Wszawica
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Wszawica (pediculosis) to infestacja pasożytnicza wywoływana przez wszy: głowową (Pediculus humanus capitis), odzieżową (Pediculus humanus corporis) oraz łonową (Pthirus pubis). Wszy są obligatoryjnymi pasożytami zewnętrznymi człowieka, żywiącymi się krwią 2-6 razy dziennie, a ich ślina zawiera substancje przeciwkrzepliwe, takie jak inhibitory trombiny i czynnika Xa, które wywołują reakcję immunologiczną prowadzącą do intensywnego świądu. Cykl życiowy trwa około 15-20 dni, a dorosła samica może składać do 10 jaj dziennie. Wszy odzieżowe są wektorami poważnych chorób bakteryjnych, m.in. gorączki okopowej (Bartonella quintana), gorączki powrotnej (Borrelia recurrentis) i tyfusu (Rickettsia prowazekii), natomiast wszy głowowe, choć tradycyjnie uważane za niewektorowe, mogą przenosić patogeny, co wymaga dalszych badań. Ugryzienia wszy powodują zmiany skórne i wtórne infekcje bakteryjne, a masywne infestacje mogą prowadzić do anemii, zwłaszcza u osób z obniżoną odpornością.

Patogeneza Wszawicy

Wszawica (pediculosis) jest infestacją pasożytniczą wywoływaną przez wszy, które są małymi, bezskrzydłymi, krwiopijnymi owadami należącymi do rzędu Phthiraptera, podrzędu Anoplura (wszy właściwe).12 U ludzi występują trzy główne rodzaje wszawicy: wszawica głowowa (Pediculus humanus capitis), wszawica odzieżowa (Pediculus humanus corporis) oraz wszawica łonowa (Pthirus pubis).34 Wszy są obligatoryjnymi pasożytami zewnętrznymi człowieka, zależnymi wyłącznie od ludzkiego żywiciela dla przetrwania.5

Mechanizm żywienia się wszy

Wszy posiadają wyspecjalizowany aparat gębowy dostosowany do ssania krwi.67 Podczas pobierania pokarmu wesz przebija skórę, wstrzykuje ślinę zawierającą substancje przeciwkrzepliwe i antykoagulanty, a następnie wysysa krew.89 Dorosła wesz głowowa żywi się krwią 2-6 razy dziennie.10 Substancje zawarte w ślinie wszy, w tym rozszerzacze naczyń krwionośnych i antykoagulanty, wywołują reakcję immunologiczną organizmu, co prowadzi do charakterystycznego świądu.1112

Badania wykazały obecność inhibitora trombiny, inhibitora czynnika Xa oraz aktywności apyrazowej w ślinie wszy ludzkiej, co potwierdza złożony mechanizm przeciwkrzepliwy ułatwiający pobieranie krwi.13 Te adaptacje biochemiczne umożliwiają wszom skuteczne żywienie się i unikanie mechanizmów obronnych gospodarza.14

Cykl życiowy wszy

Cykl życiowy wszy składa się z trzech głównych etapów: jaj (gnid), nimf i osobników dorosłych.1516 Samica wszy składa jaja (gnidy) i przykleja je u podstawy włosa za pomocą lepkiej substancji.1718 Gnidy są umieszczane w odległości mniejszej niż 6 mm od skóry głowy, co zapewnia optymalną temperaturę do inkubacji.19

Jaja wylęgają się po 6-9 dniach, uwalniając nimfy.2021 Nimfy przechodzą przez trzy stadia rozwojowe w ciągu 9-12 dni, zanim osiągną dojrzałość.22 Dorosła samica wszy głowowej może żyć do 30 dni na głowie człowieka i składać do 10 jaj dziennie.2324 Pełny cykl życiowy trwa około 15-20 dni.25

Wesz nie jest w stanie przeżyć dłużej niż 24-48 godzin poza gospodarzem, ponieważ wymaga ciepła ludzkiego ciała i regularnego dostępu do krwi.2627 Co istotne, świeżo wyklute nimfy muszą natychmiast zacząć żywić się krwią, aby przeżyć.28

Mechanizm świądeń i reakcja immunologiczna

Świąd, główny objaw wszawicy, jest wynikiem reakcji nadwrażliwości na ślinę wszy.2930 Mechanizm ten opiera się na opóźnionej reakcji nadwrażliwości, która może rozwinąć się dopiero po 2-6 tygodniach od pierwszej ekspozycji.3132 Przy ponownym zarażeniu, świąd pojawia się znacznie szybciej, zazwyczaj w ciągu 1-2 dni, co wskazuje na wcześniejszą sensytyzację układu immunologicznego.3334

Badania wykazały, że reakcja immunologiczna na ślinę wszy ma charakter opóźnionej odpowiedzi nadwrażliwości typu IV, podobnej do reakcji obserwowanej w innych infestacjach pasożytniczych, jak świerzb.35 Ta odpowiedź immunologiczna prowadzi do intensywnego świądu, który skłania pacjenta do drapania, co z kolei może prowadzić do wtórnych infekcji bakteryjnych.36

Patogeneza różnych rodzajów wszawicy

Wszawica głowowa

Wesz głowowa (Pediculus humanus capitis) jest najpowszechniejszym rodzajem wszawicy u ludzi.37 Żywi się krwią pobraną ze skóry głowy i może pobierać pokarm do pięciu razy dziennie.38 Wszy głowowe zarażają głównie dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym i szkolnym, przenosząc się przez bezpośredni kontakt głowy z głową.39

W przeciwieństwie do wszy odzieżowych, wszy głowowe przez długi czas nie były uważane za wektory chorób zakaźnych. Jednak najnowsze badania sugerują, że wszy głowowe mogą być zdolne do przenoszenia niektórych patogenów, co zmienia długo ustalone paradygmaty dotyczące ich potencjału wektorowego.4041

Wszawica odzieżowa

Wesz odzieżowa (Pediculus humanus corporis) różni się od wszy głowowej głównie ekologią. Wszy odzieżowe nie żyją bezpośrednio na ciele człowieka, lecz na ubraniach, pojawiając się na skórze tylko podczas żywienia się.42 Infestacja może obejmować tysiące osobników, z których każdy kąsa średnio 5 razy dziennie.43

Najbardziej znaczącym aspektem patogenezy wszy odzieżowej jest ich zdolność do przenoszenia groźnych chorób bakteryjnych, w tym:44

Dodatkowo, wykryto w wszach odzieżowych DNA innych patogenów, w tym Yersinia pestis (dżuma), co sugeruje, że mogą one służyć jako dodatkowe wektory dla tego organizmu.4849

Wszawica łonowa

Wesz łonowa (Pthirus pubis), znana również jako „meszki”, zarażają włosy łonowe i okolice genitaliów.50 Infestacja jest zwykle przenoszona drogą płciową u dorosłych i może rozszerzyć się poza obszar łonowy, obejmując inne obszary ciała, w tym rzęsy (pedikuloza rzęs).51

Cykl życiowy wszy łonowej jest podobny do innych typów wszy, z samicom o okresie życia trwającym trzy do czterech tygodni, podczas którego składają maksymalnie trzy jaja dziennie.52

Patofizjologia i konsekwencje kliniczne

Zmiany skórne i powikłania

Ugryzienia wszy powodują różnorodne zmiany skórne, a intensywny świąd prowadzący do drapania może skutkować wtórnymi infekcjami bakteryjnymi, takimi jak liszajec i ropne zapalenie skóry.5354 Długotrwała infestacja może prowadzić do egzemy wywołanej przez wszy na skórze głowy i szyi, spowodowanej przewlekłym drapaniem.55

Ukąszenia wszy odzieżowych powodują małe, czerwone, punktowe otwory w skórze.56 W przypadku masywnych infestacji wszami ssącymi może dojść do anemii z powodu utraty krwi, szczególnie u osób o obniżonej odporności lub młodych pacjentów.5758

Przenoszenie patogenów

Jak wspomniano wcześniej, wszy odzieżowe są znanymi wektorami poważnych chorób zakaźnych.59 Mechanizm przenoszenia patogenów polega głównie na kontaminacji miejsca ukłucia fekaliami wszy zawierającymi patogeny podczas drapania przez pacjenta.60

Najnowsze badania sugerują, że wszy głowowe również mogą przenosić patogeny. Badania laboratoryjne i epidemiologiczne wykazały, że wszy głowowe mogą być zakażone tymi samymi patogenami co wszy odzieżowe, choć ich potencjał wektorowy jest prawdopodobnie słabszy.6162

Niezwykle interesujące są badania dotyczące Yersinia pestis (dżuma), które wykazały, że bakteria ta może kolonizować gruczoły Pawłowskiego (para dodatkowych gruczołów ślinowych) w głowie wszy odzieżowej. Wszy z zakażeniem tych gruczołów przenosiły Y. pestis bardziej konsekwentnie niż te z bakteriami tylko w przewodzie pokarmowym, co sugeruje nowy, oparty na ukąszeniach mechanizm przenoszenia.6364

Mechanizmy oporności na leki

Biochemiczne podstawy oporności

Narastająca oporność wszy na powszechnie stosowane środki przeciw wszawicy stanowi poważny problem zdrowia publicznego.65 Mechanizmy oporności są różnorodne i obejmują zarówno zmiany genetyczne, jak i biochemiczne.66

Główne mechanizmy oporności wszy obejmują:

  • Mutacje w genach kodujących kanały sodowe w osłonce nerwowej (mechanizm oporności na permetrynę i pyretryny) – tzw. oporność typu kdr (knockdown resistance)67
  • Zwiększona aktywność enzymów detoksykacyjnych, takich jak S-transferazy glutationu68
  • Mutacje w genie esterazy acetylocholinowej (AChE) – główny mechanizm oporności na związki fosforoorganiczne69
  • Modyfikacje w miejscach docelowych działania leków70

Badania genetyczne zidentyfikowały konkretne mutacje związane z opornością, takie jak mutacja Phe362Tyr w genie ace1a, która wiąże się ze zmniejszoną wrażliwością wszy na azametifos (związek fosforoorganiczny).71 Modelowanie 3D wykazało, że ta mutacja wpływa na zdolność leku do wiązania się z seryną w pozycji 230, co zmniejsza jego skuteczność.72

Kliniczne implikacje oporności

Oporność wszy na tradycyjne środki owadobójcze, takie jak permetryna, malation i fenotryna, jest coraz bardziej powszechna na całym świecie.73 Wzorce oporności różnią się w zależności od regionu geograficznego, co dodatkowo komplikuje strategie leczenia.74

W odpowiedzi na ten problem, nowe podejścia terapeutyczne koncentrują się na środkach o mechanizmach działania, na które wszy są mniej skłonne rozwinąć oporność. Przykładem jest dimetykon (4%), który nie jest klasycznym insektycydem, ale działa poprzez fizyczne uduszenie wszy i zaburzenie ich zdolności do regulacji wody.7576 Ze względu na mechanizm działania dimetykonu, jest mało prawdopodobne, aby wszy mogły rozwinąć na niego oporność.77

Iwermektyna, zarówno w postaci miejscowej jak i doustnej, również wykazuje obiecujące wyniki w leczeniu wszawicy. Działa ona poprzez wiązanie się z kanałami chlorkowymi bramkowanymi glutaminianem u pasożytów, powodując paraliż i śmierć.78 Oporność wszy na iwermektynę jest rzadka, co czyni ją cenną opcją terapeutyczną.79

Interakcje gospodarz-pasożyt

Koewolucja i specyficzność żywicielska

Wszy ludzkie stanowią paradygmatyczny przykład kospecjacji, formy koewolucji, w której specjacja jednego gatunku determinuje specjację innego gatunku, typowej dla relacji gospodarz-pasożyt.80 Dwie rodziny wszy występujące u ludzi – Pediculidae (rodzaj Pediculus, współdzielony z szympansami) i Pthiridae (rodzaj Pthirus, współdzielony z gorylami) – ewoluowały równolegle ze swoimi żywicielami.81

Badania wskazują, że rozdzielenie wszy głowowych i odzieżowych nastąpiło około 42-72 tysięcy lat temu, co zbiega się z okresem, gdy ludzie zaczęli nosić ubrania.82 Podczas gdy wszy głowowe pozostały na skórze głowy, wszy odzieżowe przeszły mutację, rozwijając pazury, które mogą chwytać się gładszych włókien ubrań zamiast cienkich jak igła łodyg włosów.83

Specyficzność żywicielska wszy jest ważnym czynnikiem w ich ekologii i ewolucji. Badania nad wszami gryzącymi u kieszonkowych gryzoni wykazały, że chociaż wszy mogą osiedlać się na różnych gospodarzach, ich sukces kolonizacyjny zmniejsza się wraz ze wzrostem odległości filogenetycznej od naturalnego gospodarza.84 Sugeruje to, że wzorzec kospecjacji wynika głównie z braku możliwości kolonizacji nowych gospodarzy przez wszy, a w rzadkich przypadkach, gdy wszy rozprzestrzeniają się na nowych gospodarzy, przetrwanie może być trudne na gospodarzach, które nie są blisko spokrewnione z naturalnym gospodarzem.85

Rola endosymbiontów w patogenezie

Zarówno wszy odzieżowe, jak i głowowe posiadają tego samego pierwotnego endosymbionta – bakterię Candidatus Riesia pediculicola, która dostarcza wszom witamin z grupy B, nieobecnych we krwi ludzkiej.86 Ta symbioza jest fundamentalna dla rozwoju i przetrwania wszy, co czyni ją interesującym celem dla opracowania alternatywnych strategii kontroli wszawicy.87

Ponadto, istnieje pytanie, czy ten symbiont ma wpływ na zachowanie wszy lub ich kompetencję jako wektora chorób, co zasługuje na dalsze badania.88 Poznanie interakcji między wszami, ich endosymbiontami i patogenami może prowadzić do nowych podejść w kontroli wszawicy i związanych z nią chorób.89

Implikacje dla zdrowia publicznego

Epidemiologia i kontrola wszawicy

Wszawica pozostaje istotnym problemem zdrowia publicznego na całym świecie.90 W krajach rozwiniętych, wysoka częstość występowania wszawicy głowowej jest prawdopodobnie spowodowana rozwojem szczepów wszy opornych na pedykulocydy oraz dużą liczbą nieskutecznych środków dostępnych bez recepty.91

Skuteczna kontrola wszawicy wymaga kompleksowego podejścia, obejmującego:92

  • Leczenie zainfestowanych osób
  • Leczenie osób mających kontakt z zainfestowanymi
  • Kontrolę środowiskową
  • Eliminację czynników stresowych, które umożliwiły początkowe zarażenie lub zaostrzyły infestację

Warto podkreślić, że wszawica głowowa nie jest związana z niskim statusem społeczno-ekonomicznym ani złą higieną, w przeciwieństwie do wszawicy odzieżowej.9394 Edukacja społeczeństwa w tym zakresie jest kluczowa dla zmniejszenia stygmatyzacji związanej z wszawicą głowową.95

Perspektywy badań i nowe podejścia terapeutyczne

Postępy w technologiach omicznych (genomika, transkryptomika, proteomika i metabolomika) mogą umożliwić szczegółową charakterystykę mechanizmów leżących u podstaw patogenezy wszy i rozwoju oporności na leki.9697 Może to prowadzić do identyfikacji nowych celów dla rozwoju bardziej skutecznych związków przeciwko wszom.98

Niedawne sekwencjonowanie i adnotacja genomu wszy odzieżowej potwierdziły, że P. humanus posiada najmniejszy znany genom holometabolicznego owada sekwencjonowanego do tej pory i ujawniły interesujące informacje i cechy genomów jądrowych i mitochondrialnych.99 Te odkrycia genomowe mogą pomóc w zrozumieniu podstaw molekularnych adaptacji wszy do różnych nisz ekologicznych i ich zdolności do przenoszenia patogenów.100

Nowe badania sugerują również, że zmiany fenotypowe związane z pojawieniem się wszy odzieżowych są prawdopodobnie konsekwencją zmian regulacyjnych, możliwie epigenetycznych, wywołanych przez czynniki środowiskowe.101 Zrozumienie tych mechanizmów może prowadzić do opracowania nowatorskich strategii kontroli wszy, bardziej skutecznych niż obecne metody, które okazały się nieskuteczne.102

W miarę jak wszy rozwijają oporność na konwencjonalne insektycydy, rośnie znaczenie nowych podejść terapeutycznych, takich jak środki o działaniu fizycznym (np. dimetykon) czy wykorzystanie naturalnych wrogów wszy. Strategia tzw. modelu mozaikowego, w którym zaleca się stosowanie jednego produktu na kurs leczenia, a następnie innego insektycydu z innej klasy substancji, jeśli pierwsze leczenie zakończy się niepowodzeniem, może pomóc w zarządzaniu opornością.103

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  1. 09.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Pediculosis and Pthiriasis (Lice Infestation): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/225013-overview
    Louse infestation remains a major problem throughout the world, making the diagnosis and treatment of louse infestation a common task in general medical practice. […] Lice are ectoparasites that live on the body. Lice feed on human blood after piercing the skin and injecting saliva, which may cause pruritus due to an allergic reaction. […] Lice are blood-sucking insects. Human lice have small anterior mouthparts with 6 hooklets that aid their attachment to human skin during feeding. […] The 3 types of human lice include the head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis), the body louse (Pediculus humanus corporis), and the crab louse (Pthirus pubis). […] The adult female louse lays eggs, called nits, and glues them at the base of the hair shaft. […] Nits hatch in about 8-9 days if they are kept near body temperature and mature in another 9-12 days.
  • #2 Lice (Phthiraptera) – Factsheet for health professionals
    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/all-topics-z/disease-vectors/facts/factsheet-lice-phthiraptera
    Lice (Phthiraptera) are a very diverse group of insects, exclusively adapted to parasitism. […] Lice can be divided into two main groups: sucking lice (Anoplura) and chewing lice (Mallophaga). […] Anoplura are important parasites of both humans and animals. […] Pediculosis is a contagious parasitic infestation, transmitted from human-to-human by close contact or, in body lice, via infested clothes or bed linen. […] Due to their blood feeding behaviour, body lice can transmit a great variety of diseases, such as epidemic typhus (caused by Rickettsia prowazekii), louse-borne relapsing fever (caused by Borrelia recurrentis), or trench fever (caused by Bartonella quintana). […] In animals, the presence of sucking lice can cause irritation through the permanent blood feeding. […] There is a significant immune response to sucking lice, which protects the host after multiple exposures.
  • #3 Pediculosis and Pthiriasis (Lice Infestation): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/225013-overview
    Louse infestation remains a major problem throughout the world, making the diagnosis and treatment of louse infestation a common task in general medical practice. […] Lice are ectoparasites that live on the body. Lice feed on human blood after piercing the skin and injecting saliva, which may cause pruritus due to an allergic reaction. […] Lice are blood-sucking insects. Human lice have small anterior mouthparts with 6 hooklets that aid their attachment to human skin during feeding. […] The 3 types of human lice include the head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis), the body louse (Pediculus humanus corporis), and the crab louse (Pthirus pubis). […] The adult female louse lays eggs, called nits, and glues them at the base of the hair shaft. […] Nits hatch in about 8-9 days if they are kept near body temperature and mature in another 9-12 days.
  • #4 Lice – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/parasitic-skin-infections/lice
    Lice can infect the scalp, body, pubis, and eyelashes. […] Lice are wingless, blood-sucking insects that infest the head (Pediculus humanus var. capitis), body (P. humanus var. corporis), or pubis (Phthirus pubis). […] Head lice are easily transmitted from person to person with close contact (as occurs within households and classrooms) and may be ejected from hair by static electricity or wind; transmission by these routes (or by sharing of combs, brushes, and hats) is likely but unproved. […] Diagnosis of head lice depends on demonstration of living lice. […] Body lice primarily live on bedding and clothing, not people, and are most frequently found in cramped, crowded conditions (eg, military barracks, some households), conditions with poor hygiene, and places with communal beds.
  • #5 Frontiers | Where Are We With Human Lice? A Review of the Current State of Knowledge
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cellular-and-infection-microbiology/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00474/full
    Pediculus humanus is an obligate bloodsucking ectoparasite of human that includes two ecotypes, head louse and body louse, which differ slightly in morphology and biology, but have distinct ecologies. […] Recent studies suggested that not only body louse, but also head louse can transmit disease, which warrants greater attention as a serious public health problem. […] The recent sequencing of body louse genome confirmed that P. humanus has the smallest genome of any hemimetabolous insect reported to date, and also revealed numerous interesting characteristics in the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes. […] Current lice control strategies have proven unsuccessful. […] Therefore, novel opportunities for pest control strategies are needed. […] The recent sequencing and annotation of body louse genome confirmed that P. humanus harbor the smallest known holometabolic insect genome sequenced to date, and revealed interesting information and characteristics on nuclear and mitochondrial genomes.
  • #6 Pediculosis capitis – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pediculosis-capitis
    Pediculosis capitis is a common condition caused by infestation of the hair and scalp by Pediculus humanus capitis (the head louse), one of three distinct varieties of lice specifically parasitic for humans. The life span of the female louse is about one month, during which she lays 7 to 10 eggs per day, cementing them firmly to the base of a host hair. The eggs, commonly called „nits,” are oval capsules that hatch in eight days, releasing nymphs that require another eight days to mature. Adult head lice are gray-white, 2 to 3 mm in length, and equipped with mouth parts adapted to sucking blood and legs adapted to grasping hairs. Adults feed both on the scalp and adjacent areas of the face and neck. Adult lice can survive up to 55 hours without a host but probably dehydrate and become nonviable long before their death. Direct contact with the head of an infested person is the primary mode of transmission of pediculosis capitis. […] The clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment of pediculosis capitis will be reviewed here.
  • #7 Pediculosis and Pthiriasis (Lice Infestation): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/225013-overview
    Louse infestation remains a major problem throughout the world, making the diagnosis and treatment of louse infestation a common task in general medical practice. […] Lice are ectoparasites that live on the body. Lice feed on human blood after piercing the skin and injecting saliva, which may cause pruritus due to an allergic reaction. […] Lice are blood-sucking insects. Human lice have small anterior mouthparts with 6 hooklets that aid their attachment to human skin during feeding. […] The 3 types of human lice include the head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis), the body louse (Pediculus humanus corporis), and the crab louse (Pthirus pubis). […] The adult female louse lays eggs, called nits, and glues them at the base of the hair shaft. […] Nits hatch in about 8-9 days if they are kept near body temperature and mature in another 9-12 days.
  • #8 Pediculosis Corporis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482148/
    Body lice infestations can involve thousands of mites, each biting an average of 5 times daily. […] The most significant medical impact of body lice is their ability to transmit bacterial diseases, most notably trench fever caused by Bartonella quintana, relapsing fever caused by Borrelia recurrentis, and epidemic (louse-borne) typhus caused by Rickettsia prowazekii. […] During feeding, body lice pierce the skin, inject a salivary anticoagulant, and then suck the blood meal into their digestive tract. […] Bites of the body louse can produce a variety of skin lesions, and severe pruritus is thought to be due to an allergic or inflammatory reaction to the louse’s saliva. […] The most significant difference between body and head lice is the distinct ability of body lice to transmit the bacterial diseases trench fever, relapsing fever, and epidemic typhus to humans. […] Additional pathogenic bacteria in body lice include Salmonella typhi, Serratia marcescens, and Acinetobacter baumannii. […] The DNA of Yersinia pestis, which causes bubonic plague, has been identified in body lice, and it is believed they may serve as supplementary vectors for the organism.
  • #9 Pediculosis and Pthiriasis (Lice Infestation): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/225013-overview
    Louse infestation remains a major problem throughout the world, making the diagnosis and treatment of louse infestation a common task in general medical practice. […] Lice are ectoparasites that live on the body. Lice feed on human blood after piercing the skin and injecting saliva, which may cause pruritus due to an allergic reaction. […] Lice are blood-sucking insects. Human lice have small anterior mouthparts with 6 hooklets that aid their attachment to human skin during feeding. […] The 3 types of human lice include the head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis), the body louse (Pediculus humanus corporis), and the crab louse (Pthirus pubis). […] The adult female louse lays eggs, called nits, and glues them at the base of the hair shaft. […] Nits hatch in about 8-9 days if they are kept near body temperature and mature in another 9-12 days.
  • #10 Head Lice: An Under-Recognized Tropical Problem in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 97 Issue 6 (2017)
    https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/97/6/article-p1636.xml
    Head lice, caused by infestation with Pediculus humanus capitis, is an extremely common problem in tropical countries. Pediculus humanus capitis is an obligate human ectoparasite. Morphologically, head lice are indistinguishable from Pediculus humanus corporis, the human body louse, although they are slightly smaller. Unlike body lice, head lice have not clearly been proven to be vectors for infectious agents. Adult head lice develop through three nymphal stages and feed on blood from the scalp two to six times a day causing discomfort and pruritus. The complete life cycle takes 15-20 days, and adults survive up to 1 month. Adults mate once, and a fertilized female then produces 3 to 4 eggs per day for the remainder of their lives. Nymphs must feed immediately on hatching, and therefore, nits located more than 1 cm from the scalp are considered nonviable. Infestation results in distress, social stigma, and absence from school. Like other ectoparasitic infections, the prevalence of head lice may be high amongst children in remote and rural settings. In these settings, access to treatment is frequently limited, and many individuals rely on traditional medicine. There is increasing resistance to pyrethroids and malathion, the most commonly used first-line topical agents. More recently, both oral and topical ivermectin have shown promise for treating head lice, but access to these drugs to treat head lice is nonexistent in low-income settings. Mass treatment of scabies, onchocerciasis, or lymphatic filariasis might have an impact on head lice although data specifically examining this hypothesis are lacking, and there is a risk that resistance to ivermectin might develop.
  • #11 The Prevention and Treatment of Head Lice in Children
    https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/the-prevention-and-treatment-of-head-lice-in-children-32935
    Louse saliva, which contains vasodilators and anticoagulants, is injected into the host while the louse is feeding on the hosts blood. The host usually develops a sensitivity to the saliva, resulting in pruritus; however, it may take 4 to 6 weeks for the sensitivity and itching to manifest. […] The optimal treatment would be readily available, easy to use, effective and safe, affordable, and nonresistance-promoting. […] The mechanism of action (MOA) is hyperexcitability of the louse nervous system that results in paralysis and death. […] Malathion is an organophosphate that inhibits cholinesterase activity, resulting in increased acetylcholine concentrations. The excess cholinergic activity causes hyperstimulation of the louse nervous system and prevents feeding. […] Benzyl alcohol is not neurotoxic or ovicidal; it is an occlusive agent and kills lice by asphyxiation. […] A neurotoxic drug, ivermectin causes central nervous system (CNS) hyperstimulation, resulting in paralysis and death.
  • #12 Pediculosis (Lice) | 5-Minute Clinical Consult
    https://www.unboundmedicine.com/5minute/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/1688021/all/Pediculosis__Lice_?q=Pruritus+itching
    A contagious parasitic infection caused by ectoparasitic blood-feeding insects (lice) […] Lice feed solely on human blood by piercing the skin, injecting saliva (anticoagulant properties to allow for blood meal), and then ingesting blood. […] Itching is a delayed hypersensitivity reaction to the saliva of the feeding louse, which may take 4 to 6 weeks to develop after the first exposure. Subsequent exposures may take 1 to 2 days for symptoms to develop.
  • #13
    https://medicine.ekmd.huji.ac.il/en/research/kostasm/Pages/project_01.aspx
    humal lice Head louse infestations continue to be a public health problem worldwide. Increased rates of louse infestation were reported in several countries including the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Czech Republic, Turkey, Israel and the USA. In developed countries, the high prevalence of head lice is probably due to the development of louse strains resistant to pediculicides and the result of the large number of ineffective over-the-counter pediculicides (for review see: Mumcuoglu, 1996; Mumcuoglu, Ingber, 1999; Mumcuoglu Cohen, 2006; Mumcuoglu et al. 2006a, 2007, 2009; Barker et al. 2012; Mumcuoglu et al. 2019, 2020, 2021). […] The antihemostatic activity in salivary glands of the human body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus) was examined. A thrombin inhibitor, factor Xa inhibitor and apyrase activity were demonstrated in the saliva of this parasite (Mumcuoglu et al. 1996).
  • #14
    https://www.parasite.org.au/para-site/text/pediculus-text.html
    Nymphs and adults of both sexes feed by piercing the skin and sucking blood about every 2-3 hours. […] Heavy infestations, however, may cause considerable discomfort as the bites produce red papules, fever, aches and intense pruritus which induces scratching leading to dermatitis and secondary infections. […] Heavy louse infestation is known as pediculosis and is often associated with crowded conditions and poor sanitation.
  • #15 Pediculosis capitis pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pediculosis_capitis_pathophysiology
    Life cycle of the head louse has three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. […] Nits are head lice eggs. They are hard to see and are often confused for dandruff or hair spray droplets. Nits are laid by the adult female and are cemented at the base of the hair shaft nearest the scalp. […] The egg hatches to release a nymph. […] The adult louse is about the size of a sesame seed, has 6 legs (each with claws), and is tan to grayish-white. […] Adult lice can live up to 30 days on a person’s head. To live, adult lice need to feed on blood several times daily. Without blood meals, the louse will die within 1 to 2 days off the host. […] Getting head lice is not related to cleanliness of the person or his or her environment. Head lice are mainly spread by direct contact with the hair of an infested person.
  • #16 Head lice – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/head-lice/symptoms-causes/syc-20356180
    Head lice are tiny insects that feed on blood from the human scalp. Head lice most often affect children. The insects usually spread through direct transfer from the hair of one person to the hair of another. […] Head lice feed on blood from the scalp. The female louse lays eggs (nits) that stick to hair shafts. […] A head louse is a tan or grayish insect about the size of a strawberry seed. It feeds on human blood from the scalp. The female louse produces a sticky substance that firmly attaches each egg to the base of a hair shaft less than 1/4 inch (5 millimeters) from the scalp. […] A louse goes through three stages: Eggs that hatch after 6 to 9 days. Nymphs, immature forms of the louse that become mature adults after 9 to 12 days. Adult lice, which can live for 3 to 4 weeks. The female louse lays 6 to 10 eggs a day.
  • #17 Pediculosis and Pthiriasis (Lice Infestation): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/225013-overview
    Louse infestation remains a major problem throughout the world, making the diagnosis and treatment of louse infestation a common task in general medical practice. […] Lice are ectoparasites that live on the body. Lice feed on human blood after piercing the skin and injecting saliva, which may cause pruritus due to an allergic reaction. […] Lice are blood-sucking insects. Human lice have small anterior mouthparts with 6 hooklets that aid their attachment to human skin during feeding. […] The 3 types of human lice include the head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis), the body louse (Pediculus humanus corporis), and the crab louse (Pthirus pubis). […] The adult female louse lays eggs, called nits, and glues them at the base of the hair shaft. […] Nits hatch in about 8-9 days if they are kept near body temperature and mature in another 9-12 days.
  • #18 Head lice – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/head-lice/symptoms-causes/syc-20356180
    Head lice are tiny insects that feed on blood from the human scalp. Head lice most often affect children. The insects usually spread through direct transfer from the hair of one person to the hair of another. […] Head lice feed on blood from the scalp. The female louse lays eggs (nits) that stick to hair shafts. […] A head louse is a tan or grayish insect about the size of a strawberry seed. It feeds on human blood from the scalp. The female louse produces a sticky substance that firmly attaches each egg to the base of a hair shaft less than 1/4 inch (5 millimeters) from the scalp. […] A louse goes through three stages: Eggs that hatch after 6 to 9 days. Nymphs, immature forms of the louse that become mature adults after 9 to 12 days. Adult lice, which can live for 3 to 4 weeks. The female louse lays 6 to 10 eggs a day.
  • #19 Pediculosis capitis pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pediculosis_capitis_pathophysiology
    Life cycle of the head louse has three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. […] Nits are head lice eggs. They are hard to see and are often confused for dandruff or hair spray droplets. Nits are laid by the adult female and are cemented at the base of the hair shaft nearest the scalp. […] The egg hatches to release a nymph. […] The adult louse is about the size of a sesame seed, has 6 legs (each with claws), and is tan to grayish-white. […] Adult lice can live up to 30 days on a person’s head. To live, adult lice need to feed on blood several times daily. Without blood meals, the louse will die within 1 to 2 days off the host. […] Getting head lice is not related to cleanliness of the person or his or her environment. Head lice are mainly spread by direct contact with the hair of an infested person.
  • #20 Pediculosis capitis pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pediculosis_capitis_pathophysiology
    Life cycle of the head louse has three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. […] Nits are head lice eggs. They are hard to see and are often confused for dandruff or hair spray droplets. Nits are laid by the adult female and are cemented at the base of the hair shaft nearest the scalp. […] The egg hatches to release a nymph. […] The adult louse is about the size of a sesame seed, has 6 legs (each with claws), and is tan to grayish-white. […] Adult lice can live up to 30 days on a person’s head. To live, adult lice need to feed on blood several times daily. Without blood meals, the louse will die within 1 to 2 days off the host. […] Getting head lice is not related to cleanliness of the person or his or her environment. Head lice are mainly spread by direct contact with the hair of an infested person.
  • #21 Head lice – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/head-lice/symptoms-causes/syc-20356180
    Head lice are tiny insects that feed on blood from the human scalp. Head lice most often affect children. The insects usually spread through direct transfer from the hair of one person to the hair of another. […] Head lice feed on blood from the scalp. The female louse lays eggs (nits) that stick to hair shafts. […] A head louse is a tan or grayish insect about the size of a strawberry seed. It feeds on human blood from the scalp. The female louse produces a sticky substance that firmly attaches each egg to the base of a hair shaft less than 1/4 inch (5 millimeters) from the scalp. […] A louse goes through three stages: Eggs that hatch after 6 to 9 days. Nymphs, immature forms of the louse that become mature adults after 9 to 12 days. Adult lice, which can live for 3 to 4 weeks. The female louse lays 6 to 10 eggs a day.
  • #22 Head lice – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/head-lice/symptoms-causes/syc-20356180
    Head lice are tiny insects that feed on blood from the human scalp. Head lice most often affect children. The insects usually spread through direct transfer from the hair of one person to the hair of another. […] Head lice feed on blood from the scalp. The female louse lays eggs (nits) that stick to hair shafts. […] A head louse is a tan or grayish insect about the size of a strawberry seed. It feeds on human blood from the scalp. The female louse produces a sticky substance that firmly attaches each egg to the base of a hair shaft less than 1/4 inch (5 millimeters) from the scalp. […] A louse goes through three stages: Eggs that hatch after 6 to 9 days. Nymphs, immature forms of the louse that become mature adults after 9 to 12 days. Adult lice, which can live for 3 to 4 weeks. The female louse lays 6 to 10 eggs a day.
  • #23 Head lice – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/head-lice/symptoms-causes/syc-20356180
    Head lice are tiny insects that feed on blood from the human scalp. Head lice most often affect children. The insects usually spread through direct transfer from the hair of one person to the hair of another. […] Head lice feed on blood from the scalp. The female louse lays eggs (nits) that stick to hair shafts. […] A head louse is a tan or grayish insect about the size of a strawberry seed. It feeds on human blood from the scalp. The female louse produces a sticky substance that firmly attaches each egg to the base of a hair shaft less than 1/4 inch (5 millimeters) from the scalp. […] A louse goes through three stages: Eggs that hatch after 6 to 9 days. Nymphs, immature forms of the louse that become mature adults after 9 to 12 days. Adult lice, which can live for 3 to 4 weeks. The female louse lays 6 to 10 eggs a day.
  • #24 Head Lice: New Approaches May Help Overcome Pediculicide Resistance
    https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/head-lice-new-approaches-may-help-overcome-pediculicide-resistance
    Female head lice live for 17 to 22 days, potentially laying 10 eggs daily, or perhaps about 200 eggs per female, assuming she can locate a sexually mature male when fertilization is required. […] The mechanism for development of resistance is hypothesized to be alterations in amino acids located at the nerve sheath sodium channel; this phenomenon may also confer resistance to pyrethrins and permethrin. […] Resistance is the development of mechanisms to survive potentially deadly onslaughts. Once these successful mutations are incorporated into the DNA of the living being, they will continue to be passed to succeeding generations. […] Permethrin resistance may develop through several mechanisms. If the knockdown resistance (kdr) gene is involved, no strength of permethrin will be effective, which eliminates consideration of the 5% prescription concentration (e.g., Elimite). […] Its lack of ovicidal activity means that it does not kill nits, making a second treatment a necessity 7 days after the first treatment. […] As a result, it should be effective in lice resistant to older pesticides.
  • #25 Head Lice: An Under-Recognized Tropical Problem in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 97 Issue 6 (2017)
    https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/97/6/article-p1636.xml
    Head lice, caused by infestation with Pediculus humanus capitis, is an extremely common problem in tropical countries. Pediculus humanus capitis is an obligate human ectoparasite. Morphologically, head lice are indistinguishable from Pediculus humanus corporis, the human body louse, although they are slightly smaller. Unlike body lice, head lice have not clearly been proven to be vectors for infectious agents. Adult head lice develop through three nymphal stages and feed on blood from the scalp two to six times a day causing discomfort and pruritus. The complete life cycle takes 15-20 days, and adults survive up to 1 month. Adults mate once, and a fertilized female then produces 3 to 4 eggs per day for the remainder of their lives. Nymphs must feed immediately on hatching, and therefore, nits located more than 1 cm from the scalp are considered nonviable. Infestation results in distress, social stigma, and absence from school. Like other ectoparasitic infections, the prevalence of head lice may be high amongst children in remote and rural settings. In these settings, access to treatment is frequently limited, and many individuals rely on traditional medicine. There is increasing resistance to pyrethroids and malathion, the most commonly used first-line topical agents. More recently, both oral and topical ivermectin have shown promise for treating head lice, but access to these drugs to treat head lice is nonexistent in low-income settings. Mass treatment of scabies, onchocerciasis, or lymphatic filariasis might have an impact on head lice although data specifically examining this hypothesis are lacking, and there is a risk that resistance to ivermectin might develop.
  • #26 About Lice and Their Control | US EPA
    https://www.epa.gov/ipm/about-lice-and-their-control
    Head lice are tiny parasites that attach to human head hair and feed on blood through the skin. […] Head lice (Pediculus P. humanus) are one of 500 species of „sucking louse” that feed on mammalian blood, but one of only three species that feed specifically on human blood. […] Head lice are „oviparous,” which means that they lay eggs, and embryos develop almost entirely outside of the mother (and within the egg). […] Nymphs survive for eight to nine days and then transition into adults, which can live for one month. […] Lice cannot live without human blood for more than 24 hours. […] Nits will not live unless they get a meal of human blood as soon as they hatch. […] Lice do not jump or hop. They do crawl and cling. […] Lice cannot live on pets, so there is no reason to fear that lice may be hiding on your dog, cat or guinea pig.
  • #27 Pediculosis capitis pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pediculosis_capitis_pathophysiology
    Life cycle of the head louse has three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. […] Nits are head lice eggs. They are hard to see and are often confused for dandruff or hair spray droplets. Nits are laid by the adult female and are cemented at the base of the hair shaft nearest the scalp. […] The egg hatches to release a nymph. […] The adult louse is about the size of a sesame seed, has 6 legs (each with claws), and is tan to grayish-white. […] Adult lice can live up to 30 days on a person’s head. To live, adult lice need to feed on blood several times daily. Without blood meals, the louse will die within 1 to 2 days off the host. […] Getting head lice is not related to cleanliness of the person or his or her environment. Head lice are mainly spread by direct contact with the hair of an infested person.
  • #28 Head Lice: An Under-Recognized Tropical Problem in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 97 Issue 6 (2017)
    https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/97/6/article-p1636.xml
    Head lice, caused by infestation with Pediculus humanus capitis, is an extremely common problem in tropical countries. Pediculus humanus capitis is an obligate human ectoparasite. Morphologically, head lice are indistinguishable from Pediculus humanus corporis, the human body louse, although they are slightly smaller. Unlike body lice, head lice have not clearly been proven to be vectors for infectious agents. Adult head lice develop through three nymphal stages and feed on blood from the scalp two to six times a day causing discomfort and pruritus. The complete life cycle takes 15-20 days, and adults survive up to 1 month. Adults mate once, and a fertilized female then produces 3 to 4 eggs per day for the remainder of their lives. Nymphs must feed immediately on hatching, and therefore, nits located more than 1 cm from the scalp are considered nonviable. Infestation results in distress, social stigma, and absence from school. Like other ectoparasitic infections, the prevalence of head lice may be high amongst children in remote and rural settings. In these settings, access to treatment is frequently limited, and many individuals rely on traditional medicine. There is increasing resistance to pyrethroids and malathion, the most commonly used first-line topical agents. More recently, both oral and topical ivermectin have shown promise for treating head lice, but access to these drugs to treat head lice is nonexistent in low-income settings. Mass treatment of scabies, onchocerciasis, or lymphatic filariasis might have an impact on head lice although data specifically examining this hypothesis are lacking, and there is a risk that resistance to ivermectin might develop.
  • #29 Pediculosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470343/
    Patients frequently present with pruritis, typically from an immune-mediated hypersensitivity reaction. It may take 2 to 6 weeks to develop symptoms after the first exposure, while pruritis can develop 1 or 2 days after re-exposure. The itching induces scratching, which can lead to secondary bacterial infection. This can ultimately lead to complications such as impetigo and pyoderma. […] Body lice can transmit trench fever, relapsing fever, and epidemic typhus to humans. […] The prognosis of louse infestations is generally good. When used appropriately, the medications are very effective in eradicating nymphs and mature lice. Treatment failure can be the result of several causes, including lack of ovicidal activity, failure to remove live nits, non-compliance-especially with retreatment in 7-10 days, inadequate application of the pediculicide (ie, duration, amount), failure to treat close contacts, insufficient environmental eradication, and drug resistance to the pediculicide. Some patients with body lice may contract a louse-borne infection such as trench fever, typhus, or relapsing/recurrent fever, but these are rare.
  • #30 Lice and Scabies: Treatment Update | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2019/0515/p635.html
    Pediculosis and scabies are caused by ectoparasites. Pruritus is the most common presenting symptom. Head and pubic lice infestations are diagnosed with visualization of live lice. Nits (lice eggs or egg casings) alone are not sufficient to diagnose a current infestation. A no-nit policy for return to school is not recommended because nits can remain even after successful treatment. First-line pharmacologic treatment for pediculosis is permethrin 1% lotion or shampoo. Newer treatments are available but costly, and resistance patterns are generally unknown. Noninsecticidal agents, including dimethicone and isopropyl myristate, show promise in the treatment of pediculosis. […] The pruritus associated with pediculosis is a delayed hypersensitivity reaction, which may take four to six weeks to develop after the first exposure, with future exposures resulting in pruritus within one to two days.
  • #31 Pediculosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470343/
    Patients frequently present with pruritis, typically from an immune-mediated hypersensitivity reaction. It may take 2 to 6 weeks to develop symptoms after the first exposure, while pruritis can develop 1 or 2 days after re-exposure. The itching induces scratching, which can lead to secondary bacterial infection. This can ultimately lead to complications such as impetigo and pyoderma. […] Body lice can transmit trench fever, relapsing fever, and epidemic typhus to humans. […] The prognosis of louse infestations is generally good. When used appropriately, the medications are very effective in eradicating nymphs and mature lice. Treatment failure can be the result of several causes, including lack of ovicidal activity, failure to remove live nits, non-compliance-especially with retreatment in 7-10 days, inadequate application of the pediculicide (ie, duration, amount), failure to treat close contacts, insufficient environmental eradication, and drug resistance to the pediculicide. Some patients with body lice may contract a louse-borne infection such as trench fever, typhus, or relapsing/recurrent fever, but these are rare.
  • #32 Lice and Scabies: Treatment Update | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2019/0515/p635.html
    Pediculosis and scabies are caused by ectoparasites. Pruritus is the most common presenting symptom. Head and pubic lice infestations are diagnosed with visualization of live lice. Nits (lice eggs or egg casings) alone are not sufficient to diagnose a current infestation. A no-nit policy for return to school is not recommended because nits can remain even after successful treatment. First-line pharmacologic treatment for pediculosis is permethrin 1% lotion or shampoo. Newer treatments are available but costly, and resistance patterns are generally unknown. Noninsecticidal agents, including dimethicone and isopropyl myristate, show promise in the treatment of pediculosis. […] The pruritus associated with pediculosis is a delayed hypersensitivity reaction, which may take four to six weeks to develop after the first exposure, with future exposures resulting in pruritus within one to two days.
  • #33 Pediculosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470343/
    Patients frequently present with pruritis, typically from an immune-mediated hypersensitivity reaction. It may take 2 to 6 weeks to develop symptoms after the first exposure, while pruritis can develop 1 or 2 days after re-exposure. The itching induces scratching, which can lead to secondary bacterial infection. This can ultimately lead to complications such as impetigo and pyoderma. […] Body lice can transmit trench fever, relapsing fever, and epidemic typhus to humans. […] The prognosis of louse infestations is generally good. When used appropriately, the medications are very effective in eradicating nymphs and mature lice. Treatment failure can be the result of several causes, including lack of ovicidal activity, failure to remove live nits, non-compliance-especially with retreatment in 7-10 days, inadequate application of the pediculicide (ie, duration, amount), failure to treat close contacts, insufficient environmental eradication, and drug resistance to the pediculicide. Some patients with body lice may contract a louse-borne infection such as trench fever, typhus, or relapsing/recurrent fever, but these are rare.
  • #34 Lice and Scabies: Treatment Update | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2019/0515/p635.html
    Pediculosis and scabies are caused by ectoparasites. Pruritus is the most common presenting symptom. Head and pubic lice infestations are diagnosed with visualization of live lice. Nits (lice eggs or egg casings) alone are not sufficient to diagnose a current infestation. A no-nit policy for return to school is not recommended because nits can remain even after successful treatment. First-line pharmacologic treatment for pediculosis is permethrin 1% lotion or shampoo. Newer treatments are available but costly, and resistance patterns are generally unknown. Noninsecticidal agents, including dimethicone and isopropyl myristate, show promise in the treatment of pediculosis. […] The pruritus associated with pediculosis is a delayed hypersensitivity reaction, which may take four to six weeks to develop after the first exposure, with future exposures resulting in pruritus within one to two days.
  • #35 Lice-head/body/pubic (Pediculosis, phthirus infestation, lousiness) – Dermatology Advisor
    https://www.dermatologyadvisor.com/home/decision-support-in-medicine/dermatology/lice-head-body-pubic-pediculosis-phthirus-infestation-lousiness/
    Pediculosis refers to infection with head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis or Pediculus capitis), but the condition is also known as lousiness. […] Diagnosis needs to distinguish between inactive and active infections. Active infection is the presence of live lice or live eggs. Inactive infection is the presence only of hatched or dead eggs. […] In primary infections, these signs develop with a delay of 4 to 6 weeks, but in reinfections the signs appear within 24 to 48 hours. This indicates an immune-mediated response to head lice saliva, which may be a delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction similar to those seen in other ectoparasite infections like scabies. […] In rural Brazil, bacterial superinfection was diagnosed in 3% of pediculosis patients. In urban areas of France and Germany the rate was one percent or less.
  • #36 Pediculosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470343/
    Patients frequently present with pruritis, typically from an immune-mediated hypersensitivity reaction. It may take 2 to 6 weeks to develop symptoms after the first exposure, while pruritis can develop 1 or 2 days after re-exposure. The itching induces scratching, which can lead to secondary bacterial infection. This can ultimately lead to complications such as impetigo and pyoderma. […] Body lice can transmit trench fever, relapsing fever, and epidemic typhus to humans. […] The prognosis of louse infestations is generally good. When used appropriately, the medications are very effective in eradicating nymphs and mature lice. Treatment failure can be the result of several causes, including lack of ovicidal activity, failure to remove live nits, non-compliance-especially with retreatment in 7-10 days, inadequate application of the pediculicide (ie, duration, amount), failure to treat close contacts, insufficient environmental eradication, and drug resistance to the pediculicide. Some patients with body lice may contract a louse-borne infection such as trench fever, typhus, or relapsing/recurrent fever, but these are rare.
  • #37 Head lice. Pediculosis capitis
    https://dermnetnz.org/topics/head-lice
    Head lice are small, wingless insects that infest the human scalp. They are the most common of the 3 human lice species. […] The head louse, Pediculus humanus capitis, is an ectoparasite that feeds on human blood. It is 23 mm in length and has a flattened, elongated, grey coloured body that becomes reddish after feeding. The louse injects anticoagulant saliva into a person’s scalp to suck up the blood up to five times a day. […] The main suffocating agent used to kill the adult and nymph head lice is 4% dimethicone (also spelt dimeticone). Lice are unlikely to develop resistance due to the mechanism of action, and the product is safe and well tolerated. […] The most commonly used topical insecticides for head lice is malathion, but resistance has been reported and cure rates are reported to be as low as 33%.
  • #38 Head lice. Pediculosis capitis
    https://dermnetnz.org/topics/head-lice
    Head lice are small, wingless insects that infest the human scalp. They are the most common of the 3 human lice species. […] The head louse, Pediculus humanus capitis, is an ectoparasite that feeds on human blood. It is 23 mm in length and has a flattened, elongated, grey coloured body that becomes reddish after feeding. The louse injects anticoagulant saliva into a person’s scalp to suck up the blood up to five times a day. […] The main suffocating agent used to kill the adult and nymph head lice is 4% dimethicone (also spelt dimeticone). Lice are unlikely to develop resistance due to the mechanism of action, and the product is safe and well tolerated. […] The most commonly used topical insecticides for head lice is malathion, but resistance has been reported and cure rates are reported to be as low as 33%.
  • #39 Head lice – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/head-lice/symptoms-causes/syc-20356180
    Head lice crawl, but they can’t jump or fly. Head lice often spread from one person to another by direct head-to-head contact, often within a family or among children who have close contact at school or play. […] Head lice are spread primarily by direct head-to-head contact. So the risk of spreading head lice is greatest among children who play or go to school together. In the United States, cases of head lice most often occur in children in preschool through elementary school. […] If your child scratches an itchy scalp due to head lice, it’s possible for the skin to break and develop an infection. […] It’s difficult to prevent the spread of head lice among children in child care facilities and schools because there is so much close contact.
  • #40 Frontiers | Where Are We With Human Lice? A Review of the Current State of Knowledge
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cellular-and-infection-microbiology/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00474/full
    Body louse is the major vector of three humans pathogenic bacteria, which are: Rickettsia prowazekii, Borrelia recurrentis, and Bartonella quintana. […] The combined evidence from laboratory and epidemiological studies strongly implicates body lice as a vector of Yersinia pestis, the causal agent of plague. […] In recent decades, there has been a growing recognition that head lice are vectors of pathogens, which has changed the long-established paradigm that only body lice are vectors of disease. […] Based on the combined evidence of both epidemiological and laboratory studies, we believe that head lice can transmit disease to their human host under favorable epidemiological conditions, although its vectorial capacity is weaker compared to body lice.
  • #41 Head lice as vectors of pathogenic microorganisms | Tropical Medicine and Health | Full Text
    https://tropmedhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41182-023-00545-5
    Body lice and head lice are the most common ectoparasites of humans. […] The vector capacity of head lice is still a matter of debate. […] Data from epidemiological studies as well as historical observations demonstrate that body lice and head lice can carry the same array of pathogens. […] Since the presence of a bacterial pathogen in an arthropod is not sufficient to state that it can be transmitted to humans, and since experimental models are lacking, as yet one cannot conclude with certainty that head lice serve as vectors, although this review presents circumstantial evidence that they do. […] Adequately designed experimental and epidemiological studies are needed to ascertain the exact transmission potential of head lice. […] If head lice have a similar vector capacity for the transmission of important bacterial pathogens, then the potential health threat caused by head lice infestation should be several orders of magnitude greater compared to body lice.
  • #42 Lice – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/parasitic-skin-infections/lice
    Lice can infect the scalp, body, pubis, and eyelashes. […] Lice are wingless, blood-sucking insects that infest the head (Pediculus humanus var. capitis), body (P. humanus var. corporis), or pubis (Phthirus pubis). […] Head lice are easily transmitted from person to person with close contact (as occurs within households and classrooms) and may be ejected from hair by static electricity or wind; transmission by these routes (or by sharing of combs, brushes, and hats) is likely but unproved. […] Diagnosis of head lice depends on demonstration of living lice. […] Body lice primarily live on bedding and clothing, not people, and are most frequently found in cramped, crowded conditions (eg, military barracks, some households), conditions with poor hygiene, and places with communal beds.
  • #43 Pediculosis Corporis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482148/
    Body lice infestations can involve thousands of mites, each biting an average of 5 times daily. […] The most significant medical impact of body lice is their ability to transmit bacterial diseases, most notably trench fever caused by Bartonella quintana, relapsing fever caused by Borrelia recurrentis, and epidemic (louse-borne) typhus caused by Rickettsia prowazekii. […] During feeding, body lice pierce the skin, inject a salivary anticoagulant, and then suck the blood meal into their digestive tract. […] Bites of the body louse can produce a variety of skin lesions, and severe pruritus is thought to be due to an allergic or inflammatory reaction to the louse’s saliva. […] The most significant difference between body and head lice is the distinct ability of body lice to transmit the bacterial diseases trench fever, relapsing fever, and epidemic typhus to humans. […] Additional pathogenic bacteria in body lice include Salmonella typhi, Serratia marcescens, and Acinetobacter baumannii. […] The DNA of Yersinia pestis, which causes bubonic plague, has been identified in body lice, and it is believed they may serve as supplementary vectors for the organism.
  • #44 Pediculosis Corporis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482148/
    Body lice infestations can involve thousands of mites, each biting an average of 5 times daily. […] The most significant medical impact of body lice is their ability to transmit bacterial diseases, most notably trench fever caused by Bartonella quintana, relapsing fever caused by Borrelia recurrentis, and epidemic (louse-borne) typhus caused by Rickettsia prowazekii. […] During feeding, body lice pierce the skin, inject a salivary anticoagulant, and then suck the blood meal into their digestive tract. […] Bites of the body louse can produce a variety of skin lesions, and severe pruritus is thought to be due to an allergic or inflammatory reaction to the louse’s saliva. […] The most significant difference between body and head lice is the distinct ability of body lice to transmit the bacterial diseases trench fever, relapsing fever, and epidemic typhus to humans. […] Additional pathogenic bacteria in body lice include Salmonella typhi, Serratia marcescens, and Acinetobacter baumannii. […] The DNA of Yersinia pestis, which causes bubonic plague, has been identified in body lice, and it is believed they may serve as supplementary vectors for the organism.
  • #45 Lice (Phthiraptera) – Factsheet for health professionals
    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/all-topics-z/disease-vectors/facts/factsheet-lice-phthiraptera
    Lice (Phthiraptera) are a very diverse group of insects, exclusively adapted to parasitism. […] Lice can be divided into two main groups: sucking lice (Anoplura) and chewing lice (Mallophaga). […] Anoplura are important parasites of both humans and animals. […] Pediculosis is a contagious parasitic infestation, transmitted from human-to-human by close contact or, in body lice, via infested clothes or bed linen. […] Due to their blood feeding behaviour, body lice can transmit a great variety of diseases, such as epidemic typhus (caused by Rickettsia prowazekii), louse-borne relapsing fever (caused by Borrelia recurrentis), or trench fever (caused by Bartonella quintana). […] In animals, the presence of sucking lice can cause irritation through the permanent blood feeding. […] There is a significant immune response to sucking lice, which protects the host after multiple exposures.
  • #46 Lice (Phthiraptera) – Factsheet for health professionals
    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/all-topics-z/disease-vectors/facts/factsheet-lice-phthiraptera
    Lice (Phthiraptera) are a very diverse group of insects, exclusively adapted to parasitism. […] Lice can be divided into two main groups: sucking lice (Anoplura) and chewing lice (Mallophaga). […] Anoplura are important parasites of both humans and animals. […] Pediculosis is a contagious parasitic infestation, transmitted from human-to-human by close contact or, in body lice, via infested clothes or bed linen. […] Due to their blood feeding behaviour, body lice can transmit a great variety of diseases, such as epidemic typhus (caused by Rickettsia prowazekii), louse-borne relapsing fever (caused by Borrelia recurrentis), or trench fever (caused by Bartonella quintana). […] In animals, the presence of sucking lice can cause irritation through the permanent blood feeding. […] There is a significant immune response to sucking lice, which protects the host after multiple exposures.
  • #47 Lice (Phthiraptera) – Factsheet for health professionals
    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/all-topics-z/disease-vectors/facts/factsheet-lice-phthiraptera
    Lice (Phthiraptera) are a very diverse group of insects, exclusively adapted to parasitism. […] Lice can be divided into two main groups: sucking lice (Anoplura) and chewing lice (Mallophaga). […] Anoplura are important parasites of both humans and animals. […] Pediculosis is a contagious parasitic infestation, transmitted from human-to-human by close contact or, in body lice, via infested clothes or bed linen. […] Due to their blood feeding behaviour, body lice can transmit a great variety of diseases, such as epidemic typhus (caused by Rickettsia prowazekii), louse-borne relapsing fever (caused by Borrelia recurrentis), or trench fever (caused by Bartonella quintana). […] In animals, the presence of sucking lice can cause irritation through the permanent blood feeding. […] There is a significant immune response to sucking lice, which protects the host after multiple exposures.
  • #48 Pediculosis Corporis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482148/
    Body lice infestations can involve thousands of mites, each biting an average of 5 times daily. […] The most significant medical impact of body lice is their ability to transmit bacterial diseases, most notably trench fever caused by Bartonella quintana, relapsing fever caused by Borrelia recurrentis, and epidemic (louse-borne) typhus caused by Rickettsia prowazekii. […] During feeding, body lice pierce the skin, inject a salivary anticoagulant, and then suck the blood meal into their digestive tract. […] Bites of the body louse can produce a variety of skin lesions, and severe pruritus is thought to be due to an allergic or inflammatory reaction to the louse’s saliva. […] The most significant difference between body and head lice is the distinct ability of body lice to transmit the bacterial diseases trench fever, relapsing fever, and epidemic typhus to humans. […] Additional pathogenic bacteria in body lice include Salmonella typhi, Serratia marcescens, and Acinetobacter baumannii. […] The DNA of Yersinia pestis, which causes bubonic plague, has been identified in body lice, and it is believed they may serve as supplementary vectors for the organism.
  • #49 Yersinia pestis can infect the Pawlowsky glands of human body lice and be transmitted by louse bite | PLOS Biology
    https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002625
    Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague, is a highly lethal vector-borne pathogen responsible for killing large portions of Europes population during the Black Death of the Middle Ages. […] Human ectoparasites, such as the body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus), have largely been discounted due to their reputation as inefficient vectors of plague bacilli. Using a membrane-feeder adapted strain of body lice, we show that the digestive tract of some body lice become chronically infected with Y. pestis at bacteremia as low as 1 105 CFU/ml, and these lice routinely defecate Y. pestis. At higher bacteremia (1 107 CFU/ml), a subset of the lice develop an infection within the Pawlowsky glands (PGs), a pair of putative accessory salivary glands in the louse head. Lice that developed PG infection transmitted Y. pestis more consistently than those with bacteria only in the digestive tract.
  • #50 Lice – Dermatologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/parasitic-skin-infections/lice
    Body lice are main vectors of epidemic typhus, trench fever, and relapsing fever. […] Diagnosis of body lice is by demonstration of lice and nits in clothing, especially at the seams. […] Pubic lice (crabs) are sexually transmitted in adolescents and adults and may be transmitted to children by close parental contact. […] Diagnosis of pubic lice is by demonstration of nits, lice, or both by close inspection (Wood lamp) or microscopic analysis. […] Treatment of pubic lice is outlined in the table. Initial treatment is typically with topical pediculicides.
  • #51 Pediculosis pubis and pediculosis ciliaris – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pediculosis-pubis-and-pediculosis-ciliaris
    Pediculosis pubis (also known as phthiriasis pubis), pediculosis corporis, and pediculosis capitis are disorders caused by infestation by one of three varieties of lice that specifically infest humans. Pediculosis pubis is usually sexually transmitted and can extend beyond the pubic area to involve other areas of the body, including the eyelashes (also known as pediculosis ciliaris and phthiriasis palpebrarum). Phthirus pubis, the crab louse, is the responsible organism. […] The life span of the female crab louse is three to four weeks, during which time it lays a maximum of three eggs (nits) per day. The eggs are cemented firmly to the base of a hair and hatch after six to eight days. […] P. pubis is usually transmitted during sexual contact. Transmission via contact with fomites, such as clothing, towels, or linen, may also occur but is thought to be less common. Acquisition of P. pubis from a toilet seat is unlikely because the organism gravitates toward warm environments and is not adapted to crawling on smooth surfaces.
  • #52 Pediculosis pubis and pediculosis ciliaris – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pediculosis-pubis-and-pediculosis-ciliaris
    Pediculosis pubis (also known as phthiriasis pubis), pediculosis corporis, and pediculosis capitis are disorders caused by infestation by one of three varieties of lice that specifically infest humans. Pediculosis pubis is usually sexually transmitted and can extend beyond the pubic area to involve other areas of the body, including the eyelashes (also known as pediculosis ciliaris and phthiriasis palpebrarum). Phthirus pubis, the crab louse, is the responsible organism. […] The life span of the female crab louse is three to four weeks, during which time it lays a maximum of three eggs (nits) per day. The eggs are cemented firmly to the base of a hair and hatch after six to eight days. […] P. pubis is usually transmitted during sexual contact. Transmission via contact with fomites, such as clothing, towels, or linen, may also occur but is thought to be less common. Acquisition of P. pubis from a toilet seat is unlikely because the organism gravitates toward warm environments and is not adapted to crawling on smooth surfaces.
  • #53 Pediculosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470343/
    Patients frequently present with pruritis, typically from an immune-mediated hypersensitivity reaction. It may take 2 to 6 weeks to develop symptoms after the first exposure, while pruritis can develop 1 or 2 days after re-exposure. The itching induces scratching, which can lead to secondary bacterial infection. This can ultimately lead to complications such as impetigo and pyoderma. […] Body lice can transmit trench fever, relapsing fever, and epidemic typhus to humans. […] The prognosis of louse infestations is generally good. When used appropriately, the medications are very effective in eradicating nymphs and mature lice. Treatment failure can be the result of several causes, including lack of ovicidal activity, failure to remove live nits, non-compliance-especially with retreatment in 7-10 days, inadequate application of the pediculicide (ie, duration, amount), failure to treat close contacts, insufficient environmental eradication, and drug resistance to the pediculicide. Some patients with body lice may contract a louse-borne infection such as trench fever, typhus, or relapsing/recurrent fever, but these are rare.
  • #54 Lice infestation – Knowledge @ AMBOSS
    https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/lice-infestation/
    Complications of lice infestation include secondary skin infections from scratching. […] The body louse acts as a vector for louse-borne diseases. […] Identification of 1 viable louse is necessary for diagnostic confirmation of head lice; detection of nits alone is insufficient. […] Body lice are most often found in clothing seams rather than on the skin. […] Eyelash lice in children may be a sign of sexual abuse. […] Diagnosis is confirmed if the following are visualized: [2] 1 viable louse. […] Tailor treatment based on the location of infestation. […] Advise all patients on measures to prevent lice transmission and reinfection. […] Chemical environmental sprays are not routinely recommended for lice management and should only be used if there is potential for transmission of louse-borne disease from body lice.
  • #55 Lice-head/body/pubic (Pediculosis, phthirus infestation, lousiness) – Dermatology Advisor
    https://www.dermatologyadvisor.com/home/decision-support-in-medicine/dermatology/lice-head-body-pubic-pediculosis-phthirus-infestation-lousiness/
    Lice-induced eczema on the neck and scalp may be caused by long-term chronic pediculosis accompanied by routine scratching. […] Human lice belong to the phylum Arthropoda, the class Insecta, the order Phthiraptera, and the suborder Anoplura (blood sucking parasites of mammals). […] Anoplura lice are small insects (average 2mm; range 0.5 to 8mm long). […] The female louse cannot survive for more than 3 days without a blood meal. […] Eggs are laid at the base of the hair shaft, within 2mm of the scalp. […] Infestations can build up quickly. In the absence of limiting factors (ie, in a controlled environment) lice can increase their population size by 31 times per generation with the population doubling every 6 days. […] Anemia from blood loss due to head lice infestation is possible and has been documented in patients with persistent pediculosis with hundreds of head lice.
  • #56 Lice Infestation – Skin Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/skin-disorders/parasitic-skin-infections/lice-infestation
    Body lice bites cause small, red, pinpoint holes in the skin. […] Pubic lice bites may also cause bluish gray spots to form on the chest, buttocks, and thighs. […] Adult body lice and their eggs also may be found in the seams of clothing and bedding. […] Most drug treatments also kill nits but do not remove them. […] Because the nits are so strongly stuck to the hair, several nonprescription preparations (shampoos, gels, and sprays) are available to loosen them. […] For head lice, doctors do not have good evidence that it is necessary to clean or throw away people’s personal items or to exclude people from school or work. […] Pubic lice can be treated with nonprescription shampoos and creams containing pyrethrins plus piperonyl butoxide or lindane, as head lice are treated. […] Usually, no drug is used to eliminate body lice because body lice are in clothing and linens and not the person.
  • #57 Lice-head/body/pubic (Pediculosis, phthirus infestation, lousiness) – Dermatology Advisor
    https://www.dermatologyadvisor.com/home/decision-support-in-medicine/dermatology/lice-head-body-pubic-pediculosis-phthirus-infestation-lousiness/
    Lice-induced eczema on the neck and scalp may be caused by long-term chronic pediculosis accompanied by routine scratching. […] Human lice belong to the phylum Arthropoda, the class Insecta, the order Phthiraptera, and the suborder Anoplura (blood sucking parasites of mammals). […] Anoplura lice are small insects (average 2mm; range 0.5 to 8mm long). […] The female louse cannot survive for more than 3 days without a blood meal. […] Eggs are laid at the base of the hair shaft, within 2mm of the scalp. […] Infestations can build up quickly. In the absence of limiting factors (ie, in a controlled environment) lice can increase their population size by 31 times per generation with the population doubling every 6 days. […] Anemia from blood loss due to head lice infestation is possible and has been documented in patients with persistent pediculosis with hundreds of head lice.
  • #58 Overview of Lice in Animals – Integumentary System – Merck Veterinary Manual
    https://www.merckvetmanual.com/integumentary-system/lice/overview-of-lice-in-animals
    Lice are small, wingless insects that infest the hairs, skin, and feathers of animals. […] Lice are wingless, flattened insects, ranging from 1 to 8 mm long and visible to the naked eye; however, magnification is often required to identify the species. […] Completion of one generation takes ~34 weeks. Usually, lice are transmitted by direct host contact. […] Pediculosis can result in dermatologic disease, production loss, and occasionally anemia due to blood loss. In addition, lice may be vectors of viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Some lice species also serve as intermediate hosts of other parasites, such as cestodes. […] Successful louse control requires addressing multiple factors, including treatment of the affected animal(s), treatment of contact animals, environmental control, and elimination of stressors that either permitted initial infestation or exacerbated infestation.
  • #59 Frontiers | Where Are We With Human Lice? A Review of the Current State of Knowledge
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cellular-and-infection-microbiology/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00474/full
    Body louse is the major vector of three humans pathogenic bacteria, which are: Rickettsia prowazekii, Borrelia recurrentis, and Bartonella quintana. […] The combined evidence from laboratory and epidemiological studies strongly implicates body lice as a vector of Yersinia pestis, the causal agent of plague. […] In recent decades, there has been a growing recognition that head lice are vectors of pathogens, which has changed the long-established paradigm that only body lice are vectors of disease. […] Based on the combined evidence of both epidemiological and laboratory studies, we believe that head lice can transmit disease to their human host under favorable epidemiological conditions, although its vectorial capacity is weaker compared to body lice.
  • #60 Lice (Phthiraptera) – Factsheet for health professionals
    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/all-topics-z/disease-vectors/facts/factsheet-lice-phthiraptera
    In domestic animals, sucking lice can also transmit some diseases. […] Chewing lice do not play an important role in pathogen transmission. […] The life cycle of sucking and chewing lice is generally similar. […] Most sucking lice cannot survive more than a few hours without a blood meal, hence their limited ability to survive off-host. […] As their name suggests, sucking lice feed primarily on blood. […] Chewing lice typically feed on various skin products (fur, feathers, skin debris, secretions). […] Only the body louse is considered to be a vector of human pathogens. […] The diseases transmitted by body lice are usually associated with overcrowded and unsanitary conditions where basic hygiene is lacking and regular washing and changing of clothes is not possible.
  • #61 Frontiers | Where Are We With Human Lice? A Review of the Current State of Knowledge
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cellular-and-infection-microbiology/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00474/full
    Body louse is the major vector of three humans pathogenic bacteria, which are: Rickettsia prowazekii, Borrelia recurrentis, and Bartonella quintana. […] The combined evidence from laboratory and epidemiological studies strongly implicates body lice as a vector of Yersinia pestis, the causal agent of plague. […] In recent decades, there has been a growing recognition that head lice are vectors of pathogens, which has changed the long-established paradigm that only body lice are vectors of disease. […] Based on the combined evidence of both epidemiological and laboratory studies, we believe that head lice can transmit disease to their human host under favorable epidemiological conditions, although its vectorial capacity is weaker compared to body lice.
  • #62 Head lice as vectors of pathogenic microorganisms | Tropical Medicine and Health | Full Text
    https://tropmedhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41182-023-00545-5
    Body lice and head lice are the most common ectoparasites of humans. […] The vector capacity of head lice is still a matter of debate. […] Data from epidemiological studies as well as historical observations demonstrate that body lice and head lice can carry the same array of pathogens. […] Since the presence of a bacterial pathogen in an arthropod is not sufficient to state that it can be transmitted to humans, and since experimental models are lacking, as yet one cannot conclude with certainty that head lice serve as vectors, although this review presents circumstantial evidence that they do. […] Adequately designed experimental and epidemiological studies are needed to ascertain the exact transmission potential of head lice. […] If head lice have a similar vector capacity for the transmission of important bacterial pathogens, then the potential health threat caused by head lice infestation should be several orders of magnitude greater compared to body lice.
  • #63 Yersinia pestis can infect the Pawlowsky glands of human body lice and be transmitted by louse bite | PLOS Biology
    https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002625
    The body louses high level of susceptibility to infection by gram-negative bacteria and their potential to transmit plague bacilli by multiple mechanisms supports the hypothesis that they may have played a role in previous human plague pandemics and local outbreaks. […] Here, we use a standardized membrane feeder-adapted body louse model to systematically analyze louse vector competence for Y. pestis. […] Our analysis revealed that body lice become chronically infected, shed culturable Y. pestis, and routinely transmit plague bacilli following ingestion of infectious doses corresponding to the range of bacteremia observed in clinical cases of plague. Furthermore, using fluorescence microscopy and vector transmission assays we show that plague bacilli can colonize a set of putative salivary glands unique to lice, resulting in an enhanced ability of these lice to transmit by a previously undescribed bite-based mechanism.
  • #64 Yersinia pestis can infect the Pawlowsky glands of human body lice and be transmitted by louse bite | PLOS Biology
    https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002625
    Our experiments demonstrate that Y. pestis can colonize human body lice and be transmitted for at least 1 week, and likely longer. […] Of particular import is the finding that the body louse PGs can become colonized by Y. pestis in a subset of infected lice which routinely transmit plague bacilli in concentrations sufficient to initiate disease in humans. […] Collectively, the data indicate that lice that develop a PG infection transmit Y. pestis more consistently and in greater numbers than those with solely a midgut infection in our transmission model.
  • #65 Human pediculosis, a global public health problem | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text
    https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-022-00986-w
    Human pediculosis is caused by hematophagous lice, which are transmitted between individuals via direct and/or indirect contact. […] Emerging evidence suggests that head lice and body lice should be considered conspecific, with different genotypes and ecotypes. […] In addition to the direct effect on human health, lice can serve as vectors of disease-causing pathogens. […] More progress can be made if emphasis is placed on the use of emerging omics technologies to elucidate the mechanisms that underpin the physiological, ecological, and evolutionary aspects of lice. […] The use of insecticides plays a crucial role in the treatment and prevention of louse infestation. […] The advances in omics technologies have revolutionized many scientific disciplines and can be a useful complement to the currently used methods to improve the understanding of the mechanisms and factors that mediate the louse’s vectorial capacity and their interaction with the various pathogens they transmit.
  • #66 Human pediculosis, a global public health problem | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text
    https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-022-00986-w
    Challenges associated with the control of resistant lice highlight the need for more in depth understanding of the mechanisms of insecticide resistance, which may also lead to identification of new targets for the development and/or optimization of more effective compounds. […] Recent advances in omics (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics) technologies can enable detailed characterization of any biological system at an unprecedented level and can therefore facilitate the understanding of the mechanism (s) that drive resistance of lice to insecticides.
  • #67 Head Lice: New Approaches May Help Overcome Pediculicide Resistance
    https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/head-lice-new-approaches-may-help-overcome-pediculicide-resistance
    Female head lice live for 17 to 22 days, potentially laying 10 eggs daily, or perhaps about 200 eggs per female, assuming she can locate a sexually mature male when fertilization is required. […] The mechanism for development of resistance is hypothesized to be alterations in amino acids located at the nerve sheath sodium channel; this phenomenon may also confer resistance to pyrethrins and permethrin. […] Resistance is the development of mechanisms to survive potentially deadly onslaughts. Once these successful mutations are incorporated into the DNA of the living being, they will continue to be passed to succeeding generations. […] Permethrin resistance may develop through several mechanisms. If the knockdown resistance (kdr) gene is involved, no strength of permethrin will be effective, which eliminates consideration of the 5% prescription concentration (e.g., Elimite). […] Its lack of ovicidal activity means that it does not kill nits, making a second treatment a necessity 7 days after the first treatment. […] As a result, it should be effective in lice resistant to older pesticides.
  • #68 Mechanism behind Resistance against the Organophosphate Azamethiphos in Salmon Lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0124220
    Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is the primary target for organophosphates (OP). Several mutations have been reported in AChE to be associated with the reduced sensitivity against OP in various arthropods. […] Hence, in the present study, we aimed to determine the association of AChE(s) gene(s) with resistance against OP. […] The significantly higher frequency of the mutant allele (362Tyr) in the resistant strains clearly indicated the possible association of Phe362Tyr mutation in L. salmonis ace1a with resistance towards azamethiphos. […] Based on all these observations, the present study, for the first time, presents the mechanism of resistance in L. salmonis against azamethiphos. […] Known resistance mechanisms towards organophosphates in arthropods include behavioral factors (the arthropod avoids the agent) and metabolic factors (e.g. enhanced activity of glutathion S-transferase or unspecific esterases). However, point mutations in AChE have been reported to be the most common mechanism behind reduced sensitivity in arthropods against OP.
  • #69 Mechanism behind Resistance against the Organophosphate Azamethiphos in Salmon Lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0124220
    Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is the primary target for organophosphates (OP). Several mutations have been reported in AChE to be associated with the reduced sensitivity against OP in various arthropods. […] Hence, in the present study, we aimed to determine the association of AChE(s) gene(s) with resistance against OP. […] The significantly higher frequency of the mutant allele (362Tyr) in the resistant strains clearly indicated the possible association of Phe362Tyr mutation in L. salmonis ace1a with resistance towards azamethiphos. […] Based on all these observations, the present study, for the first time, presents the mechanism of resistance in L. salmonis against azamethiphos. […] Known resistance mechanisms towards organophosphates in arthropods include behavioral factors (the arthropod avoids the agent) and metabolic factors (e.g. enhanced activity of glutathion S-transferase or unspecific esterases). However, point mutations in AChE have been reported to be the most common mechanism behind reduced sensitivity in arthropods against OP.
  • #70
    https://medicine.ekmd.huji.ac.il/en/research/kostasm/Pages/project_01.aspx
    The pubic or crab louse (Pthirus pubis), is a parasitic insect spending its entire life on human hair and feeding exclusively on blood. […] The emotional reactions of kindergarten children to head lice infestation, was studied by examining their drawings on lice and lice-related subjects. […] The efficacy of pediculicidal products in Israel was re-evaluated in 1998 in a review article published in the journal „Harefuah” (Mumcuoglu Ingber, 1999). […] The susceptibility of head lice collected from children and that of a laboratory colony of body lice to the insecticides such as malathion, deltamethrin, fenitrothion, dieldrin and permethrin was evaluated using standard WHO papers. […] Four years after the introduction of permethrin-based pediculicides on the Israeli market, local head lice became resistant to this insecticide.
  • #71 Mechanism behind Resistance against the Organophosphate Azamethiphos in Salmon Lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0124220
    Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is the primary target for organophosphates (OP). Several mutations have been reported in AChE to be associated with the reduced sensitivity against OP in various arthropods. […] Hence, in the present study, we aimed to determine the association of AChE(s) gene(s) with resistance against OP. […] The significantly higher frequency of the mutant allele (362Tyr) in the resistant strains clearly indicated the possible association of Phe362Tyr mutation in L. salmonis ace1a with resistance towards azamethiphos. […] Based on all these observations, the present study, for the first time, presents the mechanism of resistance in L. salmonis against azamethiphos. […] Known resistance mechanisms towards organophosphates in arthropods include behavioral factors (the arthropod avoids the agent) and metabolic factors (e.g. enhanced activity of glutathion S-transferase or unspecific esterases). However, point mutations in AChE have been reported to be the most common mechanism behind reduced sensitivity in arthropods against OP.
  • #72 Mechanism behind Resistance against the Organophosphate Azamethiphos in Salmon Lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0124220
    The full length cDNA sequences encoding the two AChEs in L. salmonis were identified and fully characterized. […] In the present study, we aimed to determine the cause of reduced sensitivity in salmon lice against azamethiphos. […] The Phe362Tyr mutation in L. salmonis ace1a, which corresponds to codon 331 in the Torpedo californica AChE, was validated by High Resolution Melt (HRM) analyses, which is a simple rapid tool to screen single base changes (mutations/polymorphisms) with high sensitivity and accuracy. […] The 3D modeling was performed using SWISS MODEL. The 3D structure of the native enzyme from Drosophila melanogaster (PDB ID: 1qo9) was used as a template. […] The generated pdb files are included in the supplementary material. […] The docking of azamethiphos to the enzyme also suggested that both 362Tyr and Tyr152 formed H-bonds with azamethiphos in the mutated enzyme, thereby interfering with the capability of azamethiphos to bind to serine in position 230. […] Together, all the observations of the present study, clearly point towards a strong association of the Phe362Tyr substitution in L. salmonis with decreased sensitivity of sea lice towards azamethiphos.
  • #73 Head lice infestation – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_lice_infestation
    Resistance to several commonly used treatments is increasing worldwide, with patterns of resistance varying by region. Head lice have demonstrated resistance to permethrin, malathion, phenothrin, and carbaryl in several countries around the world. A previous method used to delay resistance included utilizing a rotating list of recommended insecticides by health authorities. The mosaic model is the current recommendation, in which it is advised to use one product for a treatment course, followed by a different insecticide from another substance class if the first treatment fails.
  • #74 Head lice infestation – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_lice_infestation
    Resistance to several commonly used treatments is increasing worldwide, with patterns of resistance varying by region. Head lice have demonstrated resistance to permethrin, malathion, phenothrin, and carbaryl in several countries around the world. A previous method used to delay resistance included utilizing a rotating list of recommended insecticides by health authorities. The mosaic model is the current recommendation, in which it is advised to use one product for a treatment course, followed by a different insecticide from another substance class if the first treatment fails.
  • #75
    https://bpac.org.nz/2017/dimethicone.aspx
    Lice are unlikely to develop resistance to dimethicone lotion as it is not an insecticide and instead kills lice by suffocation. […] Dimethicone is not an insecticide. It kills lice by suffocation and disrupting their ability to regulate water. Products with this mechanism of action may become the preferred treatment for head lice as it is unlikely lice will develop resistance, which can occur with insecticide-based treatments. […] Dimethicone is derived from silicone oil. It is not an insecticide, but eradicates adult and nymph lice via disruption of water homeostasis and suffocation. […] Due to the mechanism of action of dimethicone, it is thought to be highly unlikely that lice will develop resistance. This may make it a preferable treatment option to insecticide-based treatments, to which lice can develop resistance.
  • #76
    https://bpac.org.nz/2017/dimethicone.aspx
    Lice are unlikely to develop resistance to dimethicone lotion as it is not an insecticide and instead kills lice by suffocation. […] Dimethicone is not an insecticide. It kills lice by suffocation and disrupting their ability to regulate water. Products with this mechanism of action may become the preferred treatment for head lice as it is unlikely lice will develop resistance, which can occur with insecticide-based treatments. […] Dimethicone is derived from silicone oil. It is not an insecticide, but eradicates adult and nymph lice via disruption of water homeostasis and suffocation. […] Due to the mechanism of action of dimethicone, it is thought to be highly unlikely that lice will develop resistance. This may make it a preferable treatment option to insecticide-based treatments, to which lice can develop resistance.
  • #77
    https://bpac.org.nz/2017/dimethicone.aspx
    Lice are unlikely to develop resistance to dimethicone lotion as it is not an insecticide and instead kills lice by suffocation. […] Dimethicone is not an insecticide. It kills lice by suffocation and disrupting their ability to regulate water. Products with this mechanism of action may become the preferred treatment for head lice as it is unlikely lice will develop resistance, which can occur with insecticide-based treatments. […] Dimethicone is derived from silicone oil. It is not an insecticide, but eradicates adult and nymph lice via disruption of water homeostasis and suffocation. […] Due to the mechanism of action of dimethicone, it is thought to be highly unlikely that lice will develop resistance. This may make it a preferable treatment option to insecticide-based treatments, to which lice can develop resistance.
  • #78 The Medical Letter Home Page | The Medical Letter, Inc.
    https://secure.medicalletter.org/TML-article-1679e
    Topical ivermectin lotion 0.5% (Sklice, and generics), which has been available by prescription since 2012, is now FDA-approved for sale over the counter (OTC) for treatment of head lice in patients 6 months old. […] Ivermectin is a fermentation product of Streptomyces avermitilis, a soil-dwelling actinomycete. It binds to glutamate-gated chloride channels in parasites such as lice, inducing paralysis and death. […] Ivermectin 0.5% lotion is not directly ovicidal, but lice that hatch from treated eggs die within 48 hours, so retreatment is usually not necessary. […] Resistance of lice to ivermectin is rare.
  • #79 The Medical Letter Home Page | The Medical Letter, Inc.
    https://secure.medicalletter.org/TML-article-1679e
    Topical ivermectin lotion 0.5% (Sklice, and generics), which has been available by prescription since 2012, is now FDA-approved for sale over the counter (OTC) for treatment of head lice in patients 6 months old. […] Ivermectin is a fermentation product of Streptomyces avermitilis, a soil-dwelling actinomycete. It binds to glutamate-gated chloride channels in parasites such as lice, inducing paralysis and death. […] Ivermectin 0.5% lotion is not directly ovicidal, but lice that hatch from treated eggs die within 48 hours, so retreatment is usually not necessary. […] Resistance of lice to ivermectin is rare.
  • #80 Human lice: Spectators and actors of the history of humanity through the ages – Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology
    https://ijdvl.com/human-lice-spectators-and-actors-of-the-history-of-humanity-through-the-ages/
    Two families of lice belonging to the suborder Anoplura are found in humans and represent a paradigmatic example of cospeciation, a form of coevolution in which speciation of one species dictates speciation of another species, typical of host-parasite relationship. The family Pediculidae includes the genus Pediculus, shared with chimpanzee, and the family Pthiridae includes the genus Pthirus, shared with gorillas. […] Although head lice have a bad social reputation and is commonly thought that it afflict unclean subjects, they carry negligible risk of disease transmission: Pediculus humanus became dangerous during times of war and deprivation, such as in the Nazi camps when lice infestation caused the spread of Rickettsia prowazeki, which lives in the louse’s gut and is excreted in its feces. Rickettsia prowazeki is the causative agent of epidemic typhus that killed thousands of prisoners, including Anne Frank, a Jewish girl author of the Diary of a young girl.
  • #81 Human lice: Spectators and actors of the history of humanity through the ages – Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology
    https://ijdvl.com/human-lice-spectators-and-actors-of-the-history-of-humanity-through-the-ages/
    Two families of lice belonging to the suborder Anoplura are found in humans and represent a paradigmatic example of cospeciation, a form of coevolution in which speciation of one species dictates speciation of another species, typical of host-parasite relationship. The family Pediculidae includes the genus Pediculus, shared with chimpanzee, and the family Pthiridae includes the genus Pthirus, shared with gorillas. […] Although head lice have a bad social reputation and is commonly thought that it afflict unclean subjects, they carry negligible risk of disease transmission: Pediculus humanus became dangerous during times of war and deprivation, such as in the Nazi camps when lice infestation caused the spread of Rickettsia prowazeki, which lives in the louse’s gut and is excreted in its feces. Rickettsia prowazeki is the causative agent of epidemic typhus that killed thousands of prisoners, including Anne Frank, a Jewish girl author of the Diary of a young girl.
  • #82 Head Lice: Where Do They Come From?
    https://www.healthline.com/health/lice/where-do-lice-come-from
    Lice are extremely contagious insect parasites that cause an infestation known as pediculosis. […] Lice are insect parasites. This means they must feed off another living body to survive. Their source of food is human blood, which they get from your body or scalp. […] About 42,000 to 72,000 years ago, human lice separated into head and body lice. The discovery of genetic differences between head and body lice supports theories that this time period is when people began wearing clothing. […] While head lice remained on the scalp, body lice mutated into parasites with claws that can grab onto the smoother fibers of clothing rather than needle-thin hair shafts. […] Head lice are not the same as body lice. People of all genders, ages, and races can get head lice. Having head lice doesn’t indicate a person’s improper hygiene, and head lice don’t carry diseases. […] In existence for basically as long as humans have been around, lice aren’t likely to become extinct any time soon. In particular, head lice are very common, and getting them is not an indication of improper hygiene.
  • #83 Head Lice: Where Do They Come From?
    https://www.healthline.com/health/lice/where-do-lice-come-from
    Lice are extremely contagious insect parasites that cause an infestation known as pediculosis. […] Lice are insect parasites. This means they must feed off another living body to survive. Their source of food is human blood, which they get from your body or scalp. […] About 42,000 to 72,000 years ago, human lice separated into head and body lice. The discovery of genetic differences between head and body lice supports theories that this time period is when people began wearing clothing. […] While head lice remained on the scalp, body lice mutated into parasites with claws that can grab onto the smoother fibers of clothing rather than needle-thin hair shafts. […] Head lice are not the same as body lice. People of all genders, ages, and races can get head lice. Having head lice doesn’t indicate a person’s improper hygiene, and head lice don’t carry diseases. […] In existence for basically as long as humans have been around, lice aren’t likely to become extinct any time soon. In particular, head lice are very common, and getting them is not an indication of improper hygiene.
  • #84 Host specificity of chewing lice on pocket gophers: a potential mechanism for cospeciation | Phthiraptera.myspecies.info
    https://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/content/host-specificity-chewing-lice-pocket-gophers-potential-mechanism-cospeciation
    Pocket gophers (Rodentia: Geomyidae) and their ectoparasitic chewing lice (Phthiraptera Trichodectidae) have congruent phylogenies and show evidence of cospeciation. […] We examined a potential mechanism that could generate the observed pattern of cospeciation by testing the ability of lice to survive and reproduce on hosts other than their own. […] Although lice established successful colonies at each level, colonization of new hosts diminished with increasing phylogenetic distance from the natural host of each louse. […] We suggest that the pattern of cospeciation results primarily from lack of opportunity for lice to colonize new hosts. […] However, in rare cases where lice disperse to new hosts, survival may be difficult on hosts that are not closely related to the natural host, which would reinforce the pattern of cospeciation.
  • #85 Host specificity of chewing lice on pocket gophers: a potential mechanism for cospeciation | Phthiraptera.myspecies.info
    https://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/content/host-specificity-chewing-lice-pocket-gophers-potential-mechanism-cospeciation
    Pocket gophers (Rodentia: Geomyidae) and their ectoparasitic chewing lice (Phthiraptera Trichodectidae) have congruent phylogenies and show evidence of cospeciation. […] We examined a potential mechanism that could generate the observed pattern of cospeciation by testing the ability of lice to survive and reproduce on hosts other than their own. […] Although lice established successful colonies at each level, colonization of new hosts diminished with increasing phylogenetic distance from the natural host of each louse. […] We suggest that the pattern of cospeciation results primarily from lack of opportunity for lice to colonize new hosts. […] However, in rare cases where lice disperse to new hosts, survival may be difficult on hosts that are not closely related to the natural host, which would reinforce the pattern of cospeciation.
  • #86 Frontiers | Where Are We With Human Lice? A Review of the Current State of Knowledge
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cellular-and-infection-microbiology/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00474/full
    Body and head lice host the same primary endosymbiotic bacteria (Candidatus Riesia pediculicola) that supply the lice with B-vitamins, absent in the human blood. […] Moreover, in addition to being fundamental to lice development and survival, which makes it an interesting target for the development of an alternative lice control strategy, the question of whether this symbiont has an influence on lice behavior or competence as a disease vector merits further study. […] The body and head lice have a morphology and biological characteristics almost similar, but differ in their ecological niches. […] Despite numerous studies, the genetic basis and evolutionary relationships among body and head lice remain obscure. […] Taken together, these data evidence that the phenotypic shifts associated with the emergence of body lice are likely to be a consequence of regulatory changes, possibly epigenetic in origin, triggered by environmental cues.
  • #87 Frontiers | Where Are We With Human Lice? A Review of the Current State of Knowledge
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cellular-and-infection-microbiology/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00474/full
    Body and head lice host the same primary endosymbiotic bacteria (Candidatus Riesia pediculicola) that supply the lice with B-vitamins, absent in the human blood. […] Moreover, in addition to being fundamental to lice development and survival, which makes it an interesting target for the development of an alternative lice control strategy, the question of whether this symbiont has an influence on lice behavior or competence as a disease vector merits further study. […] The body and head lice have a morphology and biological characteristics almost similar, but differ in their ecological niches. […] Despite numerous studies, the genetic basis and evolutionary relationships among body and head lice remain obscure. […] Taken together, these data evidence that the phenotypic shifts associated with the emergence of body lice are likely to be a consequence of regulatory changes, possibly epigenetic in origin, triggered by environmental cues.
  • #88 Frontiers | Where Are We With Human Lice? A Review of the Current State of Knowledge
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cellular-and-infection-microbiology/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00474/full
    Body and head lice host the same primary endosymbiotic bacteria (Candidatus Riesia pediculicola) that supply the lice with B-vitamins, absent in the human blood. […] Moreover, in addition to being fundamental to lice development and survival, which makes it an interesting target for the development of an alternative lice control strategy, the question of whether this symbiont has an influence on lice behavior or competence as a disease vector merits further study. […] The body and head lice have a morphology and biological characteristics almost similar, but differ in their ecological niches. […] Despite numerous studies, the genetic basis and evolutionary relationships among body and head lice remain obscure. […] Taken together, these data evidence that the phenotypic shifts associated with the emergence of body lice are likely to be a consequence of regulatory changes, possibly epigenetic in origin, triggered by environmental cues.
  • #89 Frontiers | Where Are We With Human Lice? A Review of the Current State of Knowledge
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cellular-and-infection-microbiology/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00474/full
    Body and head lice host the same primary endosymbiotic bacteria (Candidatus Riesia pediculicola) that supply the lice with B-vitamins, absent in the human blood. […] Moreover, in addition to being fundamental to lice development and survival, which makes it an interesting target for the development of an alternative lice control strategy, the question of whether this symbiont has an influence on lice behavior or competence as a disease vector merits further study. […] The body and head lice have a morphology and biological characteristics almost similar, but differ in their ecological niches. […] Despite numerous studies, the genetic basis and evolutionary relationships among body and head lice remain obscure. […] Taken together, these data evidence that the phenotypic shifts associated with the emergence of body lice are likely to be a consequence of regulatory changes, possibly epigenetic in origin, triggered by environmental cues.
  • #90 Pediculosis and Pthiriasis (Lice Infestation): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/225013-overview
    Louse infestation remains a major problem throughout the world, making the diagnosis and treatment of louse infestation a common task in general medical practice. […] Lice are ectoparasites that live on the body. Lice feed on human blood after piercing the skin and injecting saliva, which may cause pruritus due to an allergic reaction. […] Lice are blood-sucking insects. Human lice have small anterior mouthparts with 6 hooklets that aid their attachment to human skin during feeding. […] The 3 types of human lice include the head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis), the body louse (Pediculus humanus corporis), and the crab louse (Pthirus pubis). […] The adult female louse lays eggs, called nits, and glues them at the base of the hair shaft. […] Nits hatch in about 8-9 days if they are kept near body temperature and mature in another 9-12 days.
  • #91
    https://medicine.ekmd.huji.ac.il/en/research/kostasm/Pages/project_01.aspx
    humal lice Head louse infestations continue to be a public health problem worldwide. Increased rates of louse infestation were reported in several countries including the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Czech Republic, Turkey, Israel and the USA. In developed countries, the high prevalence of head lice is probably due to the development of louse strains resistant to pediculicides and the result of the large number of ineffective over-the-counter pediculicides (for review see: Mumcuoglu, 1996; Mumcuoglu, Ingber, 1999; Mumcuoglu Cohen, 2006; Mumcuoglu et al. 2006a, 2007, 2009; Barker et al. 2012; Mumcuoglu et al. 2019, 2020, 2021). […] The antihemostatic activity in salivary glands of the human body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus) was examined. A thrombin inhibitor, factor Xa inhibitor and apyrase activity were demonstrated in the saliva of this parasite (Mumcuoglu et al. 1996).
  • #92 Overview of Lice in Animals – Integumentary System – Merck Veterinary Manual
    https://www.merckvetmanual.com/integumentary-system/lice/overview-of-lice-in-animals
    Lice are small, wingless insects that infest the hairs, skin, and feathers of animals. […] Lice are wingless, flattened insects, ranging from 1 to 8 mm long and visible to the naked eye; however, magnification is often required to identify the species. […] Completion of one generation takes ~34 weeks. Usually, lice are transmitted by direct host contact. […] Pediculosis can result in dermatologic disease, production loss, and occasionally anemia due to blood loss. In addition, lice may be vectors of viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Some lice species also serve as intermediate hosts of other parasites, such as cestodes. […] Successful louse control requires addressing multiple factors, including treatment of the affected animal(s), treatment of contact animals, environmental control, and elimination of stressors that either permitted initial infestation or exacerbated infestation.
  • #93 Pediculosis and Pthiriasis (Lice Infestation): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/225013-overview
    Head louse infestation is spread by close physical contact and occasionally by shared fomites (eg, combs, brushes, hats, scarves, bedding). […] Body lice can be vectors for diseases such as epidemic (louse-borne) typhus, trench fever, and louse-borne relapsing/recurrent fever. […] The social stigma associated with head lice infestation must be addressed. Poor hygiene is not a risk factor in acquiring pediculosis capitis, although it is for body lice. […] Management of head lice must include examination of all individuals exposed (all household members and other close contacts) and treatment of all those who are infested. […] Individuals infested with pubic lice are at risk for other sexually acquired diseases and should be screened for such.
  • #94 Head lice infestations: A clinical update | Canadian Paediatric Society
    https://cps.ca/documents/position/head-lice
    Head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) infestations are not a primary health hazard or a vector for disease, but they are a societal problem with substantial costs. […] Unlike body lice, head lice are not a primary health hazard, a sign of poor hygiene or a vector for disease, but they are a common societal problem and relatively expensive to treat. […] An infestation with lice is called pediculosis and usually involves less than 10 live lice. […] Itching occurs if the individual with lice becomes sensitized to antigenic components in the saliva injected as the louse feeds. […] Definitive diagnosis of head lice infestation requires the detection of a living louse. […] The presence of nits indicates a past infestation that may not be currently active. […] Misdiagnosis of head lice infestations is common. Diagnosis requires detection of live head lice. Detecting nits alone does not indicate active infestation.
  • #95 Head Lice: An Under-Recognized Tropical Problem in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 97 Issue 6 (2017)
    https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/97/6/article-p1636.xml
    Head lice, caused by infestation with Pediculus humanus capitis, is an extremely common problem in tropical countries. Pediculus humanus capitis is an obligate human ectoparasite. Morphologically, head lice are indistinguishable from Pediculus humanus corporis, the human body louse, although they are slightly smaller. Unlike body lice, head lice have not clearly been proven to be vectors for infectious agents. Adult head lice develop through three nymphal stages and feed on blood from the scalp two to six times a day causing discomfort and pruritus. The complete life cycle takes 15-20 days, and adults survive up to 1 month. Adults mate once, and a fertilized female then produces 3 to 4 eggs per day for the remainder of their lives. Nymphs must feed immediately on hatching, and therefore, nits located more than 1 cm from the scalp are considered nonviable. Infestation results in distress, social stigma, and absence from school. Like other ectoparasitic infections, the prevalence of head lice may be high amongst children in remote and rural settings. In these settings, access to treatment is frequently limited, and many individuals rely on traditional medicine. There is increasing resistance to pyrethroids and malathion, the most commonly used first-line topical agents. More recently, both oral and topical ivermectin have shown promise for treating head lice, but access to these drugs to treat head lice is nonexistent in low-income settings. Mass treatment of scabies, onchocerciasis, or lymphatic filariasis might have an impact on head lice although data specifically examining this hypothesis are lacking, and there is a risk that resistance to ivermectin might develop.
  • #96 Human pediculosis, a global public health problem | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text
    https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-022-00986-w
    Human pediculosis is caused by hematophagous lice, which are transmitted between individuals via direct and/or indirect contact. […] Emerging evidence suggests that head lice and body lice should be considered conspecific, with different genotypes and ecotypes. […] In addition to the direct effect on human health, lice can serve as vectors of disease-causing pathogens. […] More progress can be made if emphasis is placed on the use of emerging omics technologies to elucidate the mechanisms that underpin the physiological, ecological, and evolutionary aspects of lice. […] The use of insecticides plays a crucial role in the treatment and prevention of louse infestation. […] The advances in omics technologies have revolutionized many scientific disciplines and can be a useful complement to the currently used methods to improve the understanding of the mechanisms and factors that mediate the louse’s vectorial capacity and their interaction with the various pathogens they transmit.
  • #97 Human pediculosis, a global public health problem | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text
    https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-022-00986-w
    Challenges associated with the control of resistant lice highlight the need for more in depth understanding of the mechanisms of insecticide resistance, which may also lead to identification of new targets for the development and/or optimization of more effective compounds. […] Recent advances in omics (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics) technologies can enable detailed characterization of any biological system at an unprecedented level and can therefore facilitate the understanding of the mechanism (s) that drive resistance of lice to insecticides.
  • #98 Human pediculosis, a global public health problem | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text
    https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-022-00986-w
    Challenges associated with the control of resistant lice highlight the need for more in depth understanding of the mechanisms of insecticide resistance, which may also lead to identification of new targets for the development and/or optimization of more effective compounds. […] Recent advances in omics (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics) technologies can enable detailed characterization of any biological system at an unprecedented level and can therefore facilitate the understanding of the mechanism (s) that drive resistance of lice to insecticides.
  • #99 Frontiers | Where Are We With Human Lice? A Review of the Current State of Knowledge
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cellular-and-infection-microbiology/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00474/full
    Pediculus humanus is an obligate bloodsucking ectoparasite of human that includes two ecotypes, head louse and body louse, which differ slightly in morphology and biology, but have distinct ecologies. […] Recent studies suggested that not only body louse, but also head louse can transmit disease, which warrants greater attention as a serious public health problem. […] The recent sequencing of body louse genome confirmed that P. humanus has the smallest genome of any hemimetabolous insect reported to date, and also revealed numerous interesting characteristics in the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes. […] Current lice control strategies have proven unsuccessful. […] Therefore, novel opportunities for pest control strategies are needed. […] The recent sequencing and annotation of body louse genome confirmed that P. humanus harbor the smallest known holometabolic insect genome sequenced to date, and revealed interesting information and characteristics on nuclear and mitochondrial genomes.
  • #100 Frontiers | Where Are We With Human Lice? A Review of the Current State of Knowledge
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cellular-and-infection-microbiology/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00474/full
    Pediculus humanus is an obligate bloodsucking ectoparasite of human that includes two ecotypes, head louse and body louse, which differ slightly in morphology and biology, but have distinct ecologies. […] Recent studies suggested that not only body louse, but also head louse can transmit disease, which warrants greater attention as a serious public health problem. […] The recent sequencing of body louse genome confirmed that P. humanus has the smallest genome of any hemimetabolous insect reported to date, and also revealed numerous interesting characteristics in the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes. […] Current lice control strategies have proven unsuccessful. […] Therefore, novel opportunities for pest control strategies are needed. […] The recent sequencing and annotation of body louse genome confirmed that P. humanus harbor the smallest known holometabolic insect genome sequenced to date, and revealed interesting information and characteristics on nuclear and mitochondrial genomes.
  • #101 Frontiers | Where Are We With Human Lice? A Review of the Current State of Knowledge
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cellular-and-infection-microbiology/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00474/full
    Body and head lice host the same primary endosymbiotic bacteria (Candidatus Riesia pediculicola) that supply the lice with B-vitamins, absent in the human blood. […] Moreover, in addition to being fundamental to lice development and survival, which makes it an interesting target for the development of an alternative lice control strategy, the question of whether this symbiont has an influence on lice behavior or competence as a disease vector merits further study. […] The body and head lice have a morphology and biological characteristics almost similar, but differ in their ecological niches. […] Despite numerous studies, the genetic basis and evolutionary relationships among body and head lice remain obscure. […] Taken together, these data evidence that the phenotypic shifts associated with the emergence of body lice are likely to be a consequence of regulatory changes, possibly epigenetic in origin, triggered by environmental cues.
  • #102 Frontiers | Where Are We With Human Lice? A Review of the Current State of Knowledge
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cellular-and-infection-microbiology/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00474/full
    Pediculus humanus is an obligate bloodsucking ectoparasite of human that includes two ecotypes, head louse and body louse, which differ slightly in morphology and biology, but have distinct ecologies. […] Recent studies suggested that not only body louse, but also head louse can transmit disease, which warrants greater attention as a serious public health problem. […] The recent sequencing of body louse genome confirmed that P. humanus has the smallest genome of any hemimetabolous insect reported to date, and also revealed numerous interesting characteristics in the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes. […] Current lice control strategies have proven unsuccessful. […] Therefore, novel opportunities for pest control strategies are needed. […] The recent sequencing and annotation of body louse genome confirmed that P. humanus harbor the smallest known holometabolic insect genome sequenced to date, and revealed interesting information and characteristics on nuclear and mitochondrial genomes.
  • #103 Head lice infestation – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_lice_infestation
    Resistance to several commonly used treatments is increasing worldwide, with patterns of resistance varying by region. Head lice have demonstrated resistance to permethrin, malathion, phenothrin, and carbaryl in several countries around the world. A previous method used to delay resistance included utilizing a rotating list of recommended insecticides by health authorities. The mosaic model is the current recommendation, in which it is advised to use one product for a treatment course, followed by a different insecticide from another substance class if the first treatment fails.