Zespół policystycznych jajników
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Zespół policystycznych jajników (PCOS) jest złożonym zaburzeniem endokrynologicznym dotykającym 5-20% kobiet w wieku rozrodczym, charakteryzującym się hiperandrogenizmem, dysfunkcją owulacji, insulinoopornością oraz zaburzeniami neuroendokrynnymi. Patogeneza PCOS obejmuje zwiększoną pulsację GnRH, co prowadzi do podwyższonego poziomu LH i względnego niedoboru FSH, skutkując nadprodukcją androgenów jajnikowych i zatrzymaniem rozwoju pęcherzyków. Insulinooporność, obecna u około 50-70% pacjentek, nasila hiperandrogenizm poprzez działanie insuliny jako ko-gonadotropiny oraz zmniejszenie syntezy SHBG, co zwiększa poziom wolnych androgenów. W PCOS obserwuje się także dysfunkcję tkanki tłuszczowej, przewlekły stan zapalny niskiego stopnia oraz stres oksydacyjny, które dodatkowo komplikują obraz kliniczny i metaboliczny choroby. Genetyczne podłoże PCOS jest heterogenne, z wieloma loci podatności, a epigenetyczne i środowiskowe czynniki, takie jak ekspozycja na bisfenol A, również odgrywają istotną rolę w etiologii zespołu.

Wprowadzenie do zespołu policystycznych jajników

Zespół policystycznych jajników (PCOS) jest najczęściej występującym zaburzeniem endokrynologicznym u kobiet w wieku rozrodczym, dotykającym około 5-20% tej populacji12. To złożony zespół charakteryzujący się hiperandrogenizmem, dysfunkcją owulacji, insulinoopornością oraz zaburzeniami neuroendokrynnymi3. PCOS ma istotne implikacje metaboliczne, endokrynologiczne, psychologiczne, płodnościowe i związane z ciążą, które mogą utrzymywać się przez całe życie4.

Chociaż dokładna etiologia PCOS wciąż nie jest w pełni poznana, obecne badania wskazują, że syndrom ten powstaje w wyniku interakcji predyspozycji genetycznych z czynnikami środowiskowymi56. PCOS wydaje się być złożoną cechą poligenową, która wynika z współdziałania różnorodnych czynników genetycznych i środowiskowych7.

Patogeneza PCOS – ujęcie wieloczynnikowe

Patogeneza PCOS jest złożona i wieloczynnikowa, obejmując interakcję między zaburzeniami neuroendokrynnymi, nadmierną produkcją androgenów, insulinoopornością i zmianami w funkcjonowaniu tkanki tłuszczowej89. Różnorodność zaangażowanych ścieżek i brak wspólnego mianownika świadczy o wieloczynnikowej naturze i heterogeniczności tego zespołu10.

PCOS jest postrzegany jako fenotyp warunkowy, który staje się patologiczny we współczesnym środowisku z powodu czynników takich jak obfitość pożywienia, zmniejszona aktywność fizyczna, zaburzenia rytmu dobowego, stres i ekspozycja na środowiskowe substancje chemiczne11. Wspólnym mianownikiem w PCOS wydaje się być czynnościowy hiperandrogenizm jajnikowy (FOH – functional ovarian hyperandrogenism)12.

Zaburzenia neuroendokrynne w PCOS

PCOS charakteryzuje się zwiększoną częstotliwością pulsacji hormonu uwalniającego gonadotropiny (GnRH) i zmniejszonym negatywnym sprzężeniem zwrotnym ze steroidów płciowych na poziomie podwzgórza13. GnRH jest uwalniany z neuronów w jądrze lejkowym podwzgórza w sposób pulsacyjny, co prowadzi do zwiększonego wydzielania hormonu luteinizującego (LH) i folikulotropiny (FSH)14.

Częstotliwość pulsacji GnRH jest kontrolowana przez wiele czynników endokrynologicznych i neuronalnych, przy czym wyższa częstotliwość sprzyja wydzielaniu LH, a niższa częstotliwość – wydzielaniu FSH15. U kobiet z PCOS podwyższony poziom LH powoduje nadmierną produkcję androgenów jajnikowych, podczas gdy względny niedobór FSH powoduje zatrzymanie rozwoju pęcherzyków, morfologię policystycznych jajników i oligo-owulację16.

Redukcja sprzężenia zwrotnego steroidów płciowych na uwalnianie GnRH prawdopodobnie zachodzi powyżej samego GnRH, ponieważ neurony GnRH nie mają receptorów dla estrogenów ani progesteronu17. Neurony kisspeptyny, neurokiny B i dynorfiny A (tzw. neurony KNDy) są integralnymi regulatorami tego procesu18.

Rola nieprawidłowej pulsacji GnRH

Większość kobiet z hiperandrogenicznym PCOS wykazuje podwyższony poziom LH, co sugeruje zwiększoną częstotliwość pulsacji GnRH, zwiększoną amplitudę pulsu LH i wyolbrzymione odpowiedzi LH na egzogenny GnRH19. Nadmierne uwalnianie GnRH prowadzi do podwyższonych poziomów LH, co następnie zwiększa poziom androgenów20. Podwyższone poziomy LH hamują funkcję FSH, co zakłóca rozwój pęcherzyków i ostatecznie prowadzi do zmian policystycznych w jajnikach21.

Kilka badań na przedklinicznych modelach zwierzęcych PCOS wykazało zmiany w neuronach GnRH i ich aferentnych obwodach neuronalnych22. Niektóre modele PCOS u gryzoni wykazały wzrost aktywności neuronów GnRH, który koreluje ze wzrostem stymulującego unerwienia GABAergicznego i prądów postsynaptycznych na neuronach GnRH23. Dodatkowe badania zidentyfikowały znaczne wzrosty poziomu kisspeptyny w podwzgórzu, kolejnego silnego stymulatora neuronów GnRH24.

Hiperandrogenizm w patogenezie PCOS

Wysoki poziom androgenów jest pierwotnym defektem w PCOS25. Cholesterol jest przekształcany w androgeny przez kaskadę enzymów wspólnych dla wszystkich narządów produkujących steroidy, przy czym specyficzne dla tkanek warianty prowadzą do różnych profili hormonów steroidowych26.

W PCOS zwiększona produkcja androgenów jajnikowych na drodze klasycznej jest napędzana przez zwiększone wydzielanie przysadkowego LH, działanie insuliny jako ko-gonadotropiny oraz zwiększoną nadwrażliwość komórek tekowych na LH27. Komórki tekalne z policystycznych jajników pacjentek z klasycznym PCOS w długoterminowej hodowli wykazują wewnętrzną dysregulację steroidogenezy, która może odpowiadać za nieprawidłowości steroidogenezy typowe dla FOH28.

Źródła nadmiaru androgenów

PCOS było wcześniej uważane za chorobę nadmiernej produkcji androgenów głównie w jajnikach, ale obecnie nadnercza i tkanki obwodowe są uważane za ważne źródła androgenów u pacjentek z PCOS2930. Podwyższone stężenie siarczanu dehydroepiandrosteronu, prawie wyłącznego produktu kory nadnerczy, występuje u 20-30% pacjentek z PCOS31. Wydaje się to być wynikiem zwiększonej aktywności wydzielniczej kory nadnerczy, ponieważ nie obserwuje się zmian w reaktywności przysadki na hormon uwalniający kortykotropinę ani zmniejszenia minimalnej dawki stymulującej hormonu adrenokortykotropowego wymaganej do produkcji hormonów nadnerczy32.

Chociaż zwiększona produkcja androgenów jajnikowych i nadnerczowych przyczynia się do hiperandrogenizmu, obwodowo wytwarzane androgeny 11-oksygenowane wyłaniają się jako ważne predyktory ryzyka metabolicznego33. Zwiększona aktywność jajnikowej dehydrogenazy 11-hydroksysteroidowej typu 1 (11-HSD1), która przekształca nieaktywny kortyzon w aktywny kortyzol, może również odgrywać rolę w patogenezie PCOS3435. Nadekspresja jajnikowego 11-HSD1 u szczurów spowodowała morfologię policystycznych jajników, zaburzenia cyklu estrogenowego i nieprawidłowości hormonów reprodukcyjnych36.

Biochemiczne mechanizmy hiperandrogenizmu

Istnieją dowody sugerujące, że pacjentki mają funkcjonalną nieprawidłowość cytochromu P450c17, 17-hydroksylazy, która jest enzymem ograniczającym tempo w biosyntezie androgenów3738. Gen CYP11A odgrywa ważną rolę w syntezie steroidów, a jego wariant jest znacząco powiązany z hiperandrogenizmem39.

Rola komórek tekowych (TC) i komórek ziarnistych (GC) w PCOS może być wyjaśniona przez teorię „dwie komórki, dwie gonadotropiny”, która opisuje scenariusz, w którym cholesterol wchodzi do TC poprzez aktywację StAR. Gdy LH wiąże się z TC, uruchamiany jest proces steroidogenezy, ostatecznie prowadzący do produkcji androgenów w TC oraz estronu i estradiolu w GC40.

U kobiet z PCOS podwyższony poziom testosteronu aktywuje odpowiedź stresową retikulum endoplazmatycznego (ER) w komórkach ziarnistych (GC), ostatecznie prowadząc do apoptozy komórek poprzez receptor śmierci 5 (DR5)41. Te odkrycia podkreślają apoptotyczne efekty androgenów na komórki ziarniste w PCOS, pokazując, że podwyższone poziomy androgenów są znaczącym czynnikiem problemów zdrowia reprodukcyjnego i zwiększają ryzyko rozwoju PCOS u potomstwa42.

Insulinooporność i hiperinsulinemia w PCOS

Insulinooporność i wynikająca z niej hiperinsulinemia odgrywają kluczową rolę w patogenezie PCOS4344. Insulina działa jako ko-gonadotropina w jajnikach, upośledza hamowanie uwalniania GnRH przez progesteron i ułatwia syntezę androgenów w nadnerczach poprzez zwiększenie steroidogenezy stymulowanej przez ACTH45.

Około połowy pacjentek z PCOS ma zespół metaboliczny otyłości i/lub wewnętrznej insulinooporności, a kompensacyjna hiperinsulinemia ma wybiórcze efekty tkankowe, które obejmują nasilenie hiperandrogenizmu46. Insulinooporność PCOS jest niezależna od otyłości i dlatego do pewnego stopnia jest konstytutywna47.

Mechanizm insulinooporności w PCOS

Insulinooporność charakteryzuje się zwiększonym poziomem krążącej insuliny zarówno podstawowo, jak i po obciążeniu glukozą; polega na niezdolności insuliny do pośredniczenia w działaniach związanych z produkcją i wychwytem glukozy i/lub lipolizą, z konsekwentnym zapotrzebowaniem na większą ilość insuliny do uzyskania określonego działania metabolicznego48. Ten stan odgrywa kluczową rolę w rozwoju PCOS i może wywołać kilka nieprawidłowości metabolicznych i reprodukcyjnych u kobiet z tym zespołem49.

Insulinooporność i związana z nią hiperinsulinemia są związane z nieprawidłową steroidogenezą jajnikową i mogą przyczyniać się do patogenezy braku owulacji i hiperandrogenizmu50. Nadmiar insuliny może powodować, że jajniki produkują więcej testosteronu i zmieniają rozwój pęcherzyków potrzebnych do owulacji51.

Wpływ insulinooporności w patogenezie PCOS jest wzmocniony, gdy kobieta ma nadwagę lub jest otyła52. Główna rola otyłości w patogenezie PCOS wydaje się być związana ze wzrostem insulinooporności, co nasila FOH53.

Wpływ insulinooporności na metabolizm i steroidogenezę

Insulina może regulować homeostazę glukozy poprzez hamowanie produkcji glukozy w wątrobie lub stymulowanie wychwytu glukozy przez tkanki wrażliwe na insulinę, takie jak adipocyty oraz mięśnie sercowe i szkieletowe54. U kobiet z PCOS, insulinozależny poziom glukozy zmniejsza się o 35-40% w porównaniu do zdrowych kobiet55.

Hiperinsulinemia jest również odpowiedzialna za dyslipidemię i podwyższony poziom inhibitora aktywatora plazminogenu-1 (PAI-1) u pacjentek z PCOS56. Podwyższony poziom PAI-1 jest czynnikiem ryzyka zakrzepicy wewnątrznaczyniowej57.

Wpływ insuliny na tkankę tłuszczową i stan zapalny jest kolejnym istotnym tematem w patogenezie PCOS. Insulina stymuluje adipogenezę i lipogenezę oraz hamuje lipolizę, co prowadzi do akumulacji tłuszczu58. W PCOS, insulinooporność dotyka mięśni szkieletowych, tkanki tłuszczowej i wątroby, podczas gdy z powodu hiperinsulinemii, bezpośrednia stymulacja steroidogennych jajników i nadnerczy powoduje wydzielanie androgenów i zmniejszoną syntezę globuliny wiążącej hormony płciowe (SHBG) w wątrobie, prowadząc do podwyższonych poziomów wolnych, biologicznie aktywnych androgenów59.

Rola tkanki tłuszczowej i stanu zapalnego

U kobiet z PCOS obserwuje się zmiany w morfologii i funkcji białej tkanki tłuszczowej, w tym powiększone adipocyty, zmniejszoną aktywność lipazy lipoproteinowej i zwiększone wydzielanie cytokin prozapalnych6061.

Dysfunkcja tkanki tłuszczowej została wskazana jako czynnik przyczyniający się do insulinooporności obserwowanej w PCOS62. Otyłość, zwłaszcza odkładanie się tłuszczu brzusznego, jest głównym czynnikiem predysponującym do ekspresji insulinooporności i fenotypu metabolicznego w PCOS63.

Adipokiny i stan zapalny

Inny hormon zwany adiponektyną, który jest zaangażowany w kontrolę poziomów lipidów i glukozy we krwi, może również odgrywać rolę w patogenezie PCOS64. Niskie poziomy adiponektyny mogą powodować wiele nieprawidłowości w tym zespole65.

Hiperandrogenizm (HA) zmniejsza poziom SHBG, prowadząc do wyższego stężenia wolnego testosteronu66. HA przyczynia się do innych wpływowych czynników PCOS, w tym insulinooporności, stanu zapalnego i stresu oksydacyjnego67. Stan zapalny jest przyczyną HA68.

Badania wykazały, że procesy zapalne odgrywają rolę w owulacji i dynamice pęcherzyków jajnikowych69. Kobiety z PCOS mają niski poziom przewlekłego stanu zapalnego, który przyczynia się do rozwoju insulinooporności i hiperandrogenizmu70.

Stres oksydacyjny i zaburzenia metaboliczne

Stres oksydacyjny (OS) jest brakiem równowagi między prooksydantami i przeciwutleniaczami71. Zwiększony OS był obserwowany u pacjentek z PCOS w różnych badaniach72. Otyłość jest kluczowym czynnikiem w przewlekłym stanie zapalnym niskiego stopnia. Akumulacja adipocytów w tłuszczu trzewnym prowadzi do hipoksji i wynikającej z tego nekrozy, co powoduje produkcję cytokin zapalnych73.

Niedawne badania podkreślają znaczącą rolę stresu oksydacyjnego w patogenezie PCOS, ponieważ jest on ściśle związany z podwyższonym poziomem androgenów, insulinoopornością, zaburzoną owulacją i uszkodzeniem mitochondriów u pacjentek z PCOS74.

PCOS zostało również powiązane z zwiększonym poziomem stresu oksydacyjnego wtórnego do dysfunkcji mitochondrialnej, mogącym wywoływać insulinooporność i hiperandrogenizm u pacjentek z PCOS75.

Czynniki genetyczne i epigenetyczne w PCOS

PCOS jest genetycznie heterogenicznym zespołem, w którym wkład genetyczny pozostaje niepełnie opisany76. Wysokie rodzinne skupienie PCOS silnie wskazuje na wpływ genetyczny na ten specyficzny stan metaboliczny77.

Prawdopodobieństwo dziedziczenia PCOS zostało po raz pierwszy zaproponowane w 1968 roku. Od tego czasu pojawiło się coraz więcej dowodów dotyczących powiązań rodzinnych i genetycznych podstaw PCOS, przy czym niektóre sugerują, że jest to zaburzenie autosomalnie dominujące lub sprzężone z chromosomem X78.

Geny kandydujące i polimorfizmy

Badania genomowe zidentyfikowały wiele loci podatności na PCOS, w tym geny związane z gonadotropinami, uwalnianiem i funkcją jajników (np. FSHB, LHCGR, AMH, DENND1A), geny związane z metabolizmem (np. THADA, INSR) i inne79. Loci genetyczne zidentyfikowane w badaniach asocjacji całego genomu (GWAS) obecnie odpowiadają za tylko 10% znanej dziedziczności (około 70%) PCOS, co sugeruje inne wpływy na patogenezę choroby80.

Zidentyfikowano kilka polimorfizmów przyczyniających się do PCOS, w tym polimorfy steroidogennego regulatora ostrego (StAR), polimorfy receptora hormonu folikulotropowego (FSHR), polimorfy FTO alfa-ketoglutaran-zależnej dioksygenazy (FTO), polimorfy receptora witaminy D (VDR), polimorfy insulinooporności (IR) i substratu receptora insuliny (IRS) oraz polimorfy receptora hormonu uwalniającego gonadotropinę (Gn-RHR)81.

Polimorfizm VNTR wpływa na insulinooporność w niektórych fenotypach PCOS82. Nasze wyniki pokazały, że rs11031006, w pobliżu FSHB, był związany z wieloma fenotypami PCOS, w tym z poziomem wolnego testosteronu i LH83.

Rola czynników epigenetycznych

Pojawiające się dowody wskazują, że PCOS może mieć swoje początki w okresie prenatalnym, a zatem może podlegać programowaniu rozwojowemu i modyfikacjom epigenetycznym84. Prenatalna ekspozycja na androgeny w kilku przedklinicznych modelach spowodowała trwały fenotyp podobny do PCOS po urodzeniu85.

Programowanie rozwojowe PCOS reprezentuje zmiany w ekspresji genów, które występują podczas krytycznych okresów rozwoju płodowego86. Rozwojowe pochodzenie PCOS mogło być spowodowane różnymi czynnikami w populacjach przodków i współczesnych87.

To badanie pilotażowe sugeruje, że zmiana epigenomu jest mechanizmem, za pomocą którego nadmiar androgenów w okresie ciąży lub jego konsekwencje mogą przeprogramować płody małp do rozwinięcia cech podobnych do PCOS w dorosłości88.

Rola mikrobioty jelitowej i czynników środowiskowych

Ostatnie badania wskazują na zmiany w mikrobiocie jelitowej w patogenezie PCOS8990. Kobiety z PCOS mają wyższe poziomy jelitowe Bacteroides vulgatus i niższe poziomy kwasu glikodeoksycholowego i tauroursodeoksycholowego91.

Teoria dysbiozy mikrobioty jelitowej w PCOS, zaproponowana przez Tremellena w 2012 roku, tłumaczy rozwój wszystkich składników PCOS (liczne pęcherzyki jajnikowe, brak owulacji lub nieregularność menstruacji i hiperandrogenizm)92. Gromadzące się dowody naukowe silnie potwierdzają znaczącą rolę mikrobioty w patogenezie i utrzymywaniu się PCOS, zgodnie z badaniami innych powiązanych stanów metabolicznych93.

Wpływ czynników środowiskowych

PCOS jest zespołem, który składa się z wielu dziedzicznych i środowiskowych elementów. Objawy pojawiają się, gdy odziedziczone czynniki spotykają się z ekspozycją środowiskową, w tym metalami ciężkimi, chemikaliami zaburzającymi gospodarkę hormonalną i pestycydami94.

Jako przykład wielu chemikaliów zaburzających gospodarkę hormonalną, Bisfenol A (BPA), związek wykorzystywany w przemyśle tworzyw sztucznych, jest wykrywany w wyższym stężeniu w surowicy u pacjentek z PCOS niż u zdrowych osób95. BPA zakłóca system endokrynowy poprzez interakcję z receptorami estrogenowymi, korelując ze zwiększonym T4 i wolnym indeksem androgenów96.

Wiadomo również, że styl życia znacznie wpływa na przebieg PCOS. Stwierdzono, że palenie lub bycie narażonym na dym ma związek z oligo-anovulacją97. Dysfunkcja mitochondrialna i stres oksydacyjny wynikające ze zmniejszenia glutationu i obniżonych poziomów przeciwutleniaczy powodują niezdolność do redukcji reaktywnych form tlenu lub toksyn powodujących wczesną luteinizację pierwotnych pęcherzyków98.

Kobiety podczas codziennych czynności, nieświadomie, są narażone na pewne chemikalia znane jako zakłócacze endokrynologiczne (EDs), najczęściej bisfenol-A (BPA) mający właściwości antyestrogenowe, antyandrogenowe, które zakłócają regulację sprzężenia zwrotnego, metylację DNA i zmiany komórek neuroendokrynnych99. Te EDs w rezultacie przyczyniają się jako czynnik przyczynowy albo do ujawnienia charakterystyk PCOS u genetycznie podatnych kobiet, albo do zakłócenia homeostazy hormonalnej i pogorszenia stanu płodności kobiet z PCOS100.

Metaboliczne konsekwencje PCOS

PCOS wiąże się ze zwiększonym ryzykiem rozwoju chorób metabolicznych (cukrzyca typu 2, niealkoholowa stłuszczeniowa choroba wątroby i zespół metaboliczny), chorób sercowo-naczyniowych, nowotworów oraz szerokiego zakresu powikłań ciążowych (zakrzepica żył głębokich, stan przedrzucawkowy, cukrzyca ciążowa, makrosomia, ograniczenie wzrostu, poronienia, martwe urodzenia i przedwczesny poród) oraz problemów psychologicznych (lęk, depresja)101.

Kobiety z PCOS mają 1,3-krotnie większe ryzyko rozwoju złożonej CVD, choroby niedokrwiennej serca i udaru w porównaniu z kobietami bez PCOS102. Kobiety z tym zaburzeniem są również bardziej narażone na rozwój raka endometrium – jedna meta-analiza wykazała 3-krotnie zwiększone ryzyko raka endometrium w PCOS (9% ryzyko życiowe w PCOS w porównaniu do 3% u kobiet niezajętych)103.

Zespół metaboliczny i powikłania sercowo-naczyniowe

W długim okresie nadmiar androgenów zwiększa ryzyko zaburzeń sercowo-naczyniowych, w tym nadciśnienia i hiperlipidemii104. Badania wskazują, że PCOS jest związane z przewlekłym stanem zapalnym niskiego stopnia i że kobiety z PCOS są narażone na zwiększone ryzyko niealkoholowej stłuszczeniowej choroby wątroby105.

Insulinooporność wyłania się jako pierwotna anomalia metaboliczna106. Badania epidemiologiczne wskazują, że 50-70% przypadków PCOS jest związanych z insulinoopornością, której często towarzyszy kompensacyjna hiperinsulinemia107. W populacji pacjentek z PCOS dyslipidemia jest powszechną i krytyczną chorobą współistniejącą108.

Podsumowanie: złożoność patogenezy PCOS

Patogeneza PCOS jest wieloczynnikowa i obejmuje upośledzoną pulsację hormonu uwalniającego gonadotropinę (GnRH), zwiększone wydzielanie przysadkowego hormonu luteinizującego (LH), podwyższony poziom androgenów, insulinooporność, otyłość i przewlekły stan zapalny niskiego stopnia109.

Mimo znacznych badań wyjaśniających kilka kluczowych ścieżek zaangażowanych w patogenezę PCOS, kompleksowe zrozumienie jej patofizjologii pozostaje niepełne110. Główne ścieżki patofizjologiczne obejmują zaburzenia neuroendokrynne, nadmiar produkcji androgenów, insulinooporność i zmiany w biologii tkanki tłuszczowej, z różnicami w dysfunkcji tych ścieżek przyczyniającymi się do różnic w ekspresji fenotypowej i ciężkości choroby111.

Zrozumienie współzależności między procesami endokrynologicznymi, metabolicznymi i zapalnymi ilustruje, jak te mechanizmy wspólnie przyczyniają się do manifestacji i powikłań PCOS112. Międzynarodowe wytyczne oparte na dowodach z 2023 r. w PCOS, a także podkreślają potencjalny związek między nieprawidłowościami metabolicznymi u pacjentek z PCOS a obecnością przewlekłego stanu zapalnego niskiego stopnia113.

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  1. 11.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Polycystic ovary syndrome – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycystic_ovary_syndrome
    Polycystic ovary syndrome, or polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. The primary characteristics of PCOS include hyperandrogenism, anovulation, insulin resistance, and neuroendocrine disruption. […] The exact cause of PCOS remains uncertain, and treatment involves management of symptoms using medication. […] PCOS is a heterogeneous disorder of uncertain cause. There is some evidence that it is a genetic disease. Such evidence includes the familial clustering of cases, greater concordance in monozygotic compared with dizygotic twins and heritability of endocrine and metabolic features of PCOS. […] PCOS may be related to or worsened by exposures during the prenatal period, epigenetic factors, environmental impacts (especially industrial endocrine disruptors, such as bisphenol A and certain drugs) and the increasing rates of obesity.
  • #2 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10583117/
    Polycystic ovary syndrome arises as a result of polygenic susceptibility in combination with environmental influences that might include epigenetic alterations and in utero programming. […] Advances in genetics, metabolomics, and adipocyte biology have improved our understanding of key changes in neuroendocrine, enteroendocrine, and steroidogenic pathways, including increased gonadotrophin releasing hormone pulsatility, androgen excess, insulin resistance, and changes in the gut microbiome. […] Neuroendocrine dysregulation leads to abnormal high frequency pulsatile secretion of gonadotrophin releasing hormone, and hypothalamic kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin A neurons (so-called KNDy neurons) are integral regulators of this process. […] Although increased production of ovarian and adrenal androgens contribute to hyperandrogenism, peripherally generated 11-oxygenated androgens are emerging as important predictors of metabolic risk.
  • #3 Polycystic ovary syndrome – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycystic_ovary_syndrome
    Polycystic ovary syndrome, or polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. The primary characteristics of PCOS include hyperandrogenism, anovulation, insulin resistance, and neuroendocrine disruption. […] The exact cause of PCOS remains uncertain, and treatment involves management of symptoms using medication. […] PCOS is a heterogeneous disorder of uncertain cause. There is some evidence that it is a genetic disease. Such evidence includes the familial clustering of cases, greater concordance in monozygotic compared with dizygotic twins and heritability of endocrine and metabolic features of PCOS. […] PCOS may be related to or worsened by exposures during the prenatal period, epigenetic factors, environmental impacts (especially industrial endocrine disruptors, such as bisphenol A and certain drugs) and the increasing rates of obesity.
  • #4 Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/19434
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is a complex multisystem condition with metabolic, endocrine, psychological, fertility and pregnancy-related implications at all stages of life. The majority of women with PCOS manifest multiple metabolic features including obesity, insulin resistance (IR), hyperlipidemia and hyperandrogenism. PCOS results in an increased risk of developing metabolic disease (type 2 diabetes, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and metabolic syndrome), cardiovascular disease, cancer, a wide array of pregnancy complications (deep venous thrombosis, pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, macrosomia, growth restriction, miscarriage, stillbirth and preterm labor) and psychological problems (anxiety, depression). […] The view of PCOS as a conditional phenotype proposes that these physiological responses become pathological in the modern environment due to factors such as food abundance, reduced physical activity, circadian disruption, stress and environmental chemical exposure. The transgenerational evolutionary theory of the pathogenesis of PCOS encompasses all of the above ideas to explain the observed pathophysiological and clinical features of PCOS.
  • #5 The Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): The Hypothesis of PCOS as Functional Ovarian Hyperandrogenism Revisited
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5045492/
    PCOS seems to arise as a complex trait that results from the interaction of diverse genetic and environmental factors. […] The variety of pathways involved and lack of a common thread attests to the multifactorial nature and heterogeneity of the syndrome. […] The common denominator in PCOS appears to be FOH. FOH typically has a steroidogenic abnormality suggestive of the constitutive biochemical dysfunction that is characteristic of classic PCOS theca cells. […] In about half of cases, tissue-specific resistance to the metabolic effects of insulin causes compensatory hyperinsulinemia. […] The insulin resistance of PCOS is independent of obesity and thus to some extent constitutive. […] The major role of obesity in PCOS pathogenesis seems to be related to an increase in insulin resistance, thereby aggravating FOH.
  • #6
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13668-023-00479-8
    Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common endocrine and metabolic disorder in women of reproductive age worldwide. This disease causes menstrual, metabolic, and biochemical abnormalities such as hyperandrogenism, oligo-anovulatory menstrual cycles, polycystic ovary, hyperleptinemia, insulin resistance (IR), and cardiometabolic disorders, often associated with overweight or obesity and visceral adiposity. […] The etiology and pathophysiology of PCOS are not yet fully understood, but insulin seems to play a key role in this disease. […] Studies suggest a multifactorial etiology involving many different factors such as insulin resistance (IR), hyperandrogenism (HA), and environmental, genetic, and epigenetic factors. Moreover, low-grade chronic inflammation seems to be both cause and effect of the syndrome.
  • #7 The Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): The Hypothesis of PCOS as Functional Ovarian Hyperandrogenism Revisited
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5045492/
    PCOS seems to arise as a complex trait that results from the interaction of diverse genetic and environmental factors. […] The variety of pathways involved and lack of a common thread attests to the multifactorial nature and heterogeneity of the syndrome. […] The common denominator in PCOS appears to be FOH. FOH typically has a steroidogenic abnormality suggestive of the constitutive biochemical dysfunction that is characteristic of classic PCOS theca cells. […] In about half of cases, tissue-specific resistance to the metabolic effects of insulin causes compensatory hyperinsulinemia. […] The insulin resistance of PCOS is independent of obesity and thus to some extent constitutive. […] The major role of obesity in PCOS pathogenesis seems to be related to an increase in insulin resistance, thereby aggravating FOH.
  • #8 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10583117/
    Polycystic ovary syndrome arises as a result of polygenic susceptibility in combination with environmental influences that might include epigenetic alterations and in utero programming. […] Advances in genetics, metabolomics, and adipocyte biology have improved our understanding of key changes in neuroendocrine, enteroendocrine, and steroidogenic pathways, including increased gonadotrophin releasing hormone pulsatility, androgen excess, insulin resistance, and changes in the gut microbiome. […] Neuroendocrine dysregulation leads to abnormal high frequency pulsatile secretion of gonadotrophin releasing hormone, and hypothalamic kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin A neurons (so-called KNDy neurons) are integral regulators of this process. […] Although increased production of ovarian and adrenal androgens contribute to hyperandrogenism, peripherally generated 11-oxygenated androgens are emerging as important predictors of metabolic risk.
  • #9 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10583117/
    Recent studies have implicated changes in the gut microbiome in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. […] Genetic loci identified by genome-wide association studies currently account for only 10% of the known heritability (about 70%) of polycystic ovary syndrome, suggesting other influences on the pathogenesis of the disease. […] Key pathological changes include neuroendocrine dysregulation, excess production of androgens, insulin resistance, and changes in adipose tissue biology, with variation in dysfunction of these pathways contributing to differences in phenotypic expression and severity of the disease.
  • #10 The Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): The Hypothesis of PCOS as Functional Ovarian Hyperandrogenism Revisited
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5045492/
    PCOS seems to arise as a complex trait that results from the interaction of diverse genetic and environmental factors. […] The variety of pathways involved and lack of a common thread attests to the multifactorial nature and heterogeneity of the syndrome. […] The common denominator in PCOS appears to be FOH. FOH typically has a steroidogenic abnormality suggestive of the constitutive biochemical dysfunction that is characteristic of classic PCOS theca cells. […] In about half of cases, tissue-specific resistance to the metabolic effects of insulin causes compensatory hyperinsulinemia. […] The insulin resistance of PCOS is independent of obesity and thus to some extent constitutive. […] The major role of obesity in PCOS pathogenesis seems to be related to an increase in insulin resistance, thereby aggravating FOH.
  • #11 Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/19434
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is a complex multisystem condition with metabolic, endocrine, psychological, fertility and pregnancy-related implications at all stages of life. The majority of women with PCOS manifest multiple metabolic features including obesity, insulin resistance (IR), hyperlipidemia and hyperandrogenism. PCOS results in an increased risk of developing metabolic disease (type 2 diabetes, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and metabolic syndrome), cardiovascular disease, cancer, a wide array of pregnancy complications (deep venous thrombosis, pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, macrosomia, growth restriction, miscarriage, stillbirth and preterm labor) and psychological problems (anxiety, depression). […] The view of PCOS as a conditional phenotype proposes that these physiological responses become pathological in the modern environment due to factors such as food abundance, reduced physical activity, circadian disruption, stress and environmental chemical exposure. The transgenerational evolutionary theory of the pathogenesis of PCOS encompasses all of the above ideas to explain the observed pathophysiological and clinical features of PCOS.
  • #12 The Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): The Hypothesis of PCOS as Functional Ovarian Hyperandrogenism Revisited
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5045492/
    PCOS seems to arise as a complex trait that results from the interaction of diverse genetic and environmental factors. […] The variety of pathways involved and lack of a common thread attests to the multifactorial nature and heterogeneity of the syndrome. […] The common denominator in PCOS appears to be FOH. FOH typically has a steroidogenic abnormality suggestive of the constitutive biochemical dysfunction that is characteristic of classic PCOS theca cells. […] In about half of cases, tissue-specific resistance to the metabolic effects of insulin causes compensatory hyperinsulinemia. […] The insulin resistance of PCOS is independent of obesity and thus to some extent constitutive. […] The major role of obesity in PCOS pathogenesis seems to be related to an increase in insulin resistance, thereby aggravating FOH.
  • #13 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is characterised by increased pulse frequency of gonadotrophin releasing hormone and reduced negative feedback from sex steroids at the level of the hypothalamus. Gonadotrophin releasing hormone is released from neurons in the hypothalamic infundibular nucleus in a pulsatile manner, resulting in increased secretion of luteinising hormone and follicle stimulating hormone. The pulse frequency of gonadotrophin releasing hormone is controlled by multiple upstream endocrine and neural factors, with a higher frequency favouring secretion of luteinising hormone and a lower frequency favouring secretion of follicle stimulating hormone. In women with polycystic ovary syndrome, raised levels of luteinising hormone cause excess production of ovarian thecal androgens, whereas relative deficiency of follicle stimulating hormone causes follicular arrest, polycystic ovarian morphology, and oligo-ovulation. The reduction in sex steroid feedback on release of gonadotrophin releasing hormone is thought to occur upstream of the hormone itself because gonadotrophin releasing hormone neurons do not have receptors for oestrogens or progesterone.
  • #14 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is characterised by increased pulse frequency of gonadotrophin releasing hormone and reduced negative feedback from sex steroids at the level of the hypothalamus. Gonadotrophin releasing hormone is released from neurons in the hypothalamic infundibular nucleus in a pulsatile manner, resulting in increased secretion of luteinising hormone and follicle stimulating hormone. The pulse frequency of gonadotrophin releasing hormone is controlled by multiple upstream endocrine and neural factors, with a higher frequency favouring secretion of luteinising hormone and a lower frequency favouring secretion of follicle stimulating hormone. In women with polycystic ovary syndrome, raised levels of luteinising hormone cause excess production of ovarian thecal androgens, whereas relative deficiency of follicle stimulating hormone causes follicular arrest, polycystic ovarian morphology, and oligo-ovulation. The reduction in sex steroid feedback on release of gonadotrophin releasing hormone is thought to occur upstream of the hormone itself because gonadotrophin releasing hormone neurons do not have receptors for oestrogens or progesterone.
  • #15 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is characterised by increased pulse frequency of gonadotrophin releasing hormone and reduced negative feedback from sex steroids at the level of the hypothalamus. Gonadotrophin releasing hormone is released from neurons in the hypothalamic infundibular nucleus in a pulsatile manner, resulting in increased secretion of luteinising hormone and follicle stimulating hormone. The pulse frequency of gonadotrophin releasing hormone is controlled by multiple upstream endocrine and neural factors, with a higher frequency favouring secretion of luteinising hormone and a lower frequency favouring secretion of follicle stimulating hormone. In women with polycystic ovary syndrome, raised levels of luteinising hormone cause excess production of ovarian thecal androgens, whereas relative deficiency of follicle stimulating hormone causes follicular arrest, polycystic ovarian morphology, and oligo-ovulation. The reduction in sex steroid feedback on release of gonadotrophin releasing hormone is thought to occur upstream of the hormone itself because gonadotrophin releasing hormone neurons do not have receptors for oestrogens or progesterone.
  • #16 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is characterised by increased pulse frequency of gonadotrophin releasing hormone and reduced negative feedback from sex steroids at the level of the hypothalamus. Gonadotrophin releasing hormone is released from neurons in the hypothalamic infundibular nucleus in a pulsatile manner, resulting in increased secretion of luteinising hormone and follicle stimulating hormone. The pulse frequency of gonadotrophin releasing hormone is controlled by multiple upstream endocrine and neural factors, with a higher frequency favouring secretion of luteinising hormone and a lower frequency favouring secretion of follicle stimulating hormone. In women with polycystic ovary syndrome, raised levels of luteinising hormone cause excess production of ovarian thecal androgens, whereas relative deficiency of follicle stimulating hormone causes follicular arrest, polycystic ovarian morphology, and oligo-ovulation. The reduction in sex steroid feedback on release of gonadotrophin releasing hormone is thought to occur upstream of the hormone itself because gonadotrophin releasing hormone neurons do not have receptors for oestrogens or progesterone.
  • #17 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is characterised by increased pulse frequency of gonadotrophin releasing hormone and reduced negative feedback from sex steroids at the level of the hypothalamus. Gonadotrophin releasing hormone is released from neurons in the hypothalamic infundibular nucleus in a pulsatile manner, resulting in increased secretion of luteinising hormone and follicle stimulating hormone. The pulse frequency of gonadotrophin releasing hormone is controlled by multiple upstream endocrine and neural factors, with a higher frequency favouring secretion of luteinising hormone and a lower frequency favouring secretion of follicle stimulating hormone. In women with polycystic ovary syndrome, raised levels of luteinising hormone cause excess production of ovarian thecal androgens, whereas relative deficiency of follicle stimulating hormone causes follicular arrest, polycystic ovarian morphology, and oligo-ovulation. The reduction in sex steroid feedback on release of gonadotrophin releasing hormone is thought to occur upstream of the hormone itself because gonadotrophin releasing hormone neurons do not have receptors for oestrogens or progesterone.
  • #18 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10583117/
    Polycystic ovary syndrome arises as a result of polygenic susceptibility in combination with environmental influences that might include epigenetic alterations and in utero programming. […] Advances in genetics, metabolomics, and adipocyte biology have improved our understanding of key changes in neuroendocrine, enteroendocrine, and steroidogenic pathways, including increased gonadotrophin releasing hormone pulsatility, androgen excess, insulin resistance, and changes in the gut microbiome. […] Neuroendocrine dysregulation leads to abnormal high frequency pulsatile secretion of gonadotrophin releasing hormone, and hypothalamic kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin A neurons (so-called KNDy neurons) are integral regulators of this process. […] Although increased production of ovarian and adrenal androgens contribute to hyperandrogenism, peripherally generated 11-oxygenated androgens are emerging as important predictors of metabolic risk.
  • #19 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/51/5/10.31083/j.ceog5105126/htm
    Objective: The review aims to provide an overview of the pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and treatment methods of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Mechanism: The etiology of PCOS is multifaceted, intricately intertwined with genetic determinants, dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis, adrenal androgen excess, ethnic predilections, insulin resistance, persistent inflammatory cascades, lifestyle variables, non-coding RNA (ncRNA), and oxidative stress manifestations. […] PCOS is characterized by a diverse array of ovarian cysts, setting it apart from other ovarian cystic disorders. These cysts result from the imbalance between follicle growth and ovulation. […] The majority of women and adolescents with hyperandrogenic PCOS exhibit an increased LH levels, which imply increased gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) pulse frequency, increased LH pulse amplitude, and exaggerated LH responses to exogenous GnRH.
  • #20 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/51/5/10.31083/j.ceog5105126/htm
    Excessive release of GnRH leads to elevated levels of LH, which subsequently increases androgen levels. […] Elevated LH levels inhibit the function of FSH, which disrupts follicular development and ultimately leads to polycystic ovarian changes. […] Excessive adrenal androgens, especially the increased secretion observed during puberty, may have a significant impact on the development of PCOS. […] IR is a metabolic condition characterized by decreased cellular glucose utilization despite normal insulin levels, leading to compensatory hyperinsulinemia. […] Studies have shown that inflammation processes play a role in ovulation and the dynamics of ovarian follicles. […] Recent research in PCOS has revealed the involvement of ncRNAs in the pathogenesis and progression of the disease.
  • #21 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/51/5/10.31083/j.ceog5105126/htm
    Excessive release of GnRH leads to elevated levels of LH, which subsequently increases androgen levels. […] Elevated LH levels inhibit the function of FSH, which disrupts follicular development and ultimately leads to polycystic ovarian changes. […] Excessive adrenal androgens, especially the increased secretion observed during puberty, may have a significant impact on the development of PCOS. […] IR is a metabolic condition characterized by decreased cellular glucose utilization despite normal insulin levels, leading to compensatory hyperinsulinemia. […] Studies have shown that inflammation processes play a role in ovulation and the dynamics of ovarian follicles. […] Recent research in PCOS has revealed the involvement of ncRNAs in the pathogenesis and progression of the disease.
  • #22 The Role of the Brain in the Pathogenesis and Physiology of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
    https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8fc797fb
    Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common reproductive endocrine disorder, affecting at least 10% of women of reproductive age. PCOS is typically characterized by the presence of at least two of the three cardinal features of hyperandrogenemia (high circulating androgen levels), oligo- or anovulation, and cystic ovaries. Hyperandrogenemia increases the severity of the condition and is driven by increased luteinizing hormone (LH) pulse secretion from the pituitary. Indeed, PCOS women display both elevated mean LH levels, as well as an elevated frequency of LH pulsatile secretion. The abnormally high LH pulse frequency, reflective of a hyperactive gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neural circuit, suggests a neuroendocrine basis to either the etiology or phenotype of PCOS. […] Several studies in preclinical animal models of PCOS have demonstrated alterations in GnRH neurons and their upstream afferent neuronal circuits. Some rodent PCOS models have demonstrated an increase in GnRH neuron activity that correlates with an increase in stimulatory GABAergic innervation and postsynaptic currents onto GnRH neurons. Additional studies have identified robust increases in hypothalamic levels of kisspeptin, another potent stimulator of GnRH neurons. This review outlines the different brain and neuroendocrine changes in the reproductive axis observed in PCOS animal models, discusses how they might contribute to either the etiology or adult phenotype of PCOS, and considers parallel findings in PCOS women.
  • #23 The Role of the Brain in the Pathogenesis and Physiology of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
    https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8fc797fb
    Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common reproductive endocrine disorder, affecting at least 10% of women of reproductive age. PCOS is typically characterized by the presence of at least two of the three cardinal features of hyperandrogenemia (high circulating androgen levels), oligo- or anovulation, and cystic ovaries. Hyperandrogenemia increases the severity of the condition and is driven by increased luteinizing hormone (LH) pulse secretion from the pituitary. Indeed, PCOS women display both elevated mean LH levels, as well as an elevated frequency of LH pulsatile secretion. The abnormally high LH pulse frequency, reflective of a hyperactive gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neural circuit, suggests a neuroendocrine basis to either the etiology or phenotype of PCOS. […] Several studies in preclinical animal models of PCOS have demonstrated alterations in GnRH neurons and their upstream afferent neuronal circuits. Some rodent PCOS models have demonstrated an increase in GnRH neuron activity that correlates with an increase in stimulatory GABAergic innervation and postsynaptic currents onto GnRH neurons. Additional studies have identified robust increases in hypothalamic levels of kisspeptin, another potent stimulator of GnRH neurons. This review outlines the different brain and neuroendocrine changes in the reproductive axis observed in PCOS animal models, discusses how they might contribute to either the etiology or adult phenotype of PCOS, and considers parallel findings in PCOS women.
  • #24 The Role of the Brain in the Pathogenesis and Physiology of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
    https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8fc797fb
    Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common reproductive endocrine disorder, affecting at least 10% of women of reproductive age. PCOS is typically characterized by the presence of at least two of the three cardinal features of hyperandrogenemia (high circulating androgen levels), oligo- or anovulation, and cystic ovaries. Hyperandrogenemia increases the severity of the condition and is driven by increased luteinizing hormone (LH) pulse secretion from the pituitary. Indeed, PCOS women display both elevated mean LH levels, as well as an elevated frequency of LH pulsatile secretion. The abnormally high LH pulse frequency, reflective of a hyperactive gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neural circuit, suggests a neuroendocrine basis to either the etiology or phenotype of PCOS. […] Several studies in preclinical animal models of PCOS have demonstrated alterations in GnRH neurons and their upstream afferent neuronal circuits. Some rodent PCOS models have demonstrated an increase in GnRH neuron activity that correlates with an increase in stimulatory GABAergic innervation and postsynaptic currents onto GnRH neurons. Additional studies have identified robust increases in hypothalamic levels of kisspeptin, another potent stimulator of GnRH neurons. This review outlines the different brain and neuroendocrine changes in the reproductive axis observed in PCOS animal models, discusses how they might contribute to either the etiology or adult phenotype of PCOS, and considers parallel findings in PCOS women.
  • #25 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    High levels of androgens is a primary defect in polycystic ovary syndrome. Cholesterol is converted to androgens by a cascade of enzymes common to all steroid producing organs, with tissue specific variations resulting in different steroid hormone profiles. In polycystic ovary syndrome, increased production of ovarian androgens by the classical pathway is driven by increased secretion of pituitary luteinising hormone, the action of insulin as a co-gonadotrophin, and increased thecal cell hypersensitivity to luteinising hormone. […] Increased activity of ovarian 11-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11-HSD1), which converts inactive cortisone to active cortisol, might also have a role in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. Overexpression of ovarian 11-HSD1 in rats caused polycystic ovarian morphology, oestrous cycle, and reproductive hormone abnormalities.
  • #26 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    High levels of androgens is a primary defect in polycystic ovary syndrome. Cholesterol is converted to androgens by a cascade of enzymes common to all steroid producing organs, with tissue specific variations resulting in different steroid hormone profiles. In polycystic ovary syndrome, increased production of ovarian androgens by the classical pathway is driven by increased secretion of pituitary luteinising hormone, the action of insulin as a co-gonadotrophin, and increased thecal cell hypersensitivity to luteinising hormone. […] Increased activity of ovarian 11-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11-HSD1), which converts inactive cortisone to active cortisol, might also have a role in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. Overexpression of ovarian 11-HSD1 in rats caused polycystic ovarian morphology, oestrous cycle, and reproductive hormone abnormalities.
  • #27 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    High levels of androgens is a primary defect in polycystic ovary syndrome. Cholesterol is converted to androgens by a cascade of enzymes common to all steroid producing organs, with tissue specific variations resulting in different steroid hormone profiles. In polycystic ovary syndrome, increased production of ovarian androgens by the classical pathway is driven by increased secretion of pituitary luteinising hormone, the action of insulin as a co-gonadotrophin, and increased thecal cell hypersensitivity to luteinising hormone. […] Increased activity of ovarian 11-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11-HSD1), which converts inactive cortisone to active cortisol, might also have a role in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. Overexpression of ovarian 11-HSD1 in rats caused polycystic ovarian morphology, oestrous cycle, and reproductive hormone abnormalities.
  • #28 The Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): The Hypothesis of PCOS as Functional Ovarian Hyperandrogenism Revisited
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5045492/
    Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) was hypothesized to result from functional ovarian hyperandrogenism (FOH) due to dysregulation of androgen secretion in 19891995. […] When defined as otherwise unexplained hyperandrogenic oligoanovulation, two-thirds of PCOS cases have functionally typical FOH, characterized by 17-hydroxyprogesterone hyperresponsiveness to gonadotropin stimulation. […] Theca cells from polycystic ovaries of classic PCOS patients in long-term culture have an intrinsic steroidogenic dysregulation that can account for the steroidogenic abnormalities typical of FOH. […] A metabolic syndrome of obesity-related and/or intrinsic insulin resistance occurs in about half of PCOS patients, and the compensatory hyperinsulinism has tissue-selective effects, which include aggravation of hyperandrogenism.
  • #29 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Polycystic ovary syndrome was previously thought to be primarily a disease of excess production of androgens in the ovaries, but the adrenal glands and peripheral tissues are now considered important sources of androgens in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Increased concentrations of dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate, an almost exclusive product of the adrenal cortex, are apparent in 20-30% of patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. This finding seems to be the result of increased secretory activity of the adrenal cortex because no change in pituitary responsiveness to corticotrophin releasing hormone or reduction in the minimal stimulatory dose of adrenocorticotropic hormone required for adrenal hormone production is seen. […] Insulin resistance, and the consequent hyperinsulinism, have an important role in driving androgen synthesis in many endocrine tissues. Insulin acts as a co-gonadotrophin in the ovaries, impairs progesterone mediated inhibition of the gonadotrophin releasing hormone pulse generator, and facilitates synthesis of androgens in the adrenal glands by increasing adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulated steroidogenesis.
  • #30 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10583117/
    Increased activity of ovarian 11-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11-HSD1), which converts inactive cortisone to active cortisol, might also have a role in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. […] Polycystic ovary syndrome was previously thought to be primarily a disease of excess production of androgens in the ovaries, but the adrenal glands and peripheral tissues are now considered important sources of androgens in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. […] Insulin resistance, and the consequent hyperinsulinism, have an important role in driving androgen synthesis in many endocrine tissues. […] Changes in white adipose tissue morphology and function is seen in women with polycystic ovary syndrome, including enlarged adipocytes, reduced lipoprotein lipase activity, and increased secretion of proinflammatory cytokines.
  • #31 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Polycystic ovary syndrome was previously thought to be primarily a disease of excess production of androgens in the ovaries, but the adrenal glands and peripheral tissues are now considered important sources of androgens in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Increased concentrations of dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate, an almost exclusive product of the adrenal cortex, are apparent in 20-30% of patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. This finding seems to be the result of increased secretory activity of the adrenal cortex because no change in pituitary responsiveness to corticotrophin releasing hormone or reduction in the minimal stimulatory dose of adrenocorticotropic hormone required for adrenal hormone production is seen. […] Insulin resistance, and the consequent hyperinsulinism, have an important role in driving androgen synthesis in many endocrine tissues. Insulin acts as a co-gonadotrophin in the ovaries, impairs progesterone mediated inhibition of the gonadotrophin releasing hormone pulse generator, and facilitates synthesis of androgens in the adrenal glands by increasing adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulated steroidogenesis.
  • #32 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Polycystic ovary syndrome was previously thought to be primarily a disease of excess production of androgens in the ovaries, but the adrenal glands and peripheral tissues are now considered important sources of androgens in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Increased concentrations of dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate, an almost exclusive product of the adrenal cortex, are apparent in 20-30% of patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. This finding seems to be the result of increased secretory activity of the adrenal cortex because no change in pituitary responsiveness to corticotrophin releasing hormone or reduction in the minimal stimulatory dose of adrenocorticotropic hormone required for adrenal hormone production is seen. […] Insulin resistance, and the consequent hyperinsulinism, have an important role in driving androgen synthesis in many endocrine tissues. Insulin acts as a co-gonadotrophin in the ovaries, impairs progesterone mediated inhibition of the gonadotrophin releasing hormone pulse generator, and facilitates synthesis of androgens in the adrenal glands by increasing adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulated steroidogenesis.
  • #33 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10583117/
    Polycystic ovary syndrome arises as a result of polygenic susceptibility in combination with environmental influences that might include epigenetic alterations and in utero programming. […] Advances in genetics, metabolomics, and adipocyte biology have improved our understanding of key changes in neuroendocrine, enteroendocrine, and steroidogenic pathways, including increased gonadotrophin releasing hormone pulsatility, androgen excess, insulin resistance, and changes in the gut microbiome. […] Neuroendocrine dysregulation leads to abnormal high frequency pulsatile secretion of gonadotrophin releasing hormone, and hypothalamic kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin A neurons (so-called KNDy neurons) are integral regulators of this process. […] Although increased production of ovarian and adrenal androgens contribute to hyperandrogenism, peripherally generated 11-oxygenated androgens are emerging as important predictors of metabolic risk.
  • #34 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10583117/
    Increased activity of ovarian 11-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11-HSD1), which converts inactive cortisone to active cortisol, might also have a role in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. […] Polycystic ovary syndrome was previously thought to be primarily a disease of excess production of androgens in the ovaries, but the adrenal glands and peripheral tissues are now considered important sources of androgens in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. […] Insulin resistance, and the consequent hyperinsulinism, have an important role in driving androgen synthesis in many endocrine tissues. […] Changes in white adipose tissue morphology and function is seen in women with polycystic ovary syndrome, including enlarged adipocytes, reduced lipoprotein lipase activity, and increased secretion of proinflammatory cytokines.
  • #35 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    High levels of androgens is a primary defect in polycystic ovary syndrome. Cholesterol is converted to androgens by a cascade of enzymes common to all steroid producing organs, with tissue specific variations resulting in different steroid hormone profiles. In polycystic ovary syndrome, increased production of ovarian androgens by the classical pathway is driven by increased secretion of pituitary luteinising hormone, the action of insulin as a co-gonadotrophin, and increased thecal cell hypersensitivity to luteinising hormone. […] Increased activity of ovarian 11-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11-HSD1), which converts inactive cortisone to active cortisol, might also have a role in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. Overexpression of ovarian 11-HSD1 in rats caused polycystic ovarian morphology, oestrous cycle, and reproductive hormone abnormalities.
  • #36 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    High levels of androgens is a primary defect in polycystic ovary syndrome. Cholesterol is converted to androgens by a cascade of enzymes common to all steroid producing organs, with tissue specific variations resulting in different steroid hormone profiles. In polycystic ovary syndrome, increased production of ovarian androgens by the classical pathway is driven by increased secretion of pituitary luteinising hormone, the action of insulin as a co-gonadotrophin, and increased thecal cell hypersensitivity to luteinising hormone. […] Increased activity of ovarian 11-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11-HSD1), which converts inactive cortisone to active cortisol, might also have a role in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. Overexpression of ovarian 11-HSD1 in rats caused polycystic ovarian morphology, oestrous cycle, and reproductive hormone abnormalities.
  • #37 Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/256806-overview
    Hyperinsulinemia is also responsible for dyslipidemia and for elevated levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) in patients with PCOS. Elevated PAI-1 levels are a risk factor for intravascular thrombosis. […] Polycystic ovaries are enlarged bilaterally and have a smooth, thickened capsule that is avascular. On cut sections, subcapsular follicles in various stages of atresia are seen in the peripheral part of the ovary. The most striking ovarian feature of PCOS is hyperplasia of the theca stromal cells surrounding arrested follicles. On microscopic examination, luteinized theca cells are seen. […] Some evidence suggests that patients have a functional abnormality of cytochrome P450c17, the 17-hydroxylase, which is the rate-limiting enzyme in androgen biosynthesis. […] PCOS is a genetically heterogeneous syndrome in which the genetic contributions remain incompletely described. PCOS is an inherently difficult condition to study genetically because of its heterogeneity, difficulty with retrospective diagnosis in postmenopausal women, associated subfertility, incompletely understood etiology, and gene effect size. […] Many published genetics studies in PCOS have been underpowered, and the results of published candidate gene studies have been disappointing.
  • #38 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) – Gynecology and Obstetrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/menstrual-abnormalities/polycystic-ovary-syndrome-pcos
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is a clinical syndrome typically characterized by anovulation or oligo-ovulation, signs of androgen excess (eg, hirsutism, acne), and multiple ovarian cysts in the ovaries. […] This syndrome involves anovulation or ovulatory dysfunction and androgen excess of unclear etiology. However, some evidence suggests that patients have a functional abnormality of cytochrome P450c17 affecting 17-hydroxylase (the rate-limiting enzyme in androgen production); as a result, androgen production increases. Pathogenesis appears to involve environmental and hereditary factors. […] Androgen levels are often elevated, increasing the risk of metabolic syndrome and obesity and causing hirsutism. Hyperinsulinemia due to insulin resistance may be present and may contribute to increased ovarian production of androgens. Over the long term, androgen excess increases the risk of cardiovascular disorders, including hypertension and hyperlipidemia. […] Studies indicate that PCOS is associated with low-grade chronic inflammation and that women with PCOS are at increased risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.
  • #39 The Pathophysiological Mechanism and Clinical Treatment of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Molecular and Cellular Review of the Literature
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/16/9037
    The CYP11A locus plays an important role in steroid synthesis, of which a variation is significantly affiliated to HA. […] Given the significant familial aggregation of PCOS, many candidate genes of PCOS have been investigated by GWAS, including genes related to gonadotropin release and ovarian function (e.g., FSHB, LHCGR, AMH, DENND1A), genes related to metabolism (e.g., THADA, INSR), etc. […] The role of theca cells (TCs) and granulosa cells (GCs) in PCOS could be elaborated from the “two cell, two gonadotropin” theory, which describes the scenario where cholesterol enters the TC through StAR activation. Once LH binds to the TC, the process of steroidogenesis is triggered, eventually producing androgens in the TC as well as estrone and estradiol in the GC. […] Hyperandrogenism (HA), Insulin Resistance (IR), and PCOS are interconnected, with hyperinsulinemia, which is secondary to IR, contributing to LH hypersensitivity.
  • #40 The Pathophysiological Mechanism and Clinical Treatment of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Molecular and Cellular Review of the Literature
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/16/9037
    The CYP11A locus plays an important role in steroid synthesis, of which a variation is significantly affiliated to HA. […] Given the significant familial aggregation of PCOS, many candidate genes of PCOS have been investigated by GWAS, including genes related to gonadotropin release and ovarian function (e.g., FSHB, LHCGR, AMH, DENND1A), genes related to metabolism (e.g., THADA, INSR), etc. […] The role of theca cells (TCs) and granulosa cells (GCs) in PCOS could be elaborated from the “two cell, two gonadotropin” theory, which describes the scenario where cholesterol enters the TC through StAR activation. Once LH binds to the TC, the process of steroidogenesis is triggered, eventually producing androgens in the TC as well as estrone and estradiol in the GC. […] Hyperandrogenism (HA), Insulin Resistance (IR), and PCOS are interconnected, with hyperinsulinemia, which is secondary to IR, contributing to LH hypersensitivity.
  • #41 Physiopathology of polycystic ovary syndrome in endocrinology, metabolism and inflammation | Journal of Ovarian Research | Full Text
    https://ovarianresearch.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13048-025-01621-6
    Additionally, we address metabolic disturbances such as insulin resistance and dyslipidemia and evaluate the role of elevated inflammatory markers in PCOS pathogenesis. […] This review elucidates the interconnections among endocrine, metabolic, and inflammatory processes, illustrating how these mechanisms collectively contribute to the manifestation and complications of PCOS. […] Hyperandrogenism is a defining characteristic of PCOS. […] The etiology of these symptoms is linked to dysregulation of the neuroendocrine system, particularly the HPO axis. […] Recent findings suggest that hyperandrogenism may disrupt the negative feedback of gonadal steroids on LH, leading to increased GnRH release from the hypothalamus and consequently increased LH and androgen levels. […] Elevated androgen levels activate the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response in granulosa cells (GCs), ultimately leading to cellular apoptosis through death receptor 5 (DR5).
  • #42 Physiopathology of polycystic ovary syndrome in endocrinology, metabolism and inflammation | Journal of Ovarian Research | Full Text
    https://ovarianresearch.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13048-025-01621-6
    These findings highlight the apoptotic effects of androgens on granulosa cells in PCOS, demonstrating that elevated androgen levels are a significant factor in reproductive health issues and increase the risk of PCOS development in offspring. […] Insulin resistance emerges as a primary metabolic anomaly. […] Epidemiological studies indicate that 50-70% of PCOS cases are associated with insulin resistance, which is often accompanied by compensatory hyperinsulinaemia. […] In the PCOS patient population, dyslipidemia is a prevalent and critical comorbidity. […] Despite incomplete elucidation of the precise pathophysiological mechanisms underlying PCOS, substantial evidence indicates that a complex interplay between chronic low-grade inflammation and the concurrent expression of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines may play a crucial role in the onset and progression of this disorder. […] The 2023 international evidence-based guidelines in PCOS as well as underscore the potential association between metabolic abnormalities in patients with PCOS and the presence of chronic low-grade inflammation.
  • #43 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Polycystic ovary syndrome was previously thought to be primarily a disease of excess production of androgens in the ovaries, but the adrenal glands and peripheral tissues are now considered important sources of androgens in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Increased concentrations of dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate, an almost exclusive product of the adrenal cortex, are apparent in 20-30% of patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. This finding seems to be the result of increased secretory activity of the adrenal cortex because no change in pituitary responsiveness to corticotrophin releasing hormone or reduction in the minimal stimulatory dose of adrenocorticotropic hormone required for adrenal hormone production is seen. […] Insulin resistance, and the consequent hyperinsulinism, have an important role in driving androgen synthesis in many endocrine tissues. Insulin acts as a co-gonadotrophin in the ovaries, impairs progesterone mediated inhibition of the gonadotrophin releasing hormone pulse generator, and facilitates synthesis of androgens in the adrenal glands by increasing adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulated steroidogenesis.
  • #44
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13668-023-00479-8
    Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common endocrine and metabolic disorder in women of reproductive age worldwide. This disease causes menstrual, metabolic, and biochemical abnormalities such as hyperandrogenism, oligo-anovulatory menstrual cycles, polycystic ovary, hyperleptinemia, insulin resistance (IR), and cardiometabolic disorders, often associated with overweight or obesity and visceral adiposity. […] The etiology and pathophysiology of PCOS are not yet fully understood, but insulin seems to play a key role in this disease. […] Studies suggest a multifactorial etiology involving many different factors such as insulin resistance (IR), hyperandrogenism (HA), and environmental, genetic, and epigenetic factors. Moreover, low-grade chronic inflammation seems to be both cause and effect of the syndrome.
  • #45 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Polycystic ovary syndrome was previously thought to be primarily a disease of excess production of androgens in the ovaries, but the adrenal glands and peripheral tissues are now considered important sources of androgens in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Increased concentrations of dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate, an almost exclusive product of the adrenal cortex, are apparent in 20-30% of patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. This finding seems to be the result of increased secretory activity of the adrenal cortex because no change in pituitary responsiveness to corticotrophin releasing hormone or reduction in the minimal stimulatory dose of adrenocorticotropic hormone required for adrenal hormone production is seen. […] Insulin resistance, and the consequent hyperinsulinism, have an important role in driving androgen synthesis in many endocrine tissues. Insulin acts as a co-gonadotrophin in the ovaries, impairs progesterone mediated inhibition of the gonadotrophin releasing hormone pulse generator, and facilitates synthesis of androgens in the adrenal glands by increasing adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulated steroidogenesis.
  • #46 The Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): The Hypothesis of PCOS as Functional Ovarian Hyperandrogenism Revisited
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5045492/
    Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) was hypothesized to result from functional ovarian hyperandrogenism (FOH) due to dysregulation of androgen secretion in 19891995. […] When defined as otherwise unexplained hyperandrogenic oligoanovulation, two-thirds of PCOS cases have functionally typical FOH, characterized by 17-hydroxyprogesterone hyperresponsiveness to gonadotropin stimulation. […] Theca cells from polycystic ovaries of classic PCOS patients in long-term culture have an intrinsic steroidogenic dysregulation that can account for the steroidogenic abnormalities typical of FOH. […] A metabolic syndrome of obesity-related and/or intrinsic insulin resistance occurs in about half of PCOS patients, and the compensatory hyperinsulinism has tissue-selective effects, which include aggravation of hyperandrogenism.
  • #47 The Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): The Hypothesis of PCOS as Functional Ovarian Hyperandrogenism Revisited
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5045492/
    PCOS seems to arise as a complex trait that results from the interaction of diverse genetic and environmental factors. […] The variety of pathways involved and lack of a common thread attests to the multifactorial nature and heterogeneity of the syndrome. […] The common denominator in PCOS appears to be FOH. FOH typically has a steroidogenic abnormality suggestive of the constitutive biochemical dysfunction that is characteristic of classic PCOS theca cells. […] In about half of cases, tissue-specific resistance to the metabolic effects of insulin causes compensatory hyperinsulinemia. […] The insulin resistance of PCOS is independent of obesity and thus to some extent constitutive. […] The major role of obesity in PCOS pathogenesis seems to be related to an increase in insulin resistance, thereby aggravating FOH.
  • #48
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13668-023-00479-8
    IR is characterized by increased insulin circulating levels both basally and after glycemic load; it consists of an inability of insulin to mediate the actions related to the production and uptake of glucose and/or lipolysis with a consequent request of a greater amount of insulin to obtain a certain metabolic action. […] This condition plays a key role in the development of PCOS and can induce several metabolic and reproductive abnormalities in women with this syndrome. […] Furthermore, IR and associated hyperinsulinemia are related to abnormal ovarian steroidogenesis and can concur to the pathogenesis of anovulation and hyperandrogenism.
  • #49
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13668-023-00479-8
    IR is characterized by increased insulin circulating levels both basally and after glycemic load; it consists of an inability of insulin to mediate the actions related to the production and uptake of glucose and/or lipolysis with a consequent request of a greater amount of insulin to obtain a certain metabolic action. […] This condition plays a key role in the development of PCOS and can induce several metabolic and reproductive abnormalities in women with this syndrome. […] Furthermore, IR and associated hyperinsulinemia are related to abnormal ovarian steroidogenesis and can concur to the pathogenesis of anovulation and hyperandrogenism.
  • #50
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13668-023-00479-8
    IR is characterized by increased insulin circulating levels both basally and after glycemic load; it consists of an inability of insulin to mediate the actions related to the production and uptake of glucose and/or lipolysis with a consequent request of a greater amount of insulin to obtain a certain metabolic action. […] This condition plays a key role in the development of PCOS and can induce several metabolic and reproductive abnormalities in women with this syndrome. […] Furthermore, IR and associated hyperinsulinemia are related to abnormal ovarian steroidogenesis and can concur to the pathogenesis of anovulation and hyperandrogenism.
  • #51 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/Polycystic-Ovary-Syndrome-Pathogenesis.aspx
    There is a strong correlation between PCOS and resistance to insulin the body. […] Specifically, the excess insulin may cause the ovaries to produce more testosterone and alter the development of follicles needed for ovulation to take place. […] The effect of insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of PCOS is amplified when a woman is overweight or obese. […] Another hormone called adiponectin that is involved in the control of lipid and glucose levels in the blood might also play a role in the pathogenesis of the condition. […] Research investigating a genetic link to the pathogenesis of PCOS has suggested an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance in families with a history of the condition. […] Some studies have investigated the role of regulatory genes of the CYP17, CYP19, FST, and INSR enzymes in association with PCOS.
  • #52 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/Polycystic-Ovary-Syndrome-Pathogenesis.aspx
    There is a strong correlation between PCOS and resistance to insulin the body. […] Specifically, the excess insulin may cause the ovaries to produce more testosterone and alter the development of follicles needed for ovulation to take place. […] The effect of insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of PCOS is amplified when a woman is overweight or obese. […] Another hormone called adiponectin that is involved in the control of lipid and glucose levels in the blood might also play a role in the pathogenesis of the condition. […] Research investigating a genetic link to the pathogenesis of PCOS has suggested an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance in families with a history of the condition. […] Some studies have investigated the role of regulatory genes of the CYP17, CYP19, FST, and INSR enzymes in association with PCOS.
  • #53 The Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): The Hypothesis of PCOS as Functional Ovarian Hyperandrogenism Revisited
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5045492/
    PCOS seems to arise as a complex trait that results from the interaction of diverse genetic and environmental factors. […] The variety of pathways involved and lack of a common thread attests to the multifactorial nature and heterogeneity of the syndrome. […] The common denominator in PCOS appears to be FOH. FOH typically has a steroidogenic abnormality suggestive of the constitutive biochemical dysfunction that is characteristic of classic PCOS theca cells. […] In about half of cases, tissue-specific resistance to the metabolic effects of insulin causes compensatory hyperinsulinemia. […] The insulin resistance of PCOS is independent of obesity and thus to some extent constitutive. […] The major role of obesity in PCOS pathogenesis seems to be related to an increase in insulin resistance, thereby aggravating FOH.
  • #54
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13668-023-00479-8
    PCOS is a multifactorial syndrome in which genetic and environmental factors contribute to uncontrolled ovarian steroidogenesis, aberrant insulin signaling, and excessive oxidative stress. An intrinsic defect in theca cells could partially explain hyperandrogenemia in PCOS patients; women with PCOS, indeed, present theca cells which, despite the absence of trophic factors, can secrete high levels of androgens due to the intrinsic activation of steroidogenesis. […] Furthermore, PCOS syndrome has been associated to an increase in glycol-oxidative stress secondary to mitochondrial dysfunction, able to induce IR and hyperandrogenism in patients with PCOS. […] Insulin can regulate glucose homeostasis by suppressing hepatic glucose production or stimulating glucose uptake by insulin-responsive target tissues such as adipocytes and cardiac and skeletal muscle.
  • #55 Pathophysiology of Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/79950
    The cumulative effect of modified protein, which are the product of mutated genes, along with various other factors like genetic inheritance and environment leads to complications in the case of PCOS. […] High level of insulin induces the ovaries to produce more androgens such as testosterone which will prevent ovulation. […] Insulin influences the function of LH on to the ovary which increases the production of androgens. […] The insulin-dependent glucose level decreases by 3540% in the case of PCOS affected women when compared to normal women. […] Insulin resistance in some PCOS phenotypes is affected by VNTR polymorphism. […] The genetic tendency for PCOS: There are many genes, which are responsible to cause PCOS. […] The critical genetic variations in PCOS across different ethnicities and their associated effects such as hyperandrogenism in women, insulin resistance, miscarriage, recurrent pregnancy loss, endometrial receptivity.
  • #56 Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/256806-overview
    Hyperinsulinemia is also responsible for dyslipidemia and for elevated levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) in patients with PCOS. Elevated PAI-1 levels are a risk factor for intravascular thrombosis. […] Polycystic ovaries are enlarged bilaterally and have a smooth, thickened capsule that is avascular. On cut sections, subcapsular follicles in various stages of atresia are seen in the peripheral part of the ovary. The most striking ovarian feature of PCOS is hyperplasia of the theca stromal cells surrounding arrested follicles. On microscopic examination, luteinized theca cells are seen. […] Some evidence suggests that patients have a functional abnormality of cytochrome P450c17, the 17-hydroxylase, which is the rate-limiting enzyme in androgen biosynthesis. […] PCOS is a genetically heterogeneous syndrome in which the genetic contributions remain incompletely described. PCOS is an inherently difficult condition to study genetically because of its heterogeneity, difficulty with retrospective diagnosis in postmenopausal women, associated subfertility, incompletely understood etiology, and gene effect size. […] Many published genetics studies in PCOS have been underpowered, and the results of published candidate gene studies have been disappointing.
  • #57 Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/256806-overview
    Hyperinsulinemia is also responsible for dyslipidemia and for elevated levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) in patients with PCOS. Elevated PAI-1 levels are a risk factor for intravascular thrombosis. […] Polycystic ovaries are enlarged bilaterally and have a smooth, thickened capsule that is avascular. On cut sections, subcapsular follicles in various stages of atresia are seen in the peripheral part of the ovary. The most striking ovarian feature of PCOS is hyperplasia of the theca stromal cells surrounding arrested follicles. On microscopic examination, luteinized theca cells are seen. […] Some evidence suggests that patients have a functional abnormality of cytochrome P450c17, the 17-hydroxylase, which is the rate-limiting enzyme in androgen biosynthesis. […] PCOS is a genetically heterogeneous syndrome in which the genetic contributions remain incompletely described. PCOS is an inherently difficult condition to study genetically because of its heterogeneity, difficulty with retrospective diagnosis in postmenopausal women, associated subfertility, incompletely understood etiology, and gene effect size. […] Many published genetics studies in PCOS have been underpowered, and the results of published candidate gene studies have been disappointing.
  • #58 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Comprehensive Review of Pathogenesis, Management, and Drug Repurposing
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/2/583
    The insulin’s influence on adipose tissue and inflammation is another essential PCOS pathogenesis topic. Insulin stimulates adipogenesis and lipogenesis and inhibits lipolysis, resulting in fat accumulation. […] Hyperandrogenism (HA) reduces the SHBG level, leading to a higher concentration of free testosterone. […] HA contributes to other influential factors of PCOS, including IR, inflammation, and oxidative stress. […] Inflammation is a cause of HA. […] Oxidative stress (OS) is an imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants. Increased OS has been seen in PCOS patients in different studies. […] Obesity is a key in low-grade chronic inflammation. Accumulation of adipocytes in visceral fat leads to hypoxia and consequent necrosis, which causes inflammatory cytokines production.
  • #59 Pathogenesis, Clinical Characteristics, Quality Of Life And Management Approach Among Women With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
    https://www.jrmds.in/articles/pathogenesis-clinical-characteristics-quality-of-life-and-management-approach-among-women-with-polycystic-ovary-syndrome-pcos-97431.html
    In PCOS, IR affects skeletal muscles, adipose tissue and liver, whereas, due to hyperinsulinism, direct stimulation of steroidogenic ovaries and adrenal glands causes androgen secretion and reduced synthesis of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) in liver, leading to elevated levels of free, biologically active androgens. This excess of ovarian androgen production causes dysregulation resulting in premature follicular atresia and anovulation. […] Women during their daily chores, unknowingly, get exposed to certain chemicals known as endocrine disruptors (EDs), most commonly bisphenol-A (BPA) have anti-estrogenic, anti-androgenic properties that interfere with feedback regulation, DNA methylation, and neuroendocrine cells alternation. […] These EDs in result contribute as a causative factor either to unveil PCOS characteristics in genetically susceptible females or interrupt hormone homeostasis and deteriorate fertility status of women with PCOS.
  • #60 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Changes in white adipose tissue morphology and function is seen in women with polycystic ovary syndrome, including enlarged adipocytes, reduced lipoprotein lipase activity, and increased secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. […] Recent studies have implicated changes in the gut microbiome in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. Women with polycystic ovary syndrome have higher intestinal levels of Bacteroides vulgatus and lower levels of glycodeoxycholic acid and tauroursodeoxycholic acid. […] Genome-wide association studies have identified numerous susceptibility loci for polycystic ovary syndrome, including robust candidate susceptibility loci near genes belonging to metabolic and neuroendocrine pathways. […] Emerging evidence indicates that polycystic ovary syndrome might have its origins in utero, and thus could be subject to developmental programming and epigenetic modifications. Prenatal exposure to androgens in several preclinical models caused a permanent polycystic ovary syndrome-like phenotype postnatally.
  • #61 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10583117/
    Increased activity of ovarian 11-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11-HSD1), which converts inactive cortisone to active cortisol, might also have a role in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. […] Polycystic ovary syndrome was previously thought to be primarily a disease of excess production of androgens in the ovaries, but the adrenal glands and peripheral tissues are now considered important sources of androgens in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. […] Insulin resistance, and the consequent hyperinsulinism, have an important role in driving androgen synthesis in many endocrine tissues. […] Changes in white adipose tissue morphology and function is seen in women with polycystic ovary syndrome, including enlarged adipocytes, reduced lipoprotein lipase activity, and increased secretion of proinflammatory cytokines.
  • #62 Polycystic ovary syndrome: etiology, pathogenesis and diagnosis | Nature Reviews Endocrinology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrendo.2010.217
    Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common endocrinopathy in women of reproductive age, with a prevalence of up to 10%. […] Insulin resistance is present in a majority of cases, with compensatory hyperinsulinemia contributing to hyperandrogenism via stimulation of ovarian androgen secretion and inhibition of hepatic sex hormone-binding globulin production. […] Adipose tissue dysfunction has been implicated as a contributor to the insulin resistance observed in PCOS. […] Abnormal folliculogenesis and gonadotropin production, particularly luteinizing hormone hypersecretion, also contribute to the development of PCOS; these abnormalities may arise from environmental insults as well as genetic predisposition.
  • #63
    https://journals.lww.com/ijmr/fulltext/2019/50040/epidemiology,_pathogenesis,_genetics___management.5.aspx
    Obesity, especially abdominal fat deposition, is the major predisposing factor for the expression of IR and metabolic phenotype in PCOS. […] Many other biochemical and hormonal aspects apart from the widely known pathophysiological mechanisms underlying PCOS have been studied by Indian researchers. […] The role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of various reproductive diseases and conditions including infertility, recurrent abortions and pre-eclampsia has been postulated, and PCOS is no exception. […] PCOS has long been suspected to have a component of autoimmune origin. […] The various metabolic, inflammatory and autoimmune components including the obesity-related cytokines and oxidative stress markers evaluated in relation to the pathogenesis of PCOS highlight the multifaceted nature of this disorder and the need for further research to better delineate the contribution of each of these markers and mediators in the final expression of the syndrome of PCOS.
  • #64 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/Polycystic-Ovary-Syndrome-Pathogenesis.aspx
    There is a strong correlation between PCOS and resistance to insulin the body. […] Specifically, the excess insulin may cause the ovaries to produce more testosterone and alter the development of follicles needed for ovulation to take place. […] The effect of insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of PCOS is amplified when a woman is overweight or obese. […] Another hormone called adiponectin that is involved in the control of lipid and glucose levels in the blood might also play a role in the pathogenesis of the condition. […] Research investigating a genetic link to the pathogenesis of PCOS has suggested an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance in families with a history of the condition. […] Some studies have investigated the role of regulatory genes of the CYP17, CYP19, FST, and INSR enzymes in association with PCOS.
  • #65 Understanding the Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndromelogo-32logo-40logo-60NEJM Journal WatchnejmJW_1L_RGB-b
    https://www.jwatch.org/na40708/2016/03/10/understanding-pathogenesis-polycystic-ovary-syndrome
    Understanding the Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome […] Low levels of adiponectin might cause many of the abnormalities in this syndrome. […] About 10% to 20% of all adult women have polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). This syndrome is characterized by a variety of abnormalities: multiple ovarian cysts, anovulation, infertility, and hyperandrogenism, plus abnormal ratios of luteinizing hormone (LH) to follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and excess risk for developing insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, obesity, dyslipidemia, and atherosclerosis. […] These researchers might have identified deficient levels of circulating adiponectin as a pathogenetic factor in PCOS. This finding raises the possibility that treatment with adiponectin, or with agonists of the adiponectin receptors, might be successful in patients with PCOS.
  • #66 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Comprehensive Review of Pathogenesis, Management, and Drug Repurposing
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/2/583
    The insulin’s influence on adipose tissue and inflammation is another essential PCOS pathogenesis topic. Insulin stimulates adipogenesis and lipogenesis and inhibits lipolysis, resulting in fat accumulation. […] Hyperandrogenism (HA) reduces the SHBG level, leading to a higher concentration of free testosterone. […] HA contributes to other influential factors of PCOS, including IR, inflammation, and oxidative stress. […] Inflammation is a cause of HA. […] Oxidative stress (OS) is an imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants. Increased OS has been seen in PCOS patients in different studies. […] Obesity is a key in low-grade chronic inflammation. Accumulation of adipocytes in visceral fat leads to hypoxia and consequent necrosis, which causes inflammatory cytokines production.
  • #67 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Comprehensive Review of Pathogenesis, Management, and Drug Repurposing
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/2/583
    The insulin’s influence on adipose tissue and inflammation is another essential PCOS pathogenesis topic. Insulin stimulates adipogenesis and lipogenesis and inhibits lipolysis, resulting in fat accumulation. […] Hyperandrogenism (HA) reduces the SHBG level, leading to a higher concentration of free testosterone. […] HA contributes to other influential factors of PCOS, including IR, inflammation, and oxidative stress. […] Inflammation is a cause of HA. […] Oxidative stress (OS) is an imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants. Increased OS has been seen in PCOS patients in different studies. […] Obesity is a key in low-grade chronic inflammation. Accumulation of adipocytes in visceral fat leads to hypoxia and consequent necrosis, which causes inflammatory cytokines production.
  • #68 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Comprehensive Review of Pathogenesis, Management, and Drug Repurposing
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/2/583
    The insulin’s influence on adipose tissue and inflammation is another essential PCOS pathogenesis topic. Insulin stimulates adipogenesis and lipogenesis and inhibits lipolysis, resulting in fat accumulation. […] Hyperandrogenism (HA) reduces the SHBG level, leading to a higher concentration of free testosterone. […] HA contributes to other influential factors of PCOS, including IR, inflammation, and oxidative stress. […] Inflammation is a cause of HA. […] Oxidative stress (OS) is an imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants. Increased OS has been seen in PCOS patients in different studies. […] Obesity is a key in low-grade chronic inflammation. Accumulation of adipocytes in visceral fat leads to hypoxia and consequent necrosis, which causes inflammatory cytokines production.
  • #69 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/51/5/10.31083/j.ceog5105126/htm
    Excessive release of GnRH leads to elevated levels of LH, which subsequently increases androgen levels. […] Elevated LH levels inhibit the function of FSH, which disrupts follicular development and ultimately leads to polycystic ovarian changes. […] Excessive adrenal androgens, especially the increased secretion observed during puberty, may have a significant impact on the development of PCOS. […] IR is a metabolic condition characterized by decreased cellular glucose utilization despite normal insulin levels, leading to compensatory hyperinsulinemia. […] Studies have shown that inflammation processes play a role in ovulation and the dynamics of ovarian follicles. […] Recent research in PCOS has revealed the involvement of ncRNAs in the pathogenesis and progression of the disease.
  • #70 PCOS (Polycystic Ovary Syndrome): Symptoms & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/8316-polycystic-ovary-syndrome-pcos
    Insulin resistance: An increase in insulin levels causes your ovaries to make and release male hormones (androgens). Increased male hormones suppress ovulation and contribute to other symptoms of PCOS. […] Low-grade inflammation: People with PCOS tend to have chronic low-grade inflammation. Your healthcare provider can perform blood tests that measure levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) and white blood cells, which can indicate the level of inflammation in your body.
  • #71 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Comprehensive Review of Pathogenesis, Management, and Drug Repurposing
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/2/583
    The insulin’s influence on adipose tissue and inflammation is another essential PCOS pathogenesis topic. Insulin stimulates adipogenesis and lipogenesis and inhibits lipolysis, resulting in fat accumulation. […] Hyperandrogenism (HA) reduces the SHBG level, leading to a higher concentration of free testosterone. […] HA contributes to other influential factors of PCOS, including IR, inflammation, and oxidative stress. […] Inflammation is a cause of HA. […] Oxidative stress (OS) is an imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants. Increased OS has been seen in PCOS patients in different studies. […] Obesity is a key in low-grade chronic inflammation. Accumulation of adipocytes in visceral fat leads to hypoxia and consequent necrosis, which causes inflammatory cytokines production.
  • #72 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Comprehensive Review of Pathogenesis, Management, and Drug Repurposing
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/2/583
    The insulin’s influence on adipose tissue and inflammation is another essential PCOS pathogenesis topic. Insulin stimulates adipogenesis and lipogenesis and inhibits lipolysis, resulting in fat accumulation. […] Hyperandrogenism (HA) reduces the SHBG level, leading to a higher concentration of free testosterone. […] HA contributes to other influential factors of PCOS, including IR, inflammation, and oxidative stress. […] Inflammation is a cause of HA. […] Oxidative stress (OS) is an imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants. Increased OS has been seen in PCOS patients in different studies. […] Obesity is a key in low-grade chronic inflammation. Accumulation of adipocytes in visceral fat leads to hypoxia and consequent necrosis, which causes inflammatory cytokines production.
  • #73 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Comprehensive Review of Pathogenesis, Management, and Drug Repurposing
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/23/2/583
    The insulin’s influence on adipose tissue and inflammation is another essential PCOS pathogenesis topic. Insulin stimulates adipogenesis and lipogenesis and inhibits lipolysis, resulting in fat accumulation. […] Hyperandrogenism (HA) reduces the SHBG level, leading to a higher concentration of free testosterone. […] HA contributes to other influential factors of PCOS, including IR, inflammation, and oxidative stress. […] Inflammation is a cause of HA. […] Oxidative stress (OS) is an imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants. Increased OS has been seen in PCOS patients in different studies. […] Obesity is a key in low-grade chronic inflammation. Accumulation of adipocytes in visceral fat leads to hypoxia and consequent necrosis, which causes inflammatory cytokines production.
  • #74 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/51/5/10.31083/j.ceog5105126/htm
    Oxidative stress occurs as a result of an imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants. […] Recent research underscores the significant role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of PCOS, as it is closely associated with elevated androgen levels, IR, disrupted ovulation, and mitochondrial damage in PCOS patients.
  • #75
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13668-023-00479-8
    PCOS is a multifactorial syndrome in which genetic and environmental factors contribute to uncontrolled ovarian steroidogenesis, aberrant insulin signaling, and excessive oxidative stress. An intrinsic defect in theca cells could partially explain hyperandrogenemia in PCOS patients; women with PCOS, indeed, present theca cells which, despite the absence of trophic factors, can secrete high levels of androgens due to the intrinsic activation of steroidogenesis. […] Furthermore, PCOS syndrome has been associated to an increase in glycol-oxidative stress secondary to mitochondrial dysfunction, able to induce IR and hyperandrogenism in patients with PCOS. […] Insulin can regulate glucose homeostasis by suppressing hepatic glucose production or stimulating glucose uptake by insulin-responsive target tissues such as adipocytes and cardiac and skeletal muscle.
  • #76 Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/256806-overview
    Hyperinsulinemia is also responsible for dyslipidemia and for elevated levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) in patients with PCOS. Elevated PAI-1 levels are a risk factor for intravascular thrombosis. […] Polycystic ovaries are enlarged bilaterally and have a smooth, thickened capsule that is avascular. On cut sections, subcapsular follicles in various stages of atresia are seen in the peripheral part of the ovary. The most striking ovarian feature of PCOS is hyperplasia of the theca stromal cells surrounding arrested follicles. On microscopic examination, luteinized theca cells are seen. […] Some evidence suggests that patients have a functional abnormality of cytochrome P450c17, the 17-hydroxylase, which is the rate-limiting enzyme in androgen biosynthesis. […] PCOS is a genetically heterogeneous syndrome in which the genetic contributions remain incompletely described. PCOS is an inherently difficult condition to study genetically because of its heterogeneity, difficulty with retrospective diagnosis in postmenopausal women, associated subfertility, incompletely understood etiology, and gene effect size. […] Many published genetics studies in PCOS have been underpowered, and the results of published candidate gene studies have been disappointing.
  • #77 The Pathophysiological Mechanism and Clinical Treatment of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Molecular and Cellular Review of the Literature
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/16/9037
    PCOS is a complex disorder of which various theories regarding its etiology and pathophysiology have been proposed. Given its shared traits with some metabolic disorders such as obesity and diabetes mellitus, a similar disease mechanism seems to be plausible. In fact, insulin resistance (IR) is one of the key elements to the genotypes and phenotypes of PCOS. IR results in hyperinsulinemia and HA, leading to a series of cellular reactions that reflect on the physical traits of PCOS. […] The pathogenesis of PCOS could be viewed as a complicated and multifactorial interplay between genetic and environmental factors. […] The high familial aggregation of PCOS strongly implicates a genetic impact on this particular metabolic condition. […] The likelihood of the inheritance of PCOS was first proposed in 1968. Since then, there has been rising evidence regarding the familial linkage and genetic basis of PCOS, with some suggesting it as an autosomal dominant or X-linked disorder.
  • #78 The Pathophysiological Mechanism and Clinical Treatment of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Molecular and Cellular Review of the Literature
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/16/9037
    PCOS is a complex disorder of which various theories regarding its etiology and pathophysiology have been proposed. Given its shared traits with some metabolic disorders such as obesity and diabetes mellitus, a similar disease mechanism seems to be plausible. In fact, insulin resistance (IR) is one of the key elements to the genotypes and phenotypes of PCOS. IR results in hyperinsulinemia and HA, leading to a series of cellular reactions that reflect on the physical traits of PCOS. […] The pathogenesis of PCOS could be viewed as a complicated and multifactorial interplay between genetic and environmental factors. […] The high familial aggregation of PCOS strongly implicates a genetic impact on this particular metabolic condition. […] The likelihood of the inheritance of PCOS was first proposed in 1968. Since then, there has been rising evidence regarding the familial linkage and genetic basis of PCOS, with some suggesting it as an autosomal dominant or X-linked disorder.
  • #79 The Pathophysiological Mechanism and Clinical Treatment of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Molecular and Cellular Review of the Literature
    https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/16/9037
    The CYP11A locus plays an important role in steroid synthesis, of which a variation is significantly affiliated to HA. […] Given the significant familial aggregation of PCOS, many candidate genes of PCOS have been investigated by GWAS, including genes related to gonadotropin release and ovarian function (e.g., FSHB, LHCGR, AMH, DENND1A), genes related to metabolism (e.g., THADA, INSR), etc. […] The role of theca cells (TCs) and granulosa cells (GCs) in PCOS could be elaborated from the “two cell, two gonadotropin” theory, which describes the scenario where cholesterol enters the TC through StAR activation. Once LH binds to the TC, the process of steroidogenesis is triggered, eventually producing androgens in the TC as well as estrone and estradiol in the GC. […] Hyperandrogenism (HA), Insulin Resistance (IR), and PCOS are interconnected, with hyperinsulinemia, which is secondary to IR, contributing to LH hypersensitivity.
  • #80 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10583117/
    Recent studies have implicated changes in the gut microbiome in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. […] Genetic loci identified by genome-wide association studies currently account for only 10% of the known heritability (about 70%) of polycystic ovary syndrome, suggesting other influences on the pathogenesis of the disease. […] Key pathological changes include neuroendocrine dysregulation, excess production of androgens, insulin resistance, and changes in adipose tissue biology, with variation in dysfunction of these pathways contributing to differences in phenotypic expression and severity of the disease.
  • #81 Understanding polycystic ovary syndrome in light of associated key genes | Egyptian Journal of Medical Human Genetics | Full Text
    https://jmhg.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43042-023-00418-w
    Several polymorphisms have been identified as contributing to PCOS including steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) polymorphs, follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) polymorphs, FTO alpha-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase (FTO) polymorphs, vitamin D receptor (VDR) polymorphs, insulin resistance (IR) and insulin receptor substrate (IRS) polymorphs and gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor (Gn-RHR) polymorphs. […] An ovary becomes dysfunctional due to a gene defect that disrupts the biochemical pathway. […] With the increase in insulin secretion, ovarian theca cells respond by elevating the androgen level (androstenedione) that leads to anovulation. […] An imbalanced secretion pattern of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in PCOS contributes in the relative increase in LH-to-FSH ratio.
  • #82 Pathophysiology of Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/79950
    The cumulative effect of modified protein, which are the product of mutated genes, along with various other factors like genetic inheritance and environment leads to complications in the case of PCOS. […] High level of insulin induces the ovaries to produce more androgens such as testosterone which will prevent ovulation. […] Insulin influences the function of LH on to the ovary which increases the production of androgens. […] The insulin-dependent glucose level decreases by 3540% in the case of PCOS affected women when compared to normal women. […] Insulin resistance in some PCOS phenotypes is affected by VNTR polymorphism. […] The genetic tendency for PCOS: There are many genes, which are responsible to cause PCOS. […] The critical genetic variations in PCOS across different ethnicities and their associated effects such as hyperandrogenism in women, insulin resistance, miscarriage, recurrent pregnancy loss, endometrial receptivity.
  • #83 Relationship between the characteristic traits of polycystic ovary syndrome and susceptibility genes | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-66633-2
    Our results showed that rs11031006, near FSHB, was associated with multiple PCOS phenotypes, including free testosterone and LH levels. […] Collectively, FSHB variants are closely associated with hyperandrogenaemia and higher LH levels in women with PCOS. […] Therefore, hyperandrogenism, insulin resistance, and the FSH/LH axis are closely related to each other, exacerbating PCOS pathogenesis and related clinical features. […] In conclusion, we identified that the FSHB gene was associated with free testosterone and LH levels in Korean PCOS women but not in control women. This relationship suggests that FSHB may play an important role in PCOS development by altering free testosterone and LH levels.
  • #84 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Changes in white adipose tissue morphology and function is seen in women with polycystic ovary syndrome, including enlarged adipocytes, reduced lipoprotein lipase activity, and increased secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. […] Recent studies have implicated changes in the gut microbiome in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. Women with polycystic ovary syndrome have higher intestinal levels of Bacteroides vulgatus and lower levels of glycodeoxycholic acid and tauroursodeoxycholic acid. […] Genome-wide association studies have identified numerous susceptibility loci for polycystic ovary syndrome, including robust candidate susceptibility loci near genes belonging to metabolic and neuroendocrine pathways. […] Emerging evidence indicates that polycystic ovary syndrome might have its origins in utero, and thus could be subject to developmental programming and epigenetic modifications. Prenatal exposure to androgens in several preclinical models caused a permanent polycystic ovary syndrome-like phenotype postnatally.
  • #85 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Changes in white adipose tissue morphology and function is seen in women with polycystic ovary syndrome, including enlarged adipocytes, reduced lipoprotein lipase activity, and increased secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. […] Recent studies have implicated changes in the gut microbiome in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. Women with polycystic ovary syndrome have higher intestinal levels of Bacteroides vulgatus and lower levels of glycodeoxycholic acid and tauroursodeoxycholic acid. […] Genome-wide association studies have identified numerous susceptibility loci for polycystic ovary syndrome, including robust candidate susceptibility loci near genes belonging to metabolic and neuroendocrine pathways. […] Emerging evidence indicates that polycystic ovary syndrome might have its origins in utero, and thus could be subject to developmental programming and epigenetic modifications. Prenatal exposure to androgens in several preclinical models caused a permanent polycystic ovary syndrome-like phenotype postnatally.
  • #86 Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/19434
    The realization that PCOS is a quantitative trait (phenotype determined by multiple genes and environmental factors) has far-reaching implications for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of symptoms and pathology associated with PCOS. […] The developmental programming of PCOS represents changes in gene expression that occur during critical periods of fetal development. […] The developmental origins of PCOS may have been due to different factors in ancestral and modern populations. […] The dysbiosis of gut microbiota theory of PCOS, proposed by Tremellen in 2012, accounts for the development of all of the components of PCOS (multiple ovarian follicles, anovulation or menstrual irregularity and hyperandrogenism). […] The accumulating scientific evidence strongly supports the significant role played by the microbiome in the pathogenesis and maintenance of PCOS, consistent with research in other related metabolic conditions.
  • #87 Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/19434
    The realization that PCOS is a quantitative trait (phenotype determined by multiple genes and environmental factors) has far-reaching implications for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of symptoms and pathology associated with PCOS. […] The developmental programming of PCOS represents changes in gene expression that occur during critical periods of fetal development. […] The developmental origins of PCOS may have been due to different factors in ancestral and modern populations. […] The dysbiosis of gut microbiota theory of PCOS, proposed by Tremellen in 2012, accounts for the development of all of the components of PCOS (multiple ovarian follicles, anovulation or menstrual irregularity and hyperandrogenism). […] The accumulating scientific evidence strongly supports the significant role played by the microbiome in the pathogenesis and maintenance of PCOS, consistent with research in other related metabolic conditions.
  • #88 Epigenetic Mechanism Underlying the Development of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)-Like Phenotypes in Prenatally Androgenized Rhesus Monkeys | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0027286
    The pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is poorly understood. […] We hypothesize that perturbation of the epigenome, through altered DNA methylation, is one of the mechanisms whereby PA reprograms monkeys to develop PCOS. […] The underlying mechanism of fetal origins of PCOS, however, has not been elucidated. Environmental insults during gestation, often related to sex steroids or endocrine disruptors, may predispose to adult disease via epigenetic alterations. […] Given the crucial effects of epigenetic mechanisms in fetal origins of other metabolic diseases, we and others hypothesize that perturbation of the epigenome, through altered DNA methylation during gestation, is a mechanism whereby PA reprograms monkeys to develop PCOS. […] This pilot study suggests that alteration of the epigenome is a mechanism whereby gestational androgen excess, or its consequences, may reprogram fetal female monkeys to develop PCOS-like traits in adulthood.
  • #89 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Changes in white adipose tissue morphology and function is seen in women with polycystic ovary syndrome, including enlarged adipocytes, reduced lipoprotein lipase activity, and increased secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. […] Recent studies have implicated changes in the gut microbiome in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. Women with polycystic ovary syndrome have higher intestinal levels of Bacteroides vulgatus and lower levels of glycodeoxycholic acid and tauroursodeoxycholic acid. […] Genome-wide association studies have identified numerous susceptibility loci for polycystic ovary syndrome, including robust candidate susceptibility loci near genes belonging to metabolic and neuroendocrine pathways. […] Emerging evidence indicates that polycystic ovary syndrome might have its origins in utero, and thus could be subject to developmental programming and epigenetic modifications. Prenatal exposure to androgens in several preclinical models caused a permanent polycystic ovary syndrome-like phenotype postnatally.
  • #90 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10583117/
    Recent studies have implicated changes in the gut microbiome in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. […] Genetic loci identified by genome-wide association studies currently account for only 10% of the known heritability (about 70%) of polycystic ovary syndrome, suggesting other influences on the pathogenesis of the disease. […] Key pathological changes include neuroendocrine dysregulation, excess production of androgens, insulin resistance, and changes in adipose tissue biology, with variation in dysfunction of these pathways contributing to differences in phenotypic expression and severity of the disease.
  • #91 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities | BMJ Medicine
    https://bmjmedicine.bmj.com/content/2/1/e000548
    Changes in white adipose tissue morphology and function is seen in women with polycystic ovary syndrome, including enlarged adipocytes, reduced lipoprotein lipase activity, and increased secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. […] Recent studies have implicated changes in the gut microbiome in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. Women with polycystic ovary syndrome have higher intestinal levels of Bacteroides vulgatus and lower levels of glycodeoxycholic acid and tauroursodeoxycholic acid. […] Genome-wide association studies have identified numerous susceptibility loci for polycystic ovary syndrome, including robust candidate susceptibility loci near genes belonging to metabolic and neuroendocrine pathways. […] Emerging evidence indicates that polycystic ovary syndrome might have its origins in utero, and thus could be subject to developmental programming and epigenetic modifications. Prenatal exposure to androgens in several preclinical models caused a permanent polycystic ovary syndrome-like phenotype postnatally.
  • #92 Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/19434
    The realization that PCOS is a quantitative trait (phenotype determined by multiple genes and environmental factors) has far-reaching implications for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of symptoms and pathology associated with PCOS. […] The developmental programming of PCOS represents changes in gene expression that occur during critical periods of fetal development. […] The developmental origins of PCOS may have been due to different factors in ancestral and modern populations. […] The dysbiosis of gut microbiota theory of PCOS, proposed by Tremellen in 2012, accounts for the development of all of the components of PCOS (multiple ovarian follicles, anovulation or menstrual irregularity and hyperandrogenism). […] The accumulating scientific evidence strongly supports the significant role played by the microbiome in the pathogenesis and maintenance of PCOS, consistent with research in other related metabolic conditions.
  • #93 Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/19434
    The realization that PCOS is a quantitative trait (phenotype determined by multiple genes and environmental factors) has far-reaching implications for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of symptoms and pathology associated with PCOS. […] The developmental programming of PCOS represents changes in gene expression that occur during critical periods of fetal development. […] The developmental origins of PCOS may have been due to different factors in ancestral and modern populations. […] The dysbiosis of gut microbiota theory of PCOS, proposed by Tremellen in 2012, accounts for the development of all of the components of PCOS (multiple ovarian follicles, anovulation or menstrual irregularity and hyperandrogenism). […] The accumulating scientific evidence strongly supports the significant role played by the microbiome in the pathogenesis and maintenance of PCOS, consistent with research in other related metabolic conditions.
  • #94 POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME (PCOS) PATHOGENESIS, DIAGNOSIS, AND COMMON TREATMENT OPTIONS: A LITERATURE REVIEW – Turkish Medical Student Journal
    https://turkmedstudj.com/articles/polycystic-ovary-syndrome-pcos-pathogenesis-diagnosis-and-common-treatment-options-a-literature-review/doi/tmsj.galenos.2024.2023-11-1
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is a syndrome that is composed of multiple hereditary and environmental elements. Symptoms occur when inherited factors meet with environmental exposure, including heavy metals, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and pesticides. As an example of many endocrine-disrupting chemicals, Bisphenol A (BPA), a compound utilized in the plastic industry, is detected higher in serum concentration in PCOS patients than in healthy individuals. BPA disrupts the endocrine system by interacting with estrogen receptors, correlating with increased T4 and free androgen index. Therefore, it can be said that plastic utilization has an impact on PCOS. Other examples of endocrine-disrupting chemicals include perfluorooctanoate and perfluorooctane sulfonate. […] It is also known that lifestyle greatly affects the course of PCOS. It is found that smoking or being exposed to smoke has a relationship with oligo-anovulation. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress resulting from the reduction in glutathione and decreased levels of antioxidants cause the inability to reduce reactive oxygen species or toxins causing early luteinization of primordial follicles.
  • #95 POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME (PCOS) PATHOGENESIS, DIAGNOSIS, AND COMMON TREATMENT OPTIONS: A LITERATURE REVIEW – Turkish Medical Student Journal
    https://turkmedstudj.com/articles/polycystic-ovary-syndrome-pcos-pathogenesis-diagnosis-and-common-treatment-options-a-literature-review/doi/tmsj.galenos.2024.2023-11-1
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is a syndrome that is composed of multiple hereditary and environmental elements. Symptoms occur when inherited factors meet with environmental exposure, including heavy metals, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and pesticides. As an example of many endocrine-disrupting chemicals, Bisphenol A (BPA), a compound utilized in the plastic industry, is detected higher in serum concentration in PCOS patients than in healthy individuals. BPA disrupts the endocrine system by interacting with estrogen receptors, correlating with increased T4 and free androgen index. Therefore, it can be said that plastic utilization has an impact on PCOS. Other examples of endocrine-disrupting chemicals include perfluorooctanoate and perfluorooctane sulfonate. […] It is also known that lifestyle greatly affects the course of PCOS. It is found that smoking or being exposed to smoke has a relationship with oligo-anovulation. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress resulting from the reduction in glutathione and decreased levels of antioxidants cause the inability to reduce reactive oxygen species or toxins causing early luteinization of primordial follicles.
  • #96 POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME (PCOS) PATHOGENESIS, DIAGNOSIS, AND COMMON TREATMENT OPTIONS: A LITERATURE REVIEW – Turkish Medical Student Journal
    https://turkmedstudj.com/articles/polycystic-ovary-syndrome-pcos-pathogenesis-diagnosis-and-common-treatment-options-a-literature-review/doi/tmsj.galenos.2024.2023-11-1
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is a syndrome that is composed of multiple hereditary and environmental elements. Symptoms occur when inherited factors meet with environmental exposure, including heavy metals, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and pesticides. As an example of many endocrine-disrupting chemicals, Bisphenol A (BPA), a compound utilized in the plastic industry, is detected higher in serum concentration in PCOS patients than in healthy individuals. BPA disrupts the endocrine system by interacting with estrogen receptors, correlating with increased T4 and free androgen index. Therefore, it can be said that plastic utilization has an impact on PCOS. Other examples of endocrine-disrupting chemicals include perfluorooctanoate and perfluorooctane sulfonate. […] It is also known that lifestyle greatly affects the course of PCOS. It is found that smoking or being exposed to smoke has a relationship with oligo-anovulation. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress resulting from the reduction in glutathione and decreased levels of antioxidants cause the inability to reduce reactive oxygen species or toxins causing early luteinization of primordial follicles.
  • #97 POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME (PCOS) PATHOGENESIS, DIAGNOSIS, AND COMMON TREATMENT OPTIONS: A LITERATURE REVIEW – Turkish Medical Student Journal
    https://turkmedstudj.com/articles/polycystic-ovary-syndrome-pcos-pathogenesis-diagnosis-and-common-treatment-options-a-literature-review/doi/tmsj.galenos.2024.2023-11-1
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is a syndrome that is composed of multiple hereditary and environmental elements. Symptoms occur when inherited factors meet with environmental exposure, including heavy metals, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and pesticides. As an example of many endocrine-disrupting chemicals, Bisphenol A (BPA), a compound utilized in the plastic industry, is detected higher in serum concentration in PCOS patients than in healthy individuals. BPA disrupts the endocrine system by interacting with estrogen receptors, correlating with increased T4 and free androgen index. Therefore, it can be said that plastic utilization has an impact on PCOS. Other examples of endocrine-disrupting chemicals include perfluorooctanoate and perfluorooctane sulfonate. […] It is also known that lifestyle greatly affects the course of PCOS. It is found that smoking or being exposed to smoke has a relationship with oligo-anovulation. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress resulting from the reduction in glutathione and decreased levels of antioxidants cause the inability to reduce reactive oxygen species or toxins causing early luteinization of primordial follicles.
  • #98 POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME (PCOS) PATHOGENESIS, DIAGNOSIS, AND COMMON TREATMENT OPTIONS: A LITERATURE REVIEW – Turkish Medical Student Journal
    https://turkmedstudj.com/articles/polycystic-ovary-syndrome-pcos-pathogenesis-diagnosis-and-common-treatment-options-a-literature-review/doi/tmsj.galenos.2024.2023-11-1
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is a syndrome that is composed of multiple hereditary and environmental elements. Symptoms occur when inherited factors meet with environmental exposure, including heavy metals, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and pesticides. As an example of many endocrine-disrupting chemicals, Bisphenol A (BPA), a compound utilized in the plastic industry, is detected higher in serum concentration in PCOS patients than in healthy individuals. BPA disrupts the endocrine system by interacting with estrogen receptors, correlating with increased T4 and free androgen index. Therefore, it can be said that plastic utilization has an impact on PCOS. Other examples of endocrine-disrupting chemicals include perfluorooctanoate and perfluorooctane sulfonate. […] It is also known that lifestyle greatly affects the course of PCOS. It is found that smoking or being exposed to smoke has a relationship with oligo-anovulation. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress resulting from the reduction in glutathione and decreased levels of antioxidants cause the inability to reduce reactive oxygen species or toxins causing early luteinization of primordial follicles.
  • #99 Pathogenesis, Clinical Characteristics, Quality Of Life And Management Approach Among Women With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
    https://www.jrmds.in/articles/pathogenesis-clinical-characteristics-quality-of-life-and-management-approach-among-women-with-polycystic-ovary-syndrome-pcos-97431.html
    In PCOS, IR affects skeletal muscles, adipose tissue and liver, whereas, due to hyperinsulinism, direct stimulation of steroidogenic ovaries and adrenal glands causes androgen secretion and reduced synthesis of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) in liver, leading to elevated levels of free, biologically active androgens. This excess of ovarian androgen production causes dysregulation resulting in premature follicular atresia and anovulation. […] Women during their daily chores, unknowingly, get exposed to certain chemicals known as endocrine disruptors (EDs), most commonly bisphenol-A (BPA) have anti-estrogenic, anti-androgenic properties that interfere with feedback regulation, DNA methylation, and neuroendocrine cells alternation. […] These EDs in result contribute as a causative factor either to unveil PCOS characteristics in genetically susceptible females or interrupt hormone homeostasis and deteriorate fertility status of women with PCOS.
  • #100 Pathogenesis, Clinical Characteristics, Quality Of Life And Management Approach Among Women With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
    https://www.jrmds.in/articles/pathogenesis-clinical-characteristics-quality-of-life-and-management-approach-among-women-with-polycystic-ovary-syndrome-pcos-97431.html
    In PCOS, IR affects skeletal muscles, adipose tissue and liver, whereas, due to hyperinsulinism, direct stimulation of steroidogenic ovaries and adrenal glands causes androgen secretion and reduced synthesis of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) in liver, leading to elevated levels of free, biologically active androgens. This excess of ovarian androgen production causes dysregulation resulting in premature follicular atresia and anovulation. […] Women during their daily chores, unknowingly, get exposed to certain chemicals known as endocrine disruptors (EDs), most commonly bisphenol-A (BPA) have anti-estrogenic, anti-androgenic properties that interfere with feedback regulation, DNA methylation, and neuroendocrine cells alternation. […] These EDs in result contribute as a causative factor either to unveil PCOS characteristics in genetically susceptible females or interrupt hormone homeostasis and deteriorate fertility status of women with PCOS.
  • #101 Pathogenesis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/19434
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is a complex multisystem condition with metabolic, endocrine, psychological, fertility and pregnancy-related implications at all stages of life. The majority of women with PCOS manifest multiple metabolic features including obesity, insulin resistance (IR), hyperlipidemia and hyperandrogenism. PCOS results in an increased risk of developing metabolic disease (type 2 diabetes, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and metabolic syndrome), cardiovascular disease, cancer, a wide array of pregnancy complications (deep venous thrombosis, pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, macrosomia, growth restriction, miscarriage, stillbirth and preterm labor) and psychological problems (anxiety, depression). […] The view of PCOS as a conditional phenotype proposes that these physiological responses become pathological in the modern environment due to factors such as food abundance, reduced physical activity, circadian disruption, stress and environmental chemical exposure. The transgenerational evolutionary theory of the pathogenesis of PCOS encompasses all of the above ideas to explain the observed pathophysiological and clinical features of PCOS.
  • #102 Pathogenesis – GPnotebook
    https://gpnotebook.com/pages/gynaecology/polycystic-ovary-syndrome/pathogenesis
    Androgens result in the main clinical and endocrine abnormalities. […] Women with polycystic ovary syndrome have a 1.3-fold greater risk of developing composite CVD, ischemic heart disease, and stroke compared with women without PCOS. […] Women with this disorder are also more likely to develop endometrial cancer – one meta-analysis found a 3-fold increased risk of endometrial cancer in PCOS (9% lifetime risk in PCOS versus 3% in unaffected women).
  • #103 Pathogenesis – GPnotebook
    https://gpnotebook.com/pages/gynaecology/polycystic-ovary-syndrome/pathogenesis
    Androgens result in the main clinical and endocrine abnormalities. […] Women with polycystic ovary syndrome have a 1.3-fold greater risk of developing composite CVD, ischemic heart disease, and stroke compared with women without PCOS. […] Women with this disorder are also more likely to develop endometrial cancer – one meta-analysis found a 3-fold increased risk of endometrial cancer in PCOS (9% lifetime risk in PCOS versus 3% in unaffected women).
  • #104 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) – Gynecology and Obstetrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/menstrual-abnormalities/polycystic-ovary-syndrome-pcos
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is a clinical syndrome typically characterized by anovulation or oligo-ovulation, signs of androgen excess (eg, hirsutism, acne), and multiple ovarian cysts in the ovaries. […] This syndrome involves anovulation or ovulatory dysfunction and androgen excess of unclear etiology. However, some evidence suggests that patients have a functional abnormality of cytochrome P450c17 affecting 17-hydroxylase (the rate-limiting enzyme in androgen production); as a result, androgen production increases. Pathogenesis appears to involve environmental and hereditary factors. […] Androgen levels are often elevated, increasing the risk of metabolic syndrome and obesity and causing hirsutism. Hyperinsulinemia due to insulin resistance may be present and may contribute to increased ovarian production of androgens. Over the long term, androgen excess increases the risk of cardiovascular disorders, including hypertension and hyperlipidemia. […] Studies indicate that PCOS is associated with low-grade chronic inflammation and that women with PCOS are at increased risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.
  • #105 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) – Gynecology and Obstetrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/menstrual-abnormalities/polycystic-ovary-syndrome-pcos
    Polycystic ovary syndrome is a clinical syndrome typically characterized by anovulation or oligo-ovulation, signs of androgen excess (eg, hirsutism, acne), and multiple ovarian cysts in the ovaries. […] This syndrome involves anovulation or ovulatory dysfunction and androgen excess of unclear etiology. However, some evidence suggests that patients have a functional abnormality of cytochrome P450c17 affecting 17-hydroxylase (the rate-limiting enzyme in androgen production); as a result, androgen production increases. Pathogenesis appears to involve environmental and hereditary factors. […] Androgen levels are often elevated, increasing the risk of metabolic syndrome and obesity and causing hirsutism. Hyperinsulinemia due to insulin resistance may be present and may contribute to increased ovarian production of androgens. Over the long term, androgen excess increases the risk of cardiovascular disorders, including hypertension and hyperlipidemia. […] Studies indicate that PCOS is associated with low-grade chronic inflammation and that women with PCOS are at increased risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.
  • #106 Physiopathology of polycystic ovary syndrome in endocrinology, metabolism and inflammation | Journal of Ovarian Research | Full Text
    https://ovarianresearch.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13048-025-01621-6
    These findings highlight the apoptotic effects of androgens on granulosa cells in PCOS, demonstrating that elevated androgen levels are a significant factor in reproductive health issues and increase the risk of PCOS development in offspring. […] Insulin resistance emerges as a primary metabolic anomaly. […] Epidemiological studies indicate that 50-70% of PCOS cases are associated with insulin resistance, which is often accompanied by compensatory hyperinsulinaemia. […] In the PCOS patient population, dyslipidemia is a prevalent and critical comorbidity. […] Despite incomplete elucidation of the precise pathophysiological mechanisms underlying PCOS, substantial evidence indicates that a complex interplay between chronic low-grade inflammation and the concurrent expression of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines may play a crucial role in the onset and progression of this disorder. […] The 2023 international evidence-based guidelines in PCOS as well as underscore the potential association between metabolic abnormalities in patients with PCOS and the presence of chronic low-grade inflammation.
  • #107 Physiopathology of polycystic ovary syndrome in endocrinology, metabolism and inflammation | Journal of Ovarian Research | Full Text
    https://ovarianresearch.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13048-025-01621-6
    These findings highlight the apoptotic effects of androgens on granulosa cells in PCOS, demonstrating that elevated androgen levels are a significant factor in reproductive health issues and increase the risk of PCOS development in offspring. […] Insulin resistance emerges as a primary metabolic anomaly. […] Epidemiological studies indicate that 50-70% of PCOS cases are associated with insulin resistance, which is often accompanied by compensatory hyperinsulinaemia. […] In the PCOS patient population, dyslipidemia is a prevalent and critical comorbidity. […] Despite incomplete elucidation of the precise pathophysiological mechanisms underlying PCOS, substantial evidence indicates that a complex interplay between chronic low-grade inflammation and the concurrent expression of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines may play a crucial role in the onset and progression of this disorder. […] The 2023 international evidence-based guidelines in PCOS as well as underscore the potential association between metabolic abnormalities in patients with PCOS and the presence of chronic low-grade inflammation.
  • #108 Physiopathology of polycystic ovary syndrome in endocrinology, metabolism and inflammation | Journal of Ovarian Research | Full Text
    https://ovarianresearch.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13048-025-01621-6
    These findings highlight the apoptotic effects of androgens on granulosa cells in PCOS, demonstrating that elevated androgen levels are a significant factor in reproductive health issues and increase the risk of PCOS development in offspring. […] Insulin resistance emerges as a primary metabolic anomaly. […] Epidemiological studies indicate that 50-70% of PCOS cases are associated with insulin resistance, which is often accompanied by compensatory hyperinsulinaemia. […] In the PCOS patient population, dyslipidemia is a prevalent and critical comorbidity. […] Despite incomplete elucidation of the precise pathophysiological mechanisms underlying PCOS, substantial evidence indicates that a complex interplay between chronic low-grade inflammation and the concurrent expression of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines may play a crucial role in the onset and progression of this disorder. […] The 2023 international evidence-based guidelines in PCOS as well as underscore the potential association between metabolic abnormalities in patients with PCOS and the presence of chronic low-grade inflammation.
  • #109 Physiopathology of polycystic ovary syndrome in endocrinology, metabolism and inflammation | Journal of Ovarian Research | Full Text
    https://ovarianresearch.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13048-025-01621-6
    Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a prevalent endocrine disorder characterized by elevated androgen levels, ovarian cysts, and impaired ovulation in females. […] The pathophysiology of PCOS is multifactorial and involves impaired gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) pulsatility, increased pituitary luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion, elevated androgen levels, insulin resistance, obesity, and chronic low-grade inflammation. […] Despite substantial research elucidating several critical pathways involved in the pathogenesis of PCOS, a comprehensive understanding of its pathophysiology remains incomplete. […] By identifying key factors, we examined endocrine alterations associated with PCOS, including hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis dysregulation and elevated levels of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), androgens, and prolactin.
  • #110 Physiopathology of polycystic ovary syndrome in endocrinology, metabolism and inflammation | Journal of Ovarian Research | Full Text
    https://ovarianresearch.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13048-025-01621-6
    Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a prevalent endocrine disorder characterized by elevated androgen levels, ovarian cysts, and impaired ovulation in females. […] The pathophysiology of PCOS is multifactorial and involves impaired gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) pulsatility, increased pituitary luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion, elevated androgen levels, insulin resistance, obesity, and chronic low-grade inflammation. […] Despite substantial research elucidating several critical pathways involved in the pathogenesis of PCOS, a comprehensive understanding of its pathophysiology remains incomplete. […] By identifying key factors, we examined endocrine alterations associated with PCOS, including hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis dysregulation and elevated levels of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), androgens, and prolactin.
  • #111 Polycystic ovary syndrome: pathophysiology and therapeutic opportunities
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10583117/
    Recent studies have implicated changes in the gut microbiome in the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome. […] Genetic loci identified by genome-wide association studies currently account for only 10% of the known heritability (about 70%) of polycystic ovary syndrome, suggesting other influences on the pathogenesis of the disease. […] Key pathological changes include neuroendocrine dysregulation, excess production of androgens, insulin resistance, and changes in adipose tissue biology, with variation in dysfunction of these pathways contributing to differences in phenotypic expression and severity of the disease.
  • #112 Physiopathology of polycystic ovary syndrome in endocrinology, metabolism and inflammation | Journal of Ovarian Research | Full Text
    https://ovarianresearch.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13048-025-01621-6
    Additionally, we address metabolic disturbances such as insulin resistance and dyslipidemia and evaluate the role of elevated inflammatory markers in PCOS pathogenesis. […] This review elucidates the interconnections among endocrine, metabolic, and inflammatory processes, illustrating how these mechanisms collectively contribute to the manifestation and complications of PCOS. […] Hyperandrogenism is a defining characteristic of PCOS. […] The etiology of these symptoms is linked to dysregulation of the neuroendocrine system, particularly the HPO axis. […] Recent findings suggest that hyperandrogenism may disrupt the negative feedback of gonadal steroids on LH, leading to increased GnRH release from the hypothalamus and consequently increased LH and androgen levels. […] Elevated androgen levels activate the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response in granulosa cells (GCs), ultimately leading to cellular apoptosis through death receptor 5 (DR5).
  • #113 Physiopathology of polycystic ovary syndrome in endocrinology, metabolism and inflammation | Journal of Ovarian Research | Full Text
    https://ovarianresearch.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13048-025-01621-6
    These findings highlight the apoptotic effects of androgens on granulosa cells in PCOS, demonstrating that elevated androgen levels are a significant factor in reproductive health issues and increase the risk of PCOS development in offspring. […] Insulin resistance emerges as a primary metabolic anomaly. […] Epidemiological studies indicate that 50-70% of PCOS cases are associated with insulin resistance, which is often accompanied by compensatory hyperinsulinaemia. […] In the PCOS patient population, dyslipidemia is a prevalent and critical comorbidity. […] Despite incomplete elucidation of the precise pathophysiological mechanisms underlying PCOS, substantial evidence indicates that a complex interplay between chronic low-grade inflammation and the concurrent expression of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines may play a crucial role in the onset and progression of this disorder. […] The 2023 international evidence-based guidelines in PCOS as well as underscore the potential association between metabolic abnormalities in patients with PCOS and the presence of chronic low-grade inflammation.