Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Jellyfish stings | Altru Health System

  https://www.altru.org/health-library/conditions/jellyfish-stings

  Jellyfish stings are caused by brushing against a jellyfish tentacle. Tentacles have thousands of microscopic barbed stingers. Each stinger has a tiny bulb that holds venom and a coiled, sharp-tipped tube. […] When you brush against a tentacle, tiny triggers on its surface release the stingers. The tube pierces the skin and releases venom. It affects the area of contact and may enter the bloodstream. […] Jellyfish that have washed up on a beach may still release venomous stingers if touched.

• #2 Jellyfish Sting

  https://www.seattlechildrens.org/conditions/a-z/jellyfish-sting/

  Jellyfish cause most of the stings that occur in sea water. The creature’s stingers inject venom into the human skin. This is what causes the symptoms. The venom is what causes all the symptoms. […] Jellyfish cause most of the stings that occur in the ocean. Jellyfish stings cause pain that feels like a bee sting. […] The long tentacles have thousands of stingers. When a stinger is touched, it pierces the skin and injects venom.

• #3 How Do Jellyfish Sting? | Smithsonian Ocean

  https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/how-do-jellyfish-sting

  Jellyfish’s stinging cells are called cnidocytes. […] When an outside force triggers a stinger, the cell opens, letting ocean water rush in. This causes the stinger to shoot out into what triggered the action; once its there, venom is released. […] Though the venom of most jellyfish is not harmful, some can be deadly. For example, the Indo-Pacific box jellyfish or sea wasp releases venom that makes the heart contract.

• #4 Jellyfish Sting: Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17821-jellyfish-stings

  Most jellyfish stings are harmless, but some can cause serious harm. […] Nematocysts contain a poisonous substance (venom) that helps jellyfish protect themselves. […] Jellyfish don’t usually mean to sting humans. They sting when you brush up against them while swimming or walking along the beach. […] The reaction you receive from a jellyfish sting depends on many variables. […] The factors that influence what type of reaction you may have include: Type of jellyfish. […] What causes a jellyfish sting? […] You may come into contact with the nematocysts of a jellyfish when you’re swimming in the ocean or walking on the beach. […] Depending on the type of jellyfish and how much of your skin touches the venom, the sting can cause pain or other serious health problems. […] Some jellyfish stings can be life-threatening.

• #5 Jellyfish and Stingray Stings — Know When to Go to the ER

  https://www.emergencyphysicians.org/article/know-when-to-go/jellyfish-and-stingray-stings

  Most jellyfish stings are harmless and occur by accident when people come in contact with the tentacles. […] Some varieties of jellyfish are more poisonous than others, such as the box jellyfish from Australia. […] Jellyfish tentacles release thousands of very tiny stinging cells (nematocysts) that attach to the surface of the skin releasing venom. […] The tentacles of a jellyfish release a poison that results in a skin eruption, in the form of a painful red rash that itches. […] The sting usually causes a sting mark, pain and swelling, which may last several days to several weeks. […] Both jellyfish and stingray stings also can cause life-threatening shock and allergic reactions.

• #6 Jellyfish stings – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/jellyfish-stings

  Jellyfish are members of the phylum Cnidaria. They are invertebrates that float in salt and brackish water and have a central bell and lengthy tentacles that disconnect easily. Jellyfish consume fish, crustaceans, and mollusks by injecting venomous capsules called nematocysts into their prey. The nematocysts are clustered along the jellyfish’s tentacles and discharge rapidly on contact. […] Jellyfish do not actively seek out humans. However, they can be difficult to see, and most injuries occur when humans blunder into their tentacles. After skin contact, jellyfish nematocysts release a hollow barbed tube that injects a mixture of proteinaceous toxins into the victims’ skin. These rapidly fire with an approximate force of 2 to 5 pounds per square inch. […] The venom enters the dermis and systemic circulation. Depending upon the stinging species, it can cause both skin and systemic symptoms. Victims may also experience an immune reaction to the implanted barb of the nematocyst.

• #7 Jellyfish stings | Altru Health System

  https://www.altru.org/health-library/conditions/jellyfish-stings

  Jellyfish stings are caused by brushing against a jellyfish tentacle. Tentacles have thousands of microscopic barbed stingers. Each stinger has a tiny bulb that holds venom and a coiled, sharp-tipped tube. […] When you brush against a tentacle, tiny triggers on its surface release the stingers. The tube pierces the skin and releases venom. It affects the area of contact and may enter the bloodstream. […] Jellyfish that have washed up on a beach may still release venomous stingers if touched.

• #8 Jellyfish stings | Altru Health System

  https://www.altru.org/health-library/conditions/jellyfish-stings

  Jellyfish stings are caused by brushing against a jellyfish tentacle. Tentacles have thousands of microscopic barbed stingers. Each stinger has a tiny bulb that holds venom and a coiled, sharp-tipped tube. […] When you brush against a tentacle, tiny triggers on its surface release the stingers. The tube pierces the skin and releases venom. It affects the area of contact and may enter the bloodstream. […] Jellyfish that have washed up on a beach may still release venomous stingers if touched.

• #9 How Do Jellyfish Sting? | Smithsonian Ocean

  https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/how-do-jellyfish-sting

  Jellyfish’s stinging cells are called cnidocytes. […] When an outside force triggers a stinger, the cell opens, letting ocean water rush in. This causes the stinger to shoot out into what triggered the action; once its there, venom is released. […] Though the venom of most jellyfish is not harmful, some can be deadly. For example, the Indo-Pacific box jellyfish or sea wasp releases venom that makes the heart contract.

• #10 Jellyfish stings – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/jellyfish-stings

  Jellyfish are members of the phylum Cnidaria. They are invertebrates that float in salt and brackish water and have a central bell and lengthy tentacles that disconnect easily. Jellyfish consume fish, crustaceans, and mollusks by injecting venomous capsules called nematocysts into their prey. The nematocysts are clustered along the jellyfish’s tentacles and discharge rapidly on contact. […] Jellyfish do not actively seek out humans. However, they can be difficult to see, and most injuries occur when humans blunder into their tentacles. After skin contact, jellyfish nematocysts release a hollow barbed tube that injects a mixture of proteinaceous toxins into the victims’ skin. These rapidly fire with an approximate force of 2 to 5 pounds per square inch. […] The venom enters the dermis and systemic circulation. Depending upon the stinging species, it can cause both skin and systemic symptoms. Victims may also experience an immune reaction to the implanted barb of the nematocyst.

• #11 What’s Behind That Jellyfish Sting?

  https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/whats-behind-that-jellyfish-sting-2844876/

  Jellyfish have special cells along their tentacles called cnidocytes. Within these cells are harpoon-like structures full of venom, called nematocysts. The nematocysts shoot out when triggered by touch and can penetrate human skin in less time than it takes you to blink. […] One of the main causes of this discomfort is a type of protein called a porin found in the venom of all jellyfish—and in all their relatives, including corals and anemones, which together form a group of creatures collectively known as cnidarians. […] The complex concoction of these proteins varies (along with the stinging cell mechanism) from species to species, which is why we might only feel a small sticky sensation when we come in contact with some anemones, while a box jelly sting may cause a trip to the emergency room or even kill you.

• #12 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Skin contact with nematocysts resembles a prick, and the subsequent inflammation and nerve irritation produces pain, swelling and itching, potentially leading to skin necrosis in more severe stings (often from Australian chirodropid cubozoans). The local effect of the venom is due to the penetration of the thread and the activity of various compounds, like phospholipase A2, as well as exocytosis of mast cell granules (and, thus, possibly histamine release). Nematocysts can also cause potential systemic symptoms as a result of the toxins entering the general circulation including gastrointestinal (mainly Physalia physalis and Pelagiidae spp.), muscular (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), cardiac (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), neurological (Physalia and cubozoans spp.) and allergic manifestations (Pelagiidae and cubozoans spp.). Jellyfish toxins reportedly also include hemolytic and lethal fractions. The lethal fractions may contain cardiotoxins, able to produce ventricular arrhythmias and cardiac arrest, and neurotoxins, which may cause respiratory failure and respiratory arrest. Intravascular hemolytic fractions can also precipitate acute renal failure. Cnidarians venom is also immunogenic, capable of generating antibody response.

• #13 Jellyfish stings – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/jellyfish-stings

  Jellyfish venom is a complex mixture of enzymes. These include cytolytic pore-forming toxins, neurotoxins with activity at fast sodium and inwardly-rectifying potassium channels, and nonprotein bioactive components. The functions and contributions of these toxins to clinical envenomation are evolving but still poorly understood.

• #14 Jellyfish stings Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/poison/jellyfish-stings

  Jellyfish venom which contains several chemicals including neurotoxic peptides. […] Certain box jellyfish stings can kill a person within minutes. Other box jellyfish stings can lead to death in 4 to 48 hours after a sting due to „Irukandji syndrome,” a delayed reaction to the sting. […] It is important to carefully monitor box jellyfish sting victims for hours after a sting. Seek medical attention right away for any breathing difficulties, chest or abdominal pains, or profuse sweating.

• #15 Jellyfish stings: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002845.htm

  Jellyfish venom which contains several chemicals including neurotoxic peptides. […] Almost 2000 species of animals found in the ocean are either venomous or poisonous to humans, and many can produce severe illness or fatalities. […] Certain box jellyfish stings can kill a person within minutes. Other box jellyfish stings can lead to death in 4 to 48 hours after a sting due to „Irukandji syndrome,” a delayed reaction to the sting. […] For the great majority of bites, stings, or other forms of poisoning, the danger is either drowning after being stung or an allergic reaction to the venom.

• #16 Jellyfish stings – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/jellyfish-stings

  Jellyfish venom is a complex mixture of enzymes. These include cytolytic pore-forming toxins, neurotoxins with activity at fast sodium and inwardly-rectifying potassium channels, and nonprotein bioactive components. The functions and contributions of these toxins to clinical envenomation are evolving but still poorly understood.

• #17 Jellyfish stings – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/jellyfish-stings

  Jellyfish venom is a complex mixture of enzymes. These include cytolytic pore-forming toxins, neurotoxins with activity at fast sodium and inwardly-rectifying potassium channels, and nonprotein bioactive components. The functions and contributions of these toxins to clinical envenomation are evolving but still poorly understood.

• #18 What’s Behind That Jellyfish Sting?

  https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/whats-behind-that-jellyfish-sting-2844876/

  Jellyfish have special cells along their tentacles called cnidocytes. Within these cells are harpoon-like structures full of venom, called nematocysts. The nematocysts shoot out when triggered by touch and can penetrate human skin in less time than it takes you to blink. […] One of the main causes of this discomfort is a type of protein called a porin found in the venom of all jellyfish—and in all their relatives, including corals and anemones, which together form a group of creatures collectively known as cnidarians. […] The complex concoction of these proteins varies (along with the stinging cell mechanism) from species to species, which is why we might only feel a small sticky sensation when we come in contact with some anemones, while a box jelly sting may cause a trip to the emergency room or even kill you.

• #19 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Skin contact with nematocysts resembles a prick, and the subsequent inflammation and nerve irritation produces pain, swelling and itching, potentially leading to skin necrosis in more severe stings (often from Australian chirodropid cubozoans). The local effect of the venom is due to the penetration of the thread and the activity of various compounds, like phospholipase A2, as well as exocytosis of mast cell granules (and, thus, possibly histamine release). Nematocysts can also cause potential systemic symptoms as a result of the toxins entering the general circulation including gastrointestinal (mainly Physalia physalis and Pelagiidae spp.), muscular (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), cardiac (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), neurological (Physalia and cubozoans spp.) and allergic manifestations (Pelagiidae and cubozoans spp.). Jellyfish toxins reportedly also include hemolytic and lethal fractions. The lethal fractions may contain cardiotoxins, able to produce ventricular arrhythmias and cardiac arrest, and neurotoxins, which may cause respiratory failure and respiratory arrest. Intravascular hemolytic fractions can also precipitate acute renal failure. Cnidarians venom is also immunogenic, capable of generating antibody response.

• #20 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/

  The enzymes in jellyfish venom can significantly upregulate the expression of inflammatory factors in dermal cells. […] The suppressive effect of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitors on toxic metalloproteinases-mediated skin damage suggested a pivotal role of metalloproteinases in the pathogenesis of jellyfish dermatitis. […] In conclusion, rinsing with appropriate metal cation solutions is an effective emergency treatment. […] In brief, there is still no universally applicable rinse solution available for an unidentified jellyfish sting. However, considering their widespread availability and effectiveness against a large number of jellyfish species, vinegar (5% acetic acid) and saleratus are recommended for immediate treatment in emergency situations. […] Jellyfish stings can cause a variety of clinical manifestations, most notably skin lesions, and there is no specific treatment.

• #21 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/

  Despite aggressive treatment, many skin injuries still result in significant pigmentation or scarring after recovery. […] However, the precise pathogenic mechanisms and constituents of jellyfish venom remain unclear, and the management of jellyfish stings continues to be an important medical topic. […] The symptoms of jellyfish stings can arise indirectly from the body’s immune responses to toxin molecules and nematocysts, including skin lesions, inflammation, pyrexia, myoclonus, and paresthesia. […] The proteins and polypeptides present in jellyfish venom, along with the collagen, glycoproteins, and polysaccharides found in the nematocysts, all can function as antigens or allergens within the human body, eliciting cellular or humoral immune responses. […] Jellyfish toxins are mainly divided into 3 categories: Proteinoid toxins, non-protein toxins, and bioactive enzymes. These bioactive ingredients exhibit various biological toxicities including dermal necrosis, hemolysis, and adverse effects on cardiovascular, nervous, hepatic, and renal systems.

• #22 Jellyfish Sting: Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17821-jellyfish-stings

  Most jellyfish stings are harmless, but some can cause serious harm. […] Nematocysts contain a poisonous substance (venom) that helps jellyfish protect themselves. […] Jellyfish don’t usually mean to sting humans. They sting when you brush up against them while swimming or walking along the beach. […] The reaction you receive from a jellyfish sting depends on many variables. […] The factors that influence what type of reaction you may have include: Type of jellyfish. […] What causes a jellyfish sting? […] You may come into contact with the nematocysts of a jellyfish when you’re swimming in the ocean or walking on the beach. […] Depending on the type of jellyfish and how much of your skin touches the venom, the sting can cause pain or other serious health problems. […] Some jellyfish stings can be life-threatening.

• #23 Symptoms and Signs of Jellyfish Stings: Treatment

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/jellyfish_stings/symptom.htm

  Jellyfish stings are caused by stinging cells (termed nematocysts) in the tentacles. On contact with skin or other substances, a toxin or venom coated thread is injected and causes the signs and symptoms. […] With over 200 types of jellyfish, it is no surprise that signs and symptoms vary somewhat according to the type of jellyfish. For example, a box jellyfish sting can cause death in minutes while a small common jellyfish may produce a mild stinging pain.

• #24 What Are Box Jellyfish Stings? Symptoms and Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/first-aid/what-to-know-about-box-jellyfish-stings

  Whether a sting is serious depends on the size of the jellyfish. If the main body, known as the bell, of a box jellyfish measures over 15 centimeters or 6 inches, then the sting is likely dangerous. […] While death from jellyfish stings is rare, it’s more common with stings from box jellyfish. Up to 2 hours from the sting, you may develop a life-threatening condition called Irukandji syndrome. […] Complications of a box jellyfish sting may include a delayed sensitivity reaction, which can happen a week or two after a sting and cause blisters, rashes, and skin irritation. […] Jellyfish stings can sometimes cause a severe allergic reaction that includes trouble breathing or swallowing.

• #25 Jellyfish Sting: Symptoms, Treatments, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/jellyfish-sting

  Jellyfish are a common sea creature found in every ocean. There are many species of jellyfish, all of them with tentacles. Some carry poisonous venom in their tentacles as a method of self-defense against predators. Its this venom that makes a jellyfish sting so painful. […] Most types of jellyfish stings will cause some discomfort, but some can be life-threatening. According to the National Science Foundation, over 500,000 people are stung by jellyfish every year in North Americas Chesapeake Bay alone. […] The severity of your symptoms will depend on what kind of jellyfish you encountered, and how much of your skin is affected by its venom. […] A reaction to a more dangerous species of jellyfish will need to be treated with antivenin. This is a special drug formulated to combat the venom of a specific breed of animal. Antivenin for jellyfish stings can only be found in hospitals.

• #26 Jellyfish stings – types, symptoms and treatment | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/jellyfish-stings

  If you are stung by jellyfish in tropical waters call triple zero (000) and ask for an ambulance. […] Jellyfish stings often happen in Australia most are painful but not dangerous. […] Box jellyfish can be found in the tropical waters of Northern Australia and their sting can cause serious symptoms and even death. […] A jellyfish sting happens when their tentacles touch your skin. Stinging cells on the tentacle (called nematocysts) shoot poisonous venom into your skin. […] How bad your sting is depends on the type of jellyfish and how much of their tentacles touched your skin.

• #27 Jellyfish Stings: Allergic Reaction | Cigna

  https://www.cigna.com/knowledge-center/hw/jellyfish-stings-aa121268

  Problems from jellyfish or Portuguese man-of-war stings may develop right away or be delayed for several hours or days. A severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis) may affect any body system and require emergency care. The reaction that you have to a jellyfish or Portuguese man-of-war sting depends on many things. The potency of the venom changes with the type of jellyfish and also is stronger during some seasons than in others. Other things that affect the severity of your reaction include: […] Small children are at risk for stings in the mouth if they put a jellyfish or portion of a tentacle in their mouths. A sting to the mouth or throat can cause sudden and severe swelling, which can be life-threatening.

• #28 Box Jellyfish Sting: Emergency First Aid, Side Effects, and Symptoms

  https://www.healthline.com/health/box-jellyfish-sting

  You should steer clear of a box jellyfish. The marine animals sting can cause serious and sometimes fatal symptoms in a matter of minutes. […] Box jellyfish have highly potent venom. The more lethal types, which belong to the class Cubozoa, release toxins with their nematocysts. […] Not all cubozoan toxins are the same, but generally, they can destroy and poison human cells. If youre stung, these toxins will be particularly poisonous to your red blood cells and your heart. […] According to the Emergency Care Institute of New South Wales, if 10 percent or more of a persons skin is affected by the venom of Chironex fleckeri, the sting becomes deadly, especially in children. […] In this case, the sting can cause cardiac arrest within just a few minutes. […] A box jellyfish sting can result in a variety of side effects.

• #29 Jellyfish Sting: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment | Qwark

  https://qwarkhealth.com/conditions/jellyfish-sting

  Jellyfish stings occur when a person comes into contact with the tentacles of a jellyfish. These tentacles contain cells known as nematocysts that release venom when touched. The severity of a jellyfish sting can vary depending on the species of jellyfish and the amount of venom released. […] A jellyfish sting causes pain and discomfort to humans by injecting venom through their long, hollow tentacles. The venom contains toxins that can damage skin and tissue, causing irritation and pain. […] Factors that can exacerbate symptoms of a jellyfish sting include increased exposure to venom, such as when a person is stung by a large jellyfish or multiple jellyfish, and an allergic reaction to the venom. […] A severe jellyfish sting can be life-threatening, especially for individuals who are allergic to the venom or have underlying health conditions. The venom from certain species of jellyfish can cause a range of adverse reactions, including severe pain, difficulty breathing, seizures, and even cardiac arrest. […] While complications from a jellyfish sting are rare, they can occur in severe cases. These can include allergic reactions, infection, nerve or muscle damage, and psychological effects such as anxiety or post-traumatic stress disorder.

• #30 Jellyfish Stings: Allergic Reaction | Cigna

  https://www.cigna.com/knowledge-center/hw/jellyfish-stings-aa121268

  Problems from jellyfish or Portuguese man-of-war stings may develop right away or be delayed for several hours or days. A severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis) may affect any body system and require emergency care. The reaction that you have to a jellyfish or Portuguese man-of-war sting depends on many things. The potency of the venom changes with the type of jellyfish and also is stronger during some seasons than in others. Other things that affect the severity of your reaction include: […] Small children are at risk for stings in the mouth if they put a jellyfish or portion of a tentacle in their mouths. A sting to the mouth or throat can cause sudden and severe swelling, which can be life-threatening.

• #31 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Although all cnidarians are capable of envenomation, most are harmless to humans, as some do not have nematocyst shafts of sufficient length to enable the thread to deposit toxins deep enough into the epidermis or might produce toxins that do not cause significant harm to humans. Harmful cnidarians include vertebrate feeders or bigger jellyfish able to release large amounts of toxin. […] Jellyfish are present in all oceans of the world, with their stings being commonly observed in warm tropical marine waters, as well as in more northern regions, such as the United Kingdom, France and Norway. The geographic distribution of jellyfish seems to be undergoing an impact by global warming. […] It has been estimated there are 150 million jellyfish stings a year, with some Pacific areas reporting up to 800 daily events at one single beach. Therefore, beyond being a public health issue, jellyfish also constitute a threat to tourism.

• #32 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Although all cnidarians are capable of envenomation, most are harmless to humans, as some do not have nematocyst shafts of sufficient length to enable the thread to deposit toxins deep enough into the epidermis or might produce toxins that do not cause significant harm to humans. Harmful cnidarians include vertebrate feeders or bigger jellyfish able to release large amounts of toxin. […] Jellyfish are present in all oceans of the world, with their stings being commonly observed in warm tropical marine waters, as well as in more northern regions, such as the United Kingdom, France and Norway. The geographic distribution of jellyfish seems to be undergoing an impact by global warming. […] It has been estimated there are 150 million jellyfish stings a year, with some Pacific areas reporting up to 800 daily events at one single beach. Therefore, beyond being a public health issue, jellyfish also constitute a threat to tourism.

• #33 Jellyfish Sting: Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17821-jellyfish-stings

  The prognosis for a jellyfish sting depends on the type of jellyfish. […] Stings from some jellyfish cause only minor itching and pain. But some box jellyfish stings can kill you within a matter of minutes. […] Other box jellyfish stings can cause a fatal reaction four to 48 hours after a sting due to Irukandji syndrome.

• #34 Jellyfish stings Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/poison/jellyfish-stings

  Jellyfish venom which contains several chemicals including neurotoxic peptides. […] Certain box jellyfish stings can kill a person within minutes. Other box jellyfish stings can lead to death in 4 to 48 hours after a sting due to „Irukandji syndrome,” a delayed reaction to the sting. […] It is important to carefully monitor box jellyfish sting victims for hours after a sting. Seek medical attention right away for any breathing difficulties, chest or abdominal pains, or profuse sweating.

• #35

  https://www.meetaugust.ai/library/en/diseases-conditions/view/jellyfish-stings

  Jellyfish stings happen when you accidentally touch a jellyfish’s tentacles. These tentacles are covered in thousands of tiny, barbed stingers. Each stinger is like a tiny, venomous dart. It has a small container of venom and a sharp, coiled needle-like structure. […] When you brush against a tentacle, special trigger-like parts on the stingers are activated. This causes the sharp tube to pierce your skin and release venom into the affected area. Sometimes, the venom can also get into your bloodstream. […] Most jellyfish aren’t a big problem for people. But some types can cause serious pain and even a reaction throughout the body. These are the types of jellyfish that can cause more serious problems: Box Jellyfish: These jellyfish can cause very intense pain and, in rare cases, can be deadly. The most dangerous box jellyfish live in the warm waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

• #36 Box Jellyfish Sting: Emergency First Aid, Side Effects, and Symptoms

  https://www.healthline.com/health/box-jellyfish-sting

  The sting of Chironex fleckeri and other box jellyfish can lead to heart rhythm problems and ultimately death by causing nonstop contraction of the muscles and overproduction of potassium in the blood. The lethal reaction, when severe, is usually immediate. […] A person stung by a box jellyfish needs immediate treatment. […] Severe box jellyfish stings can be fatal, triggering cardiac arrest in your body within minutes. […] It’s crucial to get treatment immediately following a box jellyfish sting to stop the spread of its venom, remove any remaining tentacles on your body, and get oxygen to support your body as it reacts to the poison.

• #37 Box Jellyfish Sting: Emergency First Aid, Side Effects, and Symptoms

  https://www.healthline.com/health/box-jellyfish-sting

  You should steer clear of a box jellyfish. The marine animals sting can cause serious and sometimes fatal symptoms in a matter of minutes. […] Box jellyfish have highly potent venom. The more lethal types, which belong to the class Cubozoa, release toxins with their nematocysts. […] Not all cubozoan toxins are the same, but generally, they can destroy and poison human cells. If youre stung, these toxins will be particularly poisonous to your red blood cells and your heart. […] According to the Emergency Care Institute of New South Wales, if 10 percent or more of a persons skin is affected by the venom of Chironex fleckeri, the sting becomes deadly, especially in children. […] In this case, the sting can cause cardiac arrest within just a few minutes. […] A box jellyfish sting can result in a variety of side effects.

• #38 Jellyfish Sting: Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17821-jellyfish-stings

  The prognosis for a jellyfish sting depends on the type of jellyfish. […] Stings from some jellyfish cause only minor itching and pain. But some box jellyfish stings can kill you within a matter of minutes. […] Other box jellyfish stings can cause a fatal reaction four to 48 hours after a sting due to Irukandji syndrome.

• #39 Jellyfish stings Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/poison/jellyfish-stings

  Jellyfish venom which contains several chemicals including neurotoxic peptides. […] Certain box jellyfish stings can kill a person within minutes. Other box jellyfish stings can lead to death in 4 to 48 hours after a sting due to „Irukandji syndrome,” a delayed reaction to the sting. […] It is important to carefully monitor box jellyfish sting victims for hours after a sting. Seek medical attention right away for any breathing difficulties, chest or abdominal pains, or profuse sweating.

• #40 A Jellyfish Sting Causes a Sense of Impending Doom — Science of Us

  https://www.thecut.com/2016/04/apparently-theres-a-jellyfish-whose-sting-causes-feelings-of-impending-doom.html

  We still have a couple months before Shark Week mania sets in, so in the meantime, here’s a PSA that some of the worst things about the beach are often much littler than sharks: biting sandflies, grains of sand lodged in uncomfortable places, oddly shaped patches of burned skin from the spots the sunscreen missed. Also, tiny jellyfish whose stings make you acutely aware of your own mortality. […] Look, I’m not much of a beach person to begin with. But I’m decidedly less so after reading about the Irukandji, a collection of jellyfish species less than an inch long whose sting causes symptoms so severe and so bizarre as to have a medical condition named after them. Irukandji syndrome is characterized by vomiting, headache, anxiety, cramping, and — most distinctively — a state that scientists have described as “a feeling of impending doom.”

• #41 Irukandji syndrome – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irukandji_syndrome

  Irukandji syndrome is a condition that results from envenomation by certain box jellyfish. […] The most common jellyfish involved is the Carukia barnesi, a species of Irukandji jellyfish. […] In 1961 Jack Barnes confirmed the cause of the then mysterious Irukandji syndrome was a sting from a small box jellyfish: the Irukandji jellyfish, which can fire venom-filled stingers out of its body and into passing victims. […] Other cubozoans possibly can cause Irukandji syndrome; those positively identified include Carukia barnesi, Alatina mordens, Alatina alata, Malo maxima, Malo kingi, Carybdea xaymacana, Keesingia gigas, an as-yet unnamed „fire jelly”, and another unnamed species.

• #42

  https://www.meetaugust.ai/library/en/diseases-conditions/view/jellyfish-stings

  Portuguese Man-of-War: Sometimes called a bluebottle, this jellyfish has a noticeable blue or purple, gas-filled float that keeps it afloat. They are mostly found in warmer waters. […] Sea Nettle: You can find sea nettles in a wide range of temperatures, from warm to cool waters. […] Lion’s Mane Jellyfish: These are the largest jellyfish in the world, with bodies that can be over three feet across. They are most common in the cooler, northern parts of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

• #43

  https://www.meetaugust.ai/library/en/diseases-conditions/view/jellyfish-stings

  Portuguese Man-of-War: Sometimes called a bluebottle, this jellyfish has a noticeable blue or purple, gas-filled float that keeps it afloat. They are mostly found in warmer waters. […] Sea Nettle: You can find sea nettles in a wide range of temperatures, from warm to cool waters. […] Lion’s Mane Jellyfish: These are the largest jellyfish in the world, with bodies that can be over three feet across. They are most common in the cooler, northern parts of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

• #44 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Skin contact with nematocysts resembles a prick, and the subsequent inflammation and nerve irritation produces pain, swelling and itching, potentially leading to skin necrosis in more severe stings (often from Australian chirodropid cubozoans). The local effect of the venom is due to the penetration of the thread and the activity of various compounds, like phospholipase A2, as well as exocytosis of mast cell granules (and, thus, possibly histamine release). Nematocysts can also cause potential systemic symptoms as a result of the toxins entering the general circulation including gastrointestinal (mainly Physalia physalis and Pelagiidae spp.), muscular (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), cardiac (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), neurological (Physalia and cubozoans spp.) and allergic manifestations (Pelagiidae and cubozoans spp.). Jellyfish toxins reportedly also include hemolytic and lethal fractions. The lethal fractions may contain cardiotoxins, able to produce ventricular arrhythmias and cardiac arrest, and neurotoxins, which may cause respiratory failure and respiratory arrest. Intravascular hemolytic fractions can also precipitate acute renal failure. Cnidarians venom is also immunogenic, capable of generating antibody response.

• #45 Jellyfish Stings – Injuries and Poisoning – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/injuries-and-poisoning/bites-and-stings/jellyfish-stings

  Cnidaria cause more poisonings than any other marine animal. […] Cnidaria have stinging units (nematocysts) on their tentacles. A single tentacle may contain thousands of them. The severity of the sting depends on the type of animal. The sting of most species results in a painful, itchy rash, which may develop into blisters that fill with pus and then rupture. Other symptoms may include weakness, nausea, headache, muscle pain and spasms, runny eyes and nose, excessive sweating, and chest pain that worsens with breathing. Stings from the Portuguese man-of-war (in North America) and the box jellyfish (in Australia in the Indian and South Pacific oceans) have caused death. […] Seabathers eruption is a stinging, itchy rash that affects swimmers in some Atlantic locations (such as Florida, the Caribbean, and Long Island). It is caused by an allergic reaction to stings from the larvae of the sea anemone or the thimble jellyfish.

• #46

  https://www.meetaugust.ai/library/en/diseases-conditions/view/jellyfish-stings

  Portuguese Man-of-War: Sometimes called a bluebottle, this jellyfish has a noticeable blue or purple, gas-filled float that keeps it afloat. They are mostly found in warmer waters. […] Sea Nettle: You can find sea nettles in a wide range of temperatures, from warm to cool waters. […] Lion’s Mane Jellyfish: These are the largest jellyfish in the world, with bodies that can be over three feet across. They are most common in the cooler, northern parts of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

• #47

  https://www.meetaugust.ai/library/en/diseases-conditions/view/jellyfish-stings

  Portuguese Man-of-War: Sometimes called a bluebottle, this jellyfish has a noticeable blue or purple, gas-filled float that keeps it afloat. They are mostly found in warmer waters. […] Sea Nettle: You can find sea nettles in a wide range of temperatures, from warm to cool waters. […] Lion’s Mane Jellyfish: These are the largest jellyfish in the world, with bodies that can be over three feet across. They are most common in the cooler, northern parts of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

• #48 Jellyfish stings

  https://info.health.nz/conditions-treatments/bites-stings/jellyfish-stings

  Most jellyfish stings are not serious. If treated straight away you are not likely to develop major symptoms. […] Some people have a severe allergic reaction. Anaphylaxis from jellyfish stings is rare. […] The bluebottle has a burning sting. This is the jellyfish most commonly involved in stings in New Zealand waters. […] The lions-mane jellyfish is a stinging jellyfish. […] The mauve stinger, which has only few stinging catch tentacles.

• #49 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Skin contact with nematocysts resembles a prick, and the subsequent inflammation and nerve irritation produces pain, swelling and itching, potentially leading to skin necrosis in more severe stings (often from Australian chirodropid cubozoans). The local effect of the venom is due to the penetration of the thread and the activity of various compounds, like phospholipase A2, as well as exocytosis of mast cell granules (and, thus, possibly histamine release). Nematocysts can also cause potential systemic symptoms as a result of the toxins entering the general circulation including gastrointestinal (mainly Physalia physalis and Pelagiidae spp.), muscular (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), cardiac (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), neurological (Physalia and cubozoans spp.) and allergic manifestations (Pelagiidae and cubozoans spp.). Jellyfish toxins reportedly also include hemolytic and lethal fractions. The lethal fractions may contain cardiotoxins, able to produce ventricular arrhythmias and cardiac arrest, and neurotoxins, which may cause respiratory failure and respiratory arrest. Intravascular hemolytic fractions can also precipitate acute renal failure. Cnidarians venom is also immunogenic, capable of generating antibody response.

• #50 Jellyfish stings

  https://info.health.nz/conditions-treatments/bites-stings/jellyfish-stings

  Most jellyfish stings are not serious. If treated straight away you are not likely to develop major symptoms. […] Some people have a severe allergic reaction. Anaphylaxis from jellyfish stings is rare. […] The bluebottle has a burning sting. This is the jellyfish most commonly involved in stings in New Zealand waters. […] The lions-mane jellyfish is a stinging jellyfish. […] The mauve stinger, which has only few stinging catch tentacles.

• #51 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Although all cnidarians are capable of envenomation, most are harmless to humans, as some do not have nematocyst shafts of sufficient length to enable the thread to deposit toxins deep enough into the epidermis or might produce toxins that do not cause significant harm to humans. Harmful cnidarians include vertebrate feeders or bigger jellyfish able to release large amounts of toxin. […] Jellyfish are present in all oceans of the world, with their stings being commonly observed in warm tropical marine waters, as well as in more northern regions, such as the United Kingdom, France and Norway. The geographic distribution of jellyfish seems to be undergoing an impact by global warming. […] It has been estimated there are 150 million jellyfish stings a year, with some Pacific areas reporting up to 800 daily events at one single beach. Therefore, beyond being a public health issue, jellyfish also constitute a threat to tourism.

• #52 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Although all cnidarians are capable of envenomation, most are harmless to humans, as some do not have nematocyst shafts of sufficient length to enable the thread to deposit toxins deep enough into the epidermis or might produce toxins that do not cause significant harm to humans. Harmful cnidarians include vertebrate feeders or bigger jellyfish able to release large amounts of toxin. […] Jellyfish are present in all oceans of the world, with their stings being commonly observed in warm tropical marine waters, as well as in more northern regions, such as the United Kingdom, France and Norway. The geographic distribution of jellyfish seems to be undergoing an impact by global warming. […] It has been estimated there are 150 million jellyfish stings a year, with some Pacific areas reporting up to 800 daily events at one single beach. Therefore, beyond being a public health issue, jellyfish also constitute a threat to tourism.

• #53 What’s Behind That Jellyfish Sting?

  https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/whats-behind-that-jellyfish-sting-2844876/

  If jellyfish are increasing globally, it is likely that human influences are the cause. Overfishing has reduced some jellies’ competition for food; increased nutrients running into the ocean create oxygen-depleted environments that jellies can tolerate better than other animals; and warmer water can help some species of jellyfish larvae to grow more quickly.

• #54 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Although all cnidarians are capable of envenomation, most are harmless to humans, as some do not have nematocyst shafts of sufficient length to enable the thread to deposit toxins deep enough into the epidermis or might produce toxins that do not cause significant harm to humans. Harmful cnidarians include vertebrate feeders or bigger jellyfish able to release large amounts of toxin. […] Jellyfish are present in all oceans of the world, with their stings being commonly observed in warm tropical marine waters, as well as in more northern regions, such as the United Kingdom, France and Norway. The geographic distribution of jellyfish seems to be undergoing an impact by global warming. […] It has been estimated there are 150 million jellyfish stings a year, with some Pacific areas reporting up to 800 daily events at one single beach. Therefore, beyond being a public health issue, jellyfish also constitute a threat to tourism.

• #55 Jellyfish Sting: Symptoms, Treatments, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/jellyfish-sting

  Jellyfish are a common sea creature found in every ocean. There are many species of jellyfish, all of them with tentacles. Some carry poisonous venom in their tentacles as a method of self-defense against predators. Its this venom that makes a jellyfish sting so painful. […] Most types of jellyfish stings will cause some discomfort, but some can be life-threatening. According to the National Science Foundation, over 500,000 people are stung by jellyfish every year in North Americas Chesapeake Bay alone. […] The severity of your symptoms will depend on what kind of jellyfish you encountered, and how much of your skin is affected by its venom. […] A reaction to a more dangerous species of jellyfish will need to be treated with antivenin. This is a special drug formulated to combat the venom of a specific breed of animal. Antivenin for jellyfish stings can only be found in hospitals.

• #56 Jellyfish Stings – Injuries and Poisoning – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/injuries-and-poisoning/bites-and-stings/jellyfish-stings

  Cnidaria cause more poisonings than any other marine animal. […] Cnidaria have stinging units (nematocysts) on their tentacles. A single tentacle may contain thousands of them. The severity of the sting depends on the type of animal. The sting of most species results in a painful, itchy rash, which may develop into blisters that fill with pus and then rupture. Other symptoms may include weakness, nausea, headache, muscle pain and spasms, runny eyes and nose, excessive sweating, and chest pain that worsens with breathing. Stings from the Portuguese man-of-war (in North America) and the box jellyfish (in Australia in the Indian and South Pacific oceans) have caused death. […] Seabathers eruption is a stinging, itchy rash that affects swimmers in some Atlantic locations (such as Florida, the Caribbean, and Long Island). It is caused by an allergic reaction to stings from the larvae of the sea anemone or the thimble jellyfish.

• #57 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/

  With the surge in the human coastal population and the increasing frequency of human activities along the coast, cases of marine envenomation, particularly jellyfish envenomation, have notably risen. Jellyfish stings can induce a spectrum of symptoms that vary in severity, encompassing skin injuries, acute systemic venom effects, delayed indirect sequelae, and even fatality, causing significant distress to patients. Among these manifestations, the occurrence of skin lesions following jellyfish stings is prevalent and substantial. These lesions are characterized by evident blister formation, development of bullae, subcutaneous hemorrhage, erythema, papules, wheal, ecchymosis, and ulceration or skin necrosis. Local cutaneous manifestations may persist for several weeks or even months after the initial sting.

• #58 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/

  With the surge in the human coastal population and the increasing frequency of human activities along the coast, cases of marine envenomation, particularly jellyfish envenomation, have notably risen. Jellyfish stings can induce a spectrum of symptoms that vary in severity, encompassing skin injuries, acute systemic venom effects, delayed indirect sequelae, and even fatality, causing significant distress to patients. Among these manifestations, the occurrence of skin lesions following jellyfish stings is prevalent and substantial. These lesions are characterized by evident blister formation, development of bullae, subcutaneous hemorrhage, erythema, papules, wheal, ecchymosis, and ulceration or skin necrosis. Local cutaneous manifestations may persist for several weeks or even months after the initial sting.

• #59 What’s Behind That Jellyfish Sting?

  https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/whats-behind-that-jellyfish-sting-2844876/

  If jellyfish are increasing globally, it is likely that human influences are the cause. Overfishing has reduced some jellies’ competition for food; increased nutrients running into the ocean create oxygen-depleted environments that jellies can tolerate better than other animals; and warmer water can help some species of jellyfish larvae to grow more quickly.

• #60 What’s Behind That Jellyfish Sting?

  https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/whats-behind-that-jellyfish-sting-2844876/

  If jellyfish are increasing globally, it is likely that human influences are the cause. Overfishing has reduced some jellies’ competition for food; increased nutrients running into the ocean create oxygen-depleted environments that jellies can tolerate better than other animals; and warmer water can help some species of jellyfish larvae to grow more quickly.

• #61 What’s Behind That Jellyfish Sting?

  https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/whats-behind-that-jellyfish-sting-2844876/

  If jellyfish are increasing globally, it is likely that human influences are the cause. Overfishing has reduced some jellies’ competition for food; increased nutrients running into the ocean create oxygen-depleted environments that jellies can tolerate better than other animals; and warmer water can help some species of jellyfish larvae to grow more quickly.

• #62 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Although all cnidarians are capable of envenomation, most are harmless to humans, as some do not have nematocyst shafts of sufficient length to enable the thread to deposit toxins deep enough into the epidermis or might produce toxins that do not cause significant harm to humans. Harmful cnidarians include vertebrate feeders or bigger jellyfish able to release large amounts of toxin. […] Jellyfish are present in all oceans of the world, with their stings being commonly observed in warm tropical marine waters, as well as in more northern regions, such as the United Kingdom, France and Norway. The geographic distribution of jellyfish seems to be undergoing an impact by global warming. […] It has been estimated there are 150 million jellyfish stings a year, with some Pacific areas reporting up to 800 daily events at one single beach. Therefore, beyond being a public health issue, jellyfish also constitute a threat to tourism.

• #63 Jellyfish Sting: Symptoms, Treatments, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/jellyfish-sting

  Certain bodies of water are known to contain large numbers of jellyfish, called blooms. Swimming in bodies of water where blooms of jellyfish are known to be increases your chance of getting stung. […] Commercial products are available that claim to reduce the odds of jellyfish stings, although their clinical benefit is largely unknown. […] If you lose feeling in the limb that was stung, have difficulty breathing, or experience heart palpitations after being stung, go to the emergency room. Being stung by a jellyfish in an area known to have dangerous breeds such as lions mane and box jellyfish, is also cause for concern.

• #64 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Skin contact with nematocysts resembles a prick, and the subsequent inflammation and nerve irritation produces pain, swelling and itching, potentially leading to skin necrosis in more severe stings (often from Australian chirodropid cubozoans). The local effect of the venom is due to the penetration of the thread and the activity of various compounds, like phospholipase A2, as well as exocytosis of mast cell granules (and, thus, possibly histamine release). Nematocysts can also cause potential systemic symptoms as a result of the toxins entering the general circulation including gastrointestinal (mainly Physalia physalis and Pelagiidae spp.), muscular (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), cardiac (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), neurological (Physalia and cubozoans spp.) and allergic manifestations (Pelagiidae and cubozoans spp.). Jellyfish toxins reportedly also include hemolytic and lethal fractions. The lethal fractions may contain cardiotoxins, able to produce ventricular arrhythmias and cardiac arrest, and neurotoxins, which may cause respiratory failure and respiratory arrest. Intravascular hemolytic fractions can also precipitate acute renal failure. Cnidarians venom is also immunogenic, capable of generating antibody response.

• #65 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/

  The enzymes in jellyfish venom can significantly upregulate the expression of inflammatory factors in dermal cells. […] The suppressive effect of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitors on toxic metalloproteinases-mediated skin damage suggested a pivotal role of metalloproteinases in the pathogenesis of jellyfish dermatitis. […] In conclusion, rinsing with appropriate metal cation solutions is an effective emergency treatment. […] In brief, there is still no universally applicable rinse solution available for an unidentified jellyfish sting. However, considering their widespread availability and effectiveness against a large number of jellyfish species, vinegar (5% acetic acid) and saleratus are recommended for immediate treatment in emergency situations. […] Jellyfish stings can cause a variety of clinical manifestations, most notably skin lesions, and there is no specific treatment.

• #66 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/

  The enzymes in jellyfish venom can significantly upregulate the expression of inflammatory factors in dermal cells. […] The suppressive effect of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitors on toxic metalloproteinases-mediated skin damage suggested a pivotal role of metalloproteinases in the pathogenesis of jellyfish dermatitis. […] In conclusion, rinsing with appropriate metal cation solutions is an effective emergency treatment. […] In brief, there is still no universally applicable rinse solution available for an unidentified jellyfish sting. However, considering their widespread availability and effectiveness against a large number of jellyfish species, vinegar (5% acetic acid) and saleratus are recommended for immediate treatment in emergency situations. […] Jellyfish stings can cause a variety of clinical manifestations, most notably skin lesions, and there is no specific treatment.

• #67 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Skin contact with nematocysts resembles a prick, and the subsequent inflammation and nerve irritation produces pain, swelling and itching, potentially leading to skin necrosis in more severe stings (often from Australian chirodropid cubozoans). The local effect of the venom is due to the penetration of the thread and the activity of various compounds, like phospholipase A2, as well as exocytosis of mast cell granules (and, thus, possibly histamine release). Nematocysts can also cause potential systemic symptoms as a result of the toxins entering the general circulation including gastrointestinal (mainly Physalia physalis and Pelagiidae spp.), muscular (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), cardiac (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), neurological (Physalia and cubozoans spp.) and allergic manifestations (Pelagiidae and cubozoans spp.). Jellyfish toxins reportedly also include hemolytic and lethal fractions. The lethal fractions may contain cardiotoxins, able to produce ventricular arrhythmias and cardiac arrest, and neurotoxins, which may cause respiratory failure and respiratory arrest. Intravascular hemolytic fractions can also precipitate acute renal failure. Cnidarians venom is also immunogenic, capable of generating antibody response.

• #68 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Skin contact with nematocysts resembles a prick, and the subsequent inflammation and nerve irritation produces pain, swelling and itching, potentially leading to skin necrosis in more severe stings (often from Australian chirodropid cubozoans). The local effect of the venom is due to the penetration of the thread and the activity of various compounds, like phospholipase A2, as well as exocytosis of mast cell granules (and, thus, possibly histamine release). Nematocysts can also cause potential systemic symptoms as a result of the toxins entering the general circulation including gastrointestinal (mainly Physalia physalis and Pelagiidae spp.), muscular (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), cardiac (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), neurological (Physalia and cubozoans spp.) and allergic manifestations (Pelagiidae and cubozoans spp.). Jellyfish toxins reportedly also include hemolytic and lethal fractions. The lethal fractions may contain cardiotoxins, able to produce ventricular arrhythmias and cardiac arrest, and neurotoxins, which may cause respiratory failure and respiratory arrest. Intravascular hemolytic fractions can also precipitate acute renal failure. Cnidarians venom is also immunogenic, capable of generating antibody response.

• #69 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Skin contact with nematocysts resembles a prick, and the subsequent inflammation and nerve irritation produces pain, swelling and itching, potentially leading to skin necrosis in more severe stings (often from Australian chirodropid cubozoans). The local effect of the venom is due to the penetration of the thread and the activity of various compounds, like phospholipase A2, as well as exocytosis of mast cell granules (and, thus, possibly histamine release). Nematocysts can also cause potential systemic symptoms as a result of the toxins entering the general circulation including gastrointestinal (mainly Physalia physalis and Pelagiidae spp.), muscular (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), cardiac (Physalia and cubozoans spp.), neurological (Physalia and cubozoans spp.) and allergic manifestations (Pelagiidae and cubozoans spp.). Jellyfish toxins reportedly also include hemolytic and lethal fractions. The lethal fractions may contain cardiotoxins, able to produce ventricular arrhythmias and cardiac arrest, and neurotoxins, which may cause respiratory failure and respiratory arrest. Intravascular hemolytic fractions can also precipitate acute renal failure. Cnidarians venom is also immunogenic, capable of generating antibody response.

• #70 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/

  Despite aggressive treatment, many skin injuries still result in significant pigmentation or scarring after recovery. […] However, the precise pathogenic mechanisms and constituents of jellyfish venom remain unclear, and the management of jellyfish stings continues to be an important medical topic. […] The symptoms of jellyfish stings can arise indirectly from the body’s immune responses to toxin molecules and nematocysts, including skin lesions, inflammation, pyrexia, myoclonus, and paresthesia. […] The proteins and polypeptides present in jellyfish venom, along with the collagen, glycoproteins, and polysaccharides found in the nematocysts, all can function as antigens or allergens within the human body, eliciting cellular or humoral immune responses. […] Jellyfish toxins are mainly divided into 3 categories: Proteinoid toxins, non-protein toxins, and bioactive enzymes. These bioactive ingredients exhibit various biological toxicities including dermal necrosis, hemolysis, and adverse effects on cardiovascular, nervous, hepatic, and renal systems.

• #71 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/

  Despite aggressive treatment, many skin injuries still result in significant pigmentation or scarring after recovery. […] However, the precise pathogenic mechanisms and constituents of jellyfish venom remain unclear, and the management of jellyfish stings continues to be an important medical topic. […] The symptoms of jellyfish stings can arise indirectly from the body’s immune responses to toxin molecules and nematocysts, including skin lesions, inflammation, pyrexia, myoclonus, and paresthesia. […] The proteins and polypeptides present in jellyfish venom, along with the collagen, glycoproteins, and polysaccharides found in the nematocysts, all can function as antigens or allergens within the human body, eliciting cellular or humoral immune responses. […] Jellyfish toxins are mainly divided into 3 categories: Proteinoid toxins, non-protein toxins, and bioactive enzymes. These bioactive ingredients exhibit various biological toxicities including dermal necrosis, hemolysis, and adverse effects on cardiovascular, nervous, hepatic, and renal systems.

• #72 Jellyfish Stings – Injuries and Poisoning – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/injuries-and-poisoning/bites-and-stings/jellyfish-stings

  Cnidaria cause more poisonings than any other marine animal. […] Cnidaria have stinging units (nematocysts) on their tentacles. A single tentacle may contain thousands of them. The severity of the sting depends on the type of animal. The sting of most species results in a painful, itchy rash, which may develop into blisters that fill with pus and then rupture. Other symptoms may include weakness, nausea, headache, muscle pain and spasms, runny eyes and nose, excessive sweating, and chest pain that worsens with breathing. Stings from the Portuguese man-of-war (in North America) and the box jellyfish (in Australia in the Indian and South Pacific oceans) have caused death. […] Seabathers eruption is a stinging, itchy rash that affects swimmers in some Atlantic locations (such as Florida, the Caribbean, and Long Island). It is caused by an allergic reaction to stings from the larvae of the sea anemone or the thimble jellyfish.

• #73 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/

  With the surge in the human coastal population and the increasing frequency of human activities along the coast, cases of marine envenomation, particularly jellyfish envenomation, have notably risen. Jellyfish stings can induce a spectrum of symptoms that vary in severity, encompassing skin injuries, acute systemic venom effects, delayed indirect sequelae, and even fatality, causing significant distress to patients. Among these manifestations, the occurrence of skin lesions following jellyfish stings is prevalent and substantial. These lesions are characterized by evident blister formation, development of bullae, subcutaneous hemorrhage, erythema, papules, wheal, ecchymosis, and ulceration or skin necrosis. Local cutaneous manifestations may persist for several weeks or even months after the initial sting.

• #74 Jellyfish Stings – Injuries and Poisoning – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/injuries-and-poisoning/bites-and-stings/jellyfish-stings

  Cnidaria cause more poisonings than any other marine animal. […] Cnidaria have stinging units (nematocysts) on their tentacles. A single tentacle may contain thousands of them. The severity of the sting depends on the type of animal. The sting of most species results in a painful, itchy rash, which may develop into blisters that fill with pus and then rupture. Other symptoms may include weakness, nausea, headache, muscle pain and spasms, runny eyes and nose, excessive sweating, and chest pain that worsens with breathing. Stings from the Portuguese man-of-war (in North America) and the box jellyfish (in Australia in the Indian and South Pacific oceans) have caused death. […] Seabathers eruption is a stinging, itchy rash that affects swimmers in some Atlantic locations (such as Florida, the Caribbean, and Long Island). It is caused by an allergic reaction to stings from the larvae of the sea anemone or the thimble jellyfish.

• #75 Jellyfish Stings Pictures, Pain Symptoms, Types, and Treatment

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/jellyfish_stings/article_em.htm

  Jellyfish (Chrysaora) are free-swimming, non-aggressive, gelatinous marine animals surrounded by tentacles. […] These tentacles are covered with sacs (nematocysts or stinging cells) that are filled with poison (venom) that can cause a painful to sometimes life-threatening sting. […] Jellyfish stings are generally accidental – from swimming or wading into a jellyfish or carelessly handling them. […] Symptoms include an intense, stinging pain, itching, rash, and raised welts. […] The progressive effects of a jellyfish sting may include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, lymph node swelling, abdominal pain, numbness/tingling, and muscle spasms. […] Severe reactions can cause difficulty breathing, coma, and death. […] A sting from a box jellyfish or other venomous types of jellyfish can cause death in minutes.

• #76 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/

  With the surge in the human coastal population and the increasing frequency of human activities along the coast, cases of marine envenomation, particularly jellyfish envenomation, have notably risen. Jellyfish stings can induce a spectrum of symptoms that vary in severity, encompassing skin injuries, acute systemic venom effects, delayed indirect sequelae, and even fatality, causing significant distress to patients. Among these manifestations, the occurrence of skin lesions following jellyfish stings is prevalent and substantial. These lesions are characterized by evident blister formation, development of bullae, subcutaneous hemorrhage, erythema, papules, wheal, ecchymosis, and ulceration or skin necrosis. Local cutaneous manifestations may persist for several weeks or even months after the initial sting.

• #77 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/

  With the surge in the human coastal population and the increasing frequency of human activities along the coast, cases of marine envenomation, particularly jellyfish envenomation, have notably risen. Jellyfish stings can induce a spectrum of symptoms that vary in severity, encompassing skin injuries, acute systemic venom effects, delayed indirect sequelae, and even fatality, causing significant distress to patients. Among these manifestations, the occurrence of skin lesions following jellyfish stings is prevalent and substantial. These lesions are characterized by evident blister formation, development of bullae, subcutaneous hemorrhage, erythema, papules, wheal, ecchymosis, and ulceration or skin necrosis. Local cutaneous manifestations may persist for several weeks or even months after the initial sting.

• #78 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/

  Despite aggressive treatment, many skin injuries still result in significant pigmentation or scarring after recovery. […] However, the precise pathogenic mechanisms and constituents of jellyfish venom remain unclear, and the management of jellyfish stings continues to be an important medical topic. […] The symptoms of jellyfish stings can arise indirectly from the body’s immune responses to toxin molecules and nematocysts, including skin lesions, inflammation, pyrexia, myoclonus, and paresthesia. […] The proteins and polypeptides present in jellyfish venom, along with the collagen, glycoproteins, and polysaccharides found in the nematocysts, all can function as antigens or allergens within the human body, eliciting cellular or humoral immune responses. […] Jellyfish toxins are mainly divided into 3 categories: Proteinoid toxins, non-protein toxins, and bioactive enzymes. These bioactive ingredients exhibit various biological toxicities including dermal necrosis, hemolysis, and adverse effects on cardiovascular, nervous, hepatic, and renal systems.

• #79

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/tips-tools/symptom-checker/Pages/symptomviewer.aspx?symptom=Jellyfish+Sting

  Jellyfish cause most of the stings that occur in sea water. […] The creature’s stingers inject venom into the human skin. This is what causes the symptoms. […] The venom is what causes all the symptoms. […] Jellyfish cause most of the stings that occur in the ocean. […] Jellyfish stings cause pain that feels like a bee sting. […] The long tentacles have thousands of stingers. […] When a stinger is touched, it pierces the skin and injects venom. […] Local Reactions are most common. […] General Reactions can occur if there are many stings. […] Anaphylaxis (A severe allergic reaction). Life-threatening reactions are very rare with the stings. Most are caused by box jellyfish found in the South Pacific and Australia.

• #80 Jellyfish Stings – Injuries and Poisoning – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/injuries-and-poisoning/bites-and-stings/jellyfish-stings

  Cnidaria cause more poisonings than any other marine animal. […] Cnidaria have stinging units (nematocysts) on their tentacles. A single tentacle may contain thousands of them. The severity of the sting depends on the type of animal. The sting of most species results in a painful, itchy rash, which may develop into blisters that fill with pus and then rupture. Other symptoms may include weakness, nausea, headache, muscle pain and spasms, runny eyes and nose, excessive sweating, and chest pain that worsens with breathing. Stings from the Portuguese man-of-war (in North America) and the box jellyfish (in Australia in the Indian and South Pacific oceans) have caused death. […] Seabathers eruption is a stinging, itchy rash that affects swimmers in some Atlantic locations (such as Florida, the Caribbean, and Long Island). It is caused by an allergic reaction to stings from the larvae of the sea anemone or the thimble jellyfish.

• #81 Jellyfish Stings Pictures, Pain Symptoms, Types, and Treatment

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/jellyfish_stings/article_em.htm

  Jellyfish (Chrysaora) are free-swimming, non-aggressive, gelatinous marine animals surrounded by tentacles. […] These tentacles are covered with sacs (nematocysts or stinging cells) that are filled with poison (venom) that can cause a painful to sometimes life-threatening sting. […] Jellyfish stings are generally accidental – from swimming or wading into a jellyfish or carelessly handling them. […] Symptoms include an intense, stinging pain, itching, rash, and raised welts. […] The progressive effects of a jellyfish sting may include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, lymph node swelling, abdominal pain, numbness/tingling, and muscle spasms. […] Severe reactions can cause difficulty breathing, coma, and death. […] A sting from a box jellyfish or other venomous types of jellyfish can cause death in minutes.

• #82 What Are Box Jellyfish Stings? Symptoms and Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/first-aid/what-to-know-about-box-jellyfish-stings

  A sting from a box jellyfish is dangerous, but there are ways to avoid these sea creatures and quickly treat a sting. Box jellyfish, also known as „stingers,” are highly venomous aquatic animals. It has a body that looks like a box with lots of tentacles covered in venom-filled stingers. Jellyfish use stingers to protect themselves and kill prey. If you brush against a tentacle, the stingers pierce the skin and inject venom, which then enters your bloodstream. Their sting can cause paralysis and, in some cases, death. […] The main symptoms of a box jellyfish sting include burning pain in the skin, welts in the skin, usually in a whip-like pattern, tentacles from the jellyfish stuck onto the skin, unusual behavior due to pain, stomach pain, chest pain, muscle pain or spasms, sweating, nausea or vomiting.

• #83 Jellyfish Stings | Virginia Institute of Marine Science

  https://www.vims.edu/bayinfo/jellyfish/stings/

  Because jellyfish are slow-moving, weak animals, they use stinging tentacles to capture and immobilize their prey. These tentacles are covered with stinging cells called nematocysts that each discharge a tiny, harpoon-like structure that carries venom. […] While uncommon, a jellyfish sting can cause an allergic reaction, causing swelling throughout the body and potentially restricting the airway. […] Because jellyfish venoms can differ by species, age, geographic location, and body part (tentacles vs. body), these same treatment suggestions may not be the most effective in all situations.

• #84

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/tips-tools/symptom-checker/Pages/symptomviewer.aspx?symptom=Jellyfish+Sting

  Jellyfish cause most of the stings that occur in sea water. […] The creature’s stingers inject venom into the human skin. This is what causes the symptoms. […] The venom is what causes all the symptoms. […] Jellyfish cause most of the stings that occur in the ocean. […] Jellyfish stings cause pain that feels like a bee sting. […] The long tentacles have thousands of stingers. […] When a stinger is touched, it pierces the skin and injects venom. […] Local Reactions are most common. […] General Reactions can occur if there are many stings. […] Anaphylaxis (A severe allergic reaction). Life-threatening reactions are very rare with the stings. Most are caused by box jellyfish found in the South Pacific and Australia.

• #85

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/tips-tools/symptom-checker/Pages/symptomviewer.aspx?symptom=Jellyfish+Sting

  Jellyfish cause most of the stings that occur in sea water. […] The creature’s stingers inject venom into the human skin. This is what causes the symptoms. […] The venom is what causes all the symptoms. […] Jellyfish cause most of the stings that occur in the ocean. […] Jellyfish stings cause pain that feels like a bee sting. […] The long tentacles have thousands of stingers. […] When a stinger is touched, it pierces the skin and injects venom. […] Local Reactions are most common. […] General Reactions can occur if there are many stings. […] Anaphylaxis (A severe allergic reaction). Life-threatening reactions are very rare with the stings. Most are caused by box jellyfish found in the South Pacific and Australia.

• #86 Jellyfish Sting: Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17821-jellyfish-stings

  The prognosis for a jellyfish sting depends on the type of jellyfish. […] Stings from some jellyfish cause only minor itching and pain. But some box jellyfish stings can kill you within a matter of minutes. […] Other box jellyfish stings can cause a fatal reaction four to 48 hours after a sting due to Irukandji syndrome.

• #87 Jellyfish Stings: Symptoms & Treatment | Red Cross

  https://www.redcross.org/take-a-class/resources/learn-first-aid/jellyfish-stings?srsltid=AfmBOoohNirP6Sxh-smPewuCqDCc7fB9I-WiutPztPbBiISFTh1o-aN_

  Many forms of marine life (such as jellyfish, stingrays, sea urchins, stinging coral and spiny fish) cause stinging wounds. […] Stings from marine life can have effects that range from merely painful to very serious (such as allergic reactions that can cause breathing and heart problems, paralysis or even death). […] Signs and symptoms of marine life stings include pain and swelling at the site. […] If the person is allergic to marine life stings, the person will show signs and symptoms of an allergic reaction or anaphylaxis. […] A life-threatening situation would include the following: lethal jellyfish sting, lack of knowledge about what stung the person, history of allergic reactions to marine life stings, sting on the face or neck, signs symptoms of shock or anaphylaxis, including trouble breathing. […] The stings of some forms of marine life can make a person seriously ill and be life-threatening.

• #88 Jellyfish Sting: Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17821-jellyfish-stings

  The prognosis for a jellyfish sting depends on the type of jellyfish. […] Stings from some jellyfish cause only minor itching and pain. But some box jellyfish stings can kill you within a matter of minutes. […] Other box jellyfish stings can cause a fatal reaction four to 48 hours after a sting due to Irukandji syndrome.

• #89 Jellyfish Sting: Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17821-jellyfish-stings

  The prognosis for a jellyfish sting depends on the type of jellyfish. […] Stings from some jellyfish cause only minor itching and pain. But some box jellyfish stings can kill you within a matter of minutes. […] Other box jellyfish stings can cause a fatal reaction four to 48 hours after a sting due to Irukandji syndrome.

• #90 Jellyfish Sting: Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17821-jellyfish-stings

  The prognosis for a jellyfish sting depends on the type of jellyfish. […] Stings from some jellyfish cause only minor itching and pain. But some box jellyfish stings can kill you within a matter of minutes. […] Other box jellyfish stings can cause a fatal reaction four to 48 hours after a sting due to Irukandji syndrome.

• #91 Jellyfish stings Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/poison/jellyfish-stings

  Jellyfish venom which contains several chemicals including neurotoxic peptides. […] Certain box jellyfish stings can kill a person within minutes. Other box jellyfish stings can lead to death in 4 to 48 hours after a sting due to „Irukandji syndrome,” a delayed reaction to the sting. […] It is important to carefully monitor box jellyfish sting victims for hours after a sting. Seek medical attention right away for any breathing difficulties, chest or abdominal pains, or profuse sweating.

• #92 Jellyfish stings: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002845.htm

  Jellyfish venom which contains several chemicals including neurotoxic peptides. […] Almost 2000 species of animals found in the ocean are either venomous or poisonous to humans, and many can produce severe illness or fatalities. […] Certain box jellyfish stings can kill a person within minutes. Other box jellyfish stings can lead to death in 4 to 48 hours after a sting due to „Irukandji syndrome,” a delayed reaction to the sting. […] For the great majority of bites, stings, or other forms of poisoning, the danger is either drowning after being stung or an allergic reaction to the venom.

• #93 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Jellyfish (cnidarians) have a worldwide distribution. Despite most being harmless, some species may cause local and also systemic reactions. Treatment of jellyfish envenomation is directed at: alleviating the local effects of venom, preventing further nematocyst discharges and controlling systemic reactions, including shock. In severe cases, the most important step is stabilizing and maintaining vital functions. With some differences between species, there seems to be evidence and consensus on oral/topical analgesics, hot water and ice packs as effective painkillers and on 30 s application of domestic vinegar (4%6% acetic acid) to prevent further discharge of unfired nematocysts remaining on the skin. Conversely, alcohol, methylated spirits and fresh water should be carefully avoided, since they could massively discharge nematocysts; pressure immobilization bandaging should also be avoided, as laboratory studies show that it stimulates additional venom discharge from nematocysts. Most treatment approaches are presently founded on relatively weak evidence; therefore, further research (especially randomized clinical trials) is strongly recommended.

• #94 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/

  The enzymes in jellyfish venom can significantly upregulate the expression of inflammatory factors in dermal cells. […] The suppressive effect of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitors on toxic metalloproteinases-mediated skin damage suggested a pivotal role of metalloproteinases in the pathogenesis of jellyfish dermatitis. […] In conclusion, rinsing with appropriate metal cation solutions is an effective emergency treatment. […] In brief, there is still no universally applicable rinse solution available for an unidentified jellyfish sting. However, considering their widespread availability and effectiveness against a large number of jellyfish species, vinegar (5% acetic acid) and saleratus are recommended for immediate treatment in emergency situations. […] Jellyfish stings can cause a variety of clinical manifestations, most notably skin lesions, and there is no specific treatment.

• #95 Box Jellyfish Sting: Emergency First Aid, Side Effects, and Symptoms

  https://www.healthline.com/health/box-jellyfish-sting

  The sting of Chironex fleckeri and other box jellyfish can lead to heart rhythm problems and ultimately death by causing nonstop contraction of the muscles and overproduction of potassium in the blood. The lethal reaction, when severe, is usually immediate. […] A person stung by a box jellyfish needs immediate treatment. […] Severe box jellyfish stings can be fatal, triggering cardiac arrest in your body within minutes. […] It’s crucial to get treatment immediately following a box jellyfish sting to stop the spread of its venom, remove any remaining tentacles on your body, and get oxygen to support your body as it reacts to the poison.

• #96 Jellyfish stings Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/poison/jellyfish-stings

  Jellyfish venom which contains several chemicals including neurotoxic peptides. […] Certain box jellyfish stings can kill a person within minutes. Other box jellyfish stings can lead to death in 4 to 48 hours after a sting due to „Irukandji syndrome,” a delayed reaction to the sting. […] It is important to carefully monitor box jellyfish sting victims for hours after a sting. Seek medical attention right away for any breathing difficulties, chest or abdominal pains, or profuse sweating.

• #97 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3640396/

  Although all cnidarians are capable of envenomation, most are harmless to humans, as some do not have nematocyst shafts of sufficient length to enable the thread to deposit toxins deep enough into the epidermis or might produce toxins that do not cause significant harm to humans. Harmful cnidarians include vertebrate feeders or bigger jellyfish able to release large amounts of toxin. […] Jellyfish are present in all oceans of the world, with their stings being commonly observed in warm tropical marine waters, as well as in more northern regions, such as the United Kingdom, France and Norway. The geographic distribution of jellyfish seems to be undergoing an impact by global warming. […] It has been estimated there are 150 million jellyfish stings a year, with some Pacific areas reporting up to 800 daily events at one single beach. Therefore, beyond being a public health issue, jellyfish also constitute a threat to tourism.

• #98 What’s Behind That Jellyfish Sting?

  https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/whats-behind-that-jellyfish-sting-2844876/

  If jellyfish are increasing globally, it is likely that human influences are the cause. Overfishing has reduced some jellies’ competition for food; increased nutrients running into the ocean create oxygen-depleted environments that jellies can tolerate better than other animals; and warmer water can help some species of jellyfish larvae to grow more quickly.

Zobacz więcej