held moral and ethical beliefs.

• #1 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder | Psychology Today

  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that develops in response to experiencing or witnessing a distressing event involving the threat of death or extreme bodily harm. […] PTSD was officially recognized as a mental health disorder in 1980. Researchers believe that the changes to body and mind that occur in PTSD reflect an attempt of the system to protect the person from further experiences of danger. […] PTSD symptoms can last anywhere from months to years following the originating trauma and can be exacerbated by exposure to more trauma. […] Research shows that some people are at higher risk than others for PTSD. […] Certain risk factors can make it harder for some people to cope and thus more likely for them to develop post-traumatic stress disorder. […] PTSD reflects the response of the human nervous system to a disturbing experience.

• #2

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  An estimated 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives. […] Most people exposed to potentially traumatic events do not develop PTSD. […] Feeling supported by family, friends or other people following the potentially traumatic event can reduce the risk of developing PTSD. […] More women are affected by PTSD than men. […] The likelihood of developing PTSD varies depending on the type of traumatic event experienced. […] PTSD rates are especially high following sexual violence. […] PTSD, like other mental health conditions, results from interacting social, psychological and biological factors. […] Anyone can experience PTSD after a potentially traumatic event, but people who have previously experienced traumatic events are more susceptible. […] The nature of the event experienced can also affect the chances of developing PTSD. […] Receiving social support following potentially traumatic events can reduce the risk for PTSD.

• #2 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559129/

  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a prevalent and complex psychiatric condition that arises in response to exposure to traumatic events, significantly impacting an individual’s mental well-being. […] PTSD can cause chronic impairments, lead to comorbid psychiatric illness, and lead to an increased risk of suicide. […] The DSM-5-TR defines trauma as an essential characteristic of those who develop PTSD. Trauma (in the context of PTSD) is defined as exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence. […] The presence or absence of support after trauma can both increase or decrease the risk of PTSD. […] The risk of PTSD after a traumatic event is further increased by lower educational level, lower socioeconomic status, childhood adversity, gender, race, physical injury (including traumatic brain injury), and initial severity of the reaction to the trauma.

• #2 Post-traumatic stress disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental disorder that develops from experiencing a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, domestic violence, child abuse, warfare and its associated traumas, natural disaster, traffic collision, or other threats on a person’s life or well-being. Symptoms may include disturbing thoughts, feelings, or dreams related to the events, mental or physical distress to trauma-related cues, attempts to avoid trauma-related cues, alterations in the way a person thinks and feels, and an increase in the fight-or-flight response. These symptoms last for more than a month after the event and can include triggers such as misophonia. Young children are less likely to show distress, but instead may express their memories through play. […] Most people who experience traumatic events do not develop PTSD. People who experience interpersonal violence such as rape, other sexual assaults, being kidnapped, stalking, physical abuse by an intimate partner, and childhood abuse are more likely to develop PTSD than those who experience non-assault based trauma, such as accidents and natural disasters.

• #2 6 Common Causes of PTSD | Clear Behavioral Health

  https://clearbehavioralhealth.com/6-common-occurrences-that-cause-ptsd/

  When we think of PTSD, many of us most closely associate this disorder with those in the military. According to one estimation from the National Center for PTSD, the condition affects around 15% of Iraq and Afghanistan veterans. […] The risk of PTSD can arise post-deployment. This is why it’s crucial for veterans to have a good support system. […] Like with military personnel, first responders are constantly exposed to potentially traumatizing events. […] When your safety is threatened by another, it can be very traumatizing. […] Unfortunately, car accidents are a relatively common occurrence. While not all of them are traumatizing enough to cause PTSD, some are severe enough to result in the disorder. […] PTSD isn’t always caused by events that happen to us. Our loved ones are very important to us, and if something happens to them, we may experience PTSD. […] An alarming number of medical professionals suffer from PTSD.

• #2 Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Causes & How to Cope

  https://hbhtherapy.com/ptsd-causes-and-how-to-cope/

  PTSD has had many names in the past such as shell shock and combat fatigue. […] In fact, there are many causes of post-traumatic stress disorder. Some of these include: […] Sexual assault or harassment […] Car or workplace accidents […] Witnessing or experiencing violence and abuse […] Suffering from extreme poverty or neglect.

• #2 Posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, assessment, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-in-adults-epidemiology-pathophysiology-clinical-features-assessment-and-diagnosis

  PTSD risk factors — The likelihood of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the presentation of the disorder appear to be affected by a number of individual and societal risk factors. […] Pre- and peri-trauma risk factors for PTSD include: History of trauma exposure prior to the index traumatic event, Less education, Lower socioeconomic status, Childhood adversity (including childhood trauma/abuse), Personal and family psychiatric history, Gender, Race, Poor social support, Physical injury (including traumatic brain injury) as part of the traumatic event, Initial severity of reaction to the traumatic event. […] The frequency with which PTSD occurs after a traumatic event has been found to be influenced by characteristics of the individual and the inciting event. […] Types of trauma — Sexual assault is the most frequent type of trauma experienced by women with PTSD.

• #2 Causes of PTSD – PTSD UK

  https://www.ptsduk.org/what-is-ptsd/causes-of-ptsd/

  There is a second, subtype of PTSD, called Complex PTSD, or C-PTSD. This is usually a result of repeated, or sustained traumas, and presents in a similar way to PTSD, but with some additional symptoms too. […] As much as science and research has continued to grow in the area, it’s still not clear why some people develop PTSD, whilst others who’ve been in a similar situation don’t develop the condition. We do however, know that anyone can develop PTSD, but some people are at greater risk. […] A ‘risk factor’ is something that increases your likelihood of getting a disease or condition. Risk factors for the development of PTSD following a trauma fall into three categories: pre-trauma, peri-trauma and post-trauma factors. […] Additionally, although we are still behind in gender- and sex-sensitive research and reporting, it’s been found that women have a two to three times higher risk of developing PTSD compared to men: The lifetime prevalence of PTSD is about 10–12% in women and 5–6% in men. […] Although there has been expansion of our understanding of PTSD during the last 30 years, numerous questions remain about the epidemiology and risk factors for development of PTSD.

• #2 Post-traumatic stress disorder

  https://womenshealth.gov/mental-health/mental-health-conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  About 1 woman in 10 will develop PTSD at some point in her lifetime. […] To be diagnosed with PTSD, an adult must have symptoms for at least 1 month, and the symptoms must be severe enough to affect that person’s ability to function at work and at home. […] Having some symptoms of PTSD does not always mean you have PTSD.

• #2 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288154-overview

  Pre-existing factors include the following: Gender (increased in women), Prior traumatic exposure, Pre-existing mental illness, Lower socioeconomic status, Less education, lower intelligence, Childhood adversity. […] Peritraumatic factors include the following: Severity and nature of trauma, Interpersonal violence, Dissociation at the time of the traumatic event, Increased pulse right after the traumatic event. […] Posttraumatic factors include the following: Development of acute stress disorder, Other stresses such as financial problems, Subsequent adverse life events, Lack of social support.

• #2

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/ptsd/causes/

  It is not fully understood why some people develop the condition while others do not. But certain factors can make some people more likely to develop PTSD. […] You’re more at risk of developing PTSD after a traumatic event if you have had depression or anxiety in the past, do not receive much support from family or friends, have a parent with a mental health problem. […] It’s not clear exactly why people develop PTSD. But there are some possible reasons. […] One suggestion is that PTSD is there to help you survive further traumatic experiences. […] People with PTSD can have increased levels of stress hormones. […] People with PTSD continue to produce high amounts of fight or flight hormones. This happens even when there’s no danger. This may be why some people with PTSD have symptoms like numbed emotions and hyperarousal.

• #2 Post-traumatic stress disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder

  The intensity of the traumatic event is also associated with a subsequent risk of developing PTSD, with experiences related to witnessed death, or witnessed or experienced torture, injury, bodily disfigurement, traumatic brain injury being highly associated with the development of PTSD. Similarly, experiences that are unexpected or in which the victim cannot escape are also associated with a high risk of developing PTSD. […] PTSD has been associated with a wide range of traumatic events. The risk of developing PTSD after a traumatic event varies by trauma type and is the highest following exposure to sexual violence, particularly rape. […] The maintenance of fear has been shown to include the HPA axis, the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic systems, and the connections between the limbic system and frontal cortex. The HPA axis that coordinates the hormonal response to stress, which activates the LC-noradrenergic system, is implicated in the over-consolidation of memories that occurs in the aftermath of trauma. This over-consolidation increases the likelihood of one’s developing PTSD.

• #2 Symptoms and causes of PTSD

  https://www.stpatricks.ie/media-centre/blogs-articles/2018/july/post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  A Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) can happen to anyone exposed to a traumatic event that is sufficiently stressful to fill them with horror and dread. […] Exceptionally horrific events are more likely to precipitate a PTSD. It is estimated that nearly one third of those directly exposed to the violence on September 11 2001 went on to develop a PTSD. Nearly 5% of men and nearly 10% of women develop PTSD in their lifetime. PTSD is the fourth most common mental health difficulty in Ireland. […] Typical events leading to PTSD include horrific violence of an interpersonal kind (such as rape, childhood sexual abuse or torture) or life-threatening accidents and natural disasters (road traffic accidents, terror events, fires and earthquakes). […] Interpersonal violence is far more likely to precipitate a PTSD than other kinds of horror. This probably explains why women are twice as likely to develop PTSD compared to men, since the likelihood of being raped is 10 times greater for a woman than a man. “PTSD develops in 55% of persons who reported being raped, as compared with 7.5% of those involved in accidents and 2 percent of those who learned of traumatic events.”

• #2 CPTSD (Complex PTSD): What It Is, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24881-cptsd-complex-ptsd

  Both CPTSD and PTSD involve symptoms of psychological and behavioral stress responses, such as flashbacks, hypervigilance and efforts to avoid distressing reminders of the traumatic event(s). […] People with CPTSD typically have additional symptoms, including chronic and extensive issues with emotion regulation, identity and sense of self, and relationships. […] According to the ICD-11, complex PTSD results from exposure to a traumatic event or series of events of an extremely threatening nature. […] The events are usually prolonged or repetitive and escape from the situation is impossible or dangerous. […] Examples of these types of traumatic situations include prolonged domestic violence, childhood sexual or physical abuse, torture, genocide, and slavery. […] Traumatic stress can change your brain’s chemistry and structure. […] Studies suggest that trauma is associated with permanent changes in key areas of your brain, including your amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex. […] Some neuroimaging studies show that brain changes are more severe in people with CPTSD compared to people with PTSD.

• #2 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: MedlinePlus

  https://medlineplus.gov/posttraumaticstressdisorder.html

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health disorder that some people develop after they experience or see a traumatic event. The traumatic event may be life-threatening, such as combat, a natural disaster, a car accident, or sexual assault. But sometimes the event is not necessarily a dangerous one. For example, the sudden, unexpected death of a loved one can also cause PTSD. […] Researchers don’t know why some people get PTSD and others don’t. Genetics, neurobiology, risk factors, and personal factors may affect whether you get PTSD after a traumatic event. […] Many risk factors play a part in whether you will develop PTSD. They include: Your sex; women are more likely to develop PTSD, Having had trauma in childhood, Feeling horror, helplessness, or extreme fear, Going through a traumatic event that lasts a long time, Having little or no social support after the event, Dealing with extra stress after the event, such as loss of a loved one, pain and injury, or loss of a job or home, Having a history of mental illness or substance use.

• #2 PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder): Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9545-post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a common mental health condition that can develop after a traumatic event. […] PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) is a mental health condition that some people develop after they experience or witness a traumatic event. […] PTSD develops in about 5% to 10% of this population. […] Its unclear why people respond differently to trauma. But studies show that people with PTSD have abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitters and hormones. They also experience brain changes. […] Studies show that people with PTSD have normal to low levels of cortisol (the stress hormone) and elevated levels of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) despite ongoing stress. […] PTSD is associated with changes in the functioning and anatomy of your brain. […] Theres no way to predict who will develop PTSD after a traumatic event. But PTSD is more common in people who have experienced certain types of trauma, particularly military combat or sexual assault.

• #2 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/288154-overview

  Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a syndrome resulting from exposure to real or threatened serious injury or sexual assault. The signs and symptoms of PTSD appear to arise from complex interactions of psychological and neurobiological factors. Studies have found alterations in the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and anterior cingulate, and corpus collosum as well as altered functioning of the hypothalamic pituitary axis (HPA). […] The etiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is experiencing a serious threat of physical injury or death, or sexual assault. Children who suffer repeated child abuse are at risk for complex trauma. Chronic PTSD represents a failure to recover from the trauma, in part due to inadequate resilience. Considerable effort has been spent in an attempt to determine which individuals will have prolonged, maladaptive responses to trauma. Numerous risk factors have been determined.

• #2

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/ptsd/causes/

  The part of the brain responsible for memory and emotions is the hippocampus. In people with PTSD, the hippocampus appears smaller in size. […] When the hippocampus does not work properly it can mean flashbacks and nightmares are not properly processed. This means the anxiety they generate does not reduce over time.

• #2 Causes of PTSD: Risks, Genetics, Neurological Factors

  https://psychcentral.com/ptsd/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd-causes

  For the majority of people, severe stress reactions are temporary. But for many, traumatic situations can lead to extreme mental distress and illness, including PTSD. […] The PTSD brain develops an overstimulated amygdala, responsible for identifying threats and infusing memories with emotion. […] PTSD may also lead to a smaller hippocampus, the part of the brain that regulates stress hormones and plays a major role in memory and learning, as well as fear learning and conditioning. […] Genetics appears to play a significant role in PTSD. […] The findings suggest that PTSD has just as strong of a genetic component as major depression and other mental health conditions. […] Research has come a long way in identifying the causes of PTSD.

• #2 PTSD: Causes, Treatment & Symptoms | Live Science

  https://www.livescience.com/44860-ptsd.html

  A family or personal history of mental health risks, such as an increased risk of anxiety and depression, can affect the likelihood of experiencing a PTSD episode. […] People with PTSD often show differences in certain brain areas compared to healthy people. According to a new model in the July 2013 issue of the journal Trends in Cognitive Sciences, changes in two brain areas the amygdala and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) may predispose people to PTSD.

• #2 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – Symptoms and Treatment | MedPark Hospital

  https://www.medparkhospital.com/en-US/disease-and-treatment/ptsd-post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that occurs after exposure to severe traumas, impacting both body and mind. […] Traumatic events that cause psychological wounds are usually intense and life-threatening situations. […] Approximately 61-80% of the population experience a traumatic event in their lifetime, and about 5-10% of these individuals will develop PTSD. The reasons why people respond differently to traumatic events remain unclear. However, studies indicate that individuals with PTSD exhibit abnormal levels of hormones and neurotransmitters, leading to changes in the brain. […] When faced with stress, individuals with PTSD exhibit low levels of cortisol, the stress hormone, and elevated levels of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). […] Additionally, there is an alteration in the functioning of neurotransmitters such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, and serotonin in individuals with PTSD.

• #2 Posttraumatic stress disorder: from diagnosis to prevention | Military Medical Research | Full Text

  https://mmrjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40779-018-0179-0

  The mechanisms leading to posttraumatic stress disorder have not yet been fully elucidated. Recent literature suggests that both the neuroendocrine and immune systems are involved in the formulation and development of PTSD. After traumatic exposures, the stress response pathways of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous system are activated and lead to the abnormal release of glucocorticoids (GC) and catecholamines. […] Evidence indicates that the development of PTSD is also affected by genetic factors. Research has found that genetic and epigenetic factors account for up to 70% of the individual differences in PTSD development, with PTSD heritability estimated at 30%. […] PTSD is a high-profile clinical phenomenon with a complicated psychological and physical basis. The development of PTSD is associated with various factors, such as traumatic events and their severity, gender, genetic and epigenetic factors.

• #2 Post-traumatic stress disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder

  PTSD has a strong association with tinnitus, and speculation exists that PTSD may cause some tinnitus seen in association with the condition. […] There is evidence that susceptibility to PTSD is hereditary. Approximately 30% of the variance in PTSD is caused from genetics alone. […] PTSD symptoms may result when a traumatic event causes an over-reactive adrenaline response, which creates deep neurological patterns in the brain. These patterns can persist long after the event that triggered the fear, making an individual hyper-responsive to future fearful situations.

• #2 PTSD: Causes, Treatment & Symptoms | Live Science

  https://www.livescience.com/44860-ptsd.html

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition marked by severe anxiety, flashbacks and uncontrollable thoughts about a terrifying event. Although the disorder is typically associated with soldiers who have been in military combat, PTSD can occur after any event that causes fear and stress. […] As with many mental health issues, the reasons that some people develop PTSD, and others who experience the same or similar trauma do not, are complex. […] An increasing number of scientists are researching the role that genes play in how people react to and form memories of fearful events. […] According to the NIMH, a lack of gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), a signaling chemical in the brain released during emotional events, can cause some people to form greater and more lasting fear memories.

• #2 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

  https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/explore-mental-health/a-z-topics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

  PTSD used to be called shell shock when it was seen in veterans, but we now know it doesnt just affect soldiers. Anyone who experiences or witnesses an extremely stressful event can develop PTSD. […] PTSD can be caused by repeated trauma such as violence, neglect or abuse. […] Being involved in any traumatic event something that causes fear, helplessness or horror can lead to PTSD. […] While it isnt clear why PTSD develops, there are a number of possible reasons. […] It could be an automatic survival mechanism intended to help you survive further trauma. […] When youre in danger, your body produces stress hormones to trigger a fight or flight reaction to help you survive. […] Scans have shown changes to the part of the brain responsible for emotions and memory in people with PTSD.

• #2 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder | Psychology Today

  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  Scientists know that in PTSD, the stress circuitry in the brain goes awry, disrupting communication between several brain centers. […] PTSD is a whole-brain disorder that involves the brain circuits of fear, stress, and anxiety. […] PTSD sufferers may also find that when they are emotionally aroused, they have little control over their reactive anger and impulsive behaviors. […] Trauma-informed therapists recognize the signs of PTSD and focus on treating the whole person.

• #2 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Symptoms, Causes, Help

  https://www.helpguide.org/mental-health/ptsd-trauma/ptsd-symptoms-self-help-treatment

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a condition that can develop following a traumatic event that threatens your safety. […] PTSD occurs when you experience too much stress in a situation. Even though the danger has passed, your nervous system is stuck, unable to return to its normal state of balance and you’re unable to move on from the event. Recovering from PTSD involves helping your nervous system become unstuck so you can heal and move on from the trauma. […] Any event that overwhelms your nervous system and makes you feel helpless and hopeless can lead to PTSD. Common examples include: War, Natural disasters, Car or plane crashes, Terrorist attacks, Sudden death of a loved one, Sexual or physical assault, Domestic abuse and neglect. […] Traumatic events are more likely to cause PTSD when they involve a severe threat to your life or personal safety: the more extreme and prolonged the threat, the greater the risk of developing PTSD in response.

• #2 CPTSD (Complex PTSD): What It Is, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24881-cptsd-complex-ptsd

  Complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) can result from experiencing chronic trauma, such as prolonged child abuse or domestic violence. […] CPTSD is manageable with psychotherapy (talk therapy) and medication. […] Complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD, C-PTSD or cPTSD) is a mental health condition that can develop if you experience chronic (long-term) trauma. […] While CPTSD is often associated with chronic trauma in childhood, adults who experience chronic trauma can also develop the condition. […] Experts across the field of psychology disagree on if CPTSD is a distinct condition and diagnosis. […] The main differences between PTSD and CPTSD are the length of trauma and the symptoms. […] Traditionally, experts thought PTSD generally developed from short-term trauma, such as a vehicle accident or a natural disaster.

• #2 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

  A health practitioner may diagnose PTSD if a person has symptoms in each of these four areas for a month or more, which lead to significant distress or impacts on their ability to work and study, their relationships and day-to-day life. […] When PTSD goes on for some time, it is not unusual for people to experience other mental health problems at the same time. In fact, up to 80 per cent of people who have long-standing PTSD develop additional problems – most commonly depression, anxiety, and alcohol or other substance misuse. These may have developed directly in response to the traumatic event or as a result of the effects of having PTSD. […] If you are still experiencing problems after two weeks, a doctor or mental health professional may discuss starting treatment. Effective treatments are available. Most involve psychological treatment such as counselling to understand what is happening and to develop ways of managing reactions, but medication can also be helpful.

• #2 Post-traumatic stress disorder – UF Health

  https://ufhealth.org/conditions-and-treatments/post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  PTSD is diagnosed when you have had symptoms for at least 30 days. […] PTSD can be treated. You can increase the chance of a good outcome: See a provider right away if you think you have PTSD. Take an active part in your treatment and follow your provider’s instructions. Accept support from others. Take care of your health. Exercise and eat healthy foods. DO NOT drink alcohol or use recreational drugs. These can make your PTSD worse. […] Post-traumatic stress disorder PTSD is a severe reaction to a traumatic event that involves re-experiencing the event through dreams, recollections or flashbacks. Social support plays a role in protecting people from developing PTSD.

• #2 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder | NAMI

  https://www.nami.org/about-mental-illness/mental-health-conditions/posttraumatic-stress-disorder/

  We do know that for some, our “fight-or-flight” biological instincts, which can be life-saving during a crisis, can leave us with ongoing symptoms. Because the body is busy increasing its heart rate, pumping blood to muscles, preparing the body to fight or flee, all our physical resources and energy are focused on getting out of harm’s way. Therefore, there has been discussion that the posttraumatic stress response may not a disorder per se, but rather a variant of a human response to trauma. […] Whether you think of these symptoms as a stress response variant or PTSD, consider them a consequence of our body’s inability to effectively return to “normal” in the months after its extraordinary response to a traumatic event.

• #3 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder | CAMH

  https://www.camh.ca/en/health-info/mental-illness-and-addiction-index/posttraumatic-stress-disorder

  Protective factors that may reduce the risk of developing PTSD include: having support from other people, such as friends and family, participating in a support group after a traumatic event, feeling confident about ones own actions regarding the event, having a coping strategy or a way of getting through the traumatic event, being able to act and respond effectively despite feeling fear.

• #3 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – Symptoms and Treatment | MedPark Hospital

  https://www.medparkhospital.com/en-US/disease-and-treatment/ptsd-post-traumatic-stress-disorder

  The hippocampus, which regulates motivation, emotions, learning, and memory, becomes smaller. […] The amygdala, which is crucial for processing emotions and triggering fear reactions, is hyperactive. […] The medial prefrontal cortex, responsible for regulating the emotional responses of the amygdala, shrinks in size and becomes less responsive.

• #3 PTSD: Causes, Treatment & Symptoms | Live Science

  https://www.livescience.com/44860-ptsd.html

  A family or personal history of mental health risks, such as an increased risk of anxiety and depression, can affect the likelihood of experiencing a PTSD episode. […] People with PTSD often show differences in certain brain areas compared to healthy people. According to a new model in the July 2013 issue of the journal Trends in Cognitive Sciences, changes in two brain areas the amygdala and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) may predispose people to PTSD.

• #3

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