Ukąszenia meduz – Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Ukąszenia meduz
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Ukąszenia meduz wynikają z kontaktu skóry z knidocytami zawierającymi nematocysty, które wyrzucają jad z prędkością około 67 km/h, generując siłę uderzenia około 7,7 GPa (1 116 790,5 psi). Jad meduz to złożona mieszanina toksyn białkowych (w tym poryn i fosfolipazy A2), toksyn niebiałkowych oraz enzymów bioaktywnych (metaloproteinazy, proteazy, hialuronidaza), które wywołują uszkodzenia komórkowe, stan zapalny, ból i reakcje immunologiczne. Mechanizmy toksyczności obejmują formowanie porów w błonach komórkowych, zaburzenia transportu jonów (Ca²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺), cytotoksyczność oraz indukcję stresu oksydacyjnego. Ukąszenia mogą prowadzić do lokalnych zmian skórnych (pęcherze, wybroczyny, martwica) oraz ogólnoustrojowych objawów, takich jak nudności, skurcze mięśni, zaburzenia rytmu serca, a w ciężkich przypadkach – zespół Irukandji i kardiotoksyczność z podwyższonym poziomem troponiny I. Reakcje immunologiczne angażują keratynocyty, komórki dendrytyczne i tuczne, które pośredniczą w zapaleniu i alergii, w tym reakcjach typu I i IV, co może prowadzić do przewlekłych zmian skórnych i nadwrażliwości.

Patofizjologia ukąszeń meduz

Ukąszenia meduz są wynikiem kontaktu skóry człowieka z tysiącami wyspecjalizowanych komórek żądlących zwanych knidocytami, które pokrywają powierzchnię macek meduzy. Knidocyty zawierają wyspecjalizowane organella – nematocysty, które są otoczone kolagenową osłoną cystyczną i pełnią funkcję miniaturowych, harpunopodobnych struktur wypełnionych jadem¹². Wzrost populacji na terenach przybrzeżnych oraz zwiększona aktywność ludzi wzdłuż wybrzeży spowodowały znaczny wzrost przypadków ukąszeń przez meduzy w ostatnich latach³.

Mechanizm uwalniania jadu

Mechanizm uwalniania jadu przez meduzy jest jednym z najszybszych procesów biologicznych w przyrodzie i obejmuje kilka kluczowych etapów⁴⁵:

Pod wpływem bodźca fizycznego lub chemicznego, nematocysty gwałtownie zwiększają ciśnienie hydrostatyczne wewnątrz kapsułki⁶.
Znaczna różnica ciśnień między wnętrzem a zewnętrzem nematocysty powoduje wyrzucenie rurki wypełnionej jadem z prędkością około 67 km/h, co stanowi jedno z najszybszych zdarzeń mechanicznych w naturze⁷⁸.
Rurka przebija skórę ofiary z siłą uderzenia około 7,7 GPa, co odpowiada około 1 116 790,5 psi⁹.
Po przebiciu skóry, nematocysta uwalnia jad bezpośrednio do tkanek ofiary¹⁰.

W badaniach wykazano, że proces wyładowania nematocysty można podzielić na trzy odrębne fazy¹¹:

Faza 1: Początkowe, przypominające pocisk wyładowanie i penetracja celu przez gęsto zwiniętą nić z kapsułki nematocysty. Proces ten jest napędzany zmianą ciśnienia osmotycznego spowodowaną nagłym napływem wody i elastycznym rozciągnięciem kapsułki.
Faza 2: Wyładowanie i wydłużenie podstruktury trzonu nici, które jest dodatkowo napędzane przez uwolnienie energii elastycznej poprzez proces ewersji (mechanizm, w którym trzon wywraca się na drugą stronę), tworząc potrójną strukturę helikalną otaczającą delikatną wewnętrzną rurką ozdobioną zadziorami zawierającymi koktajl toksyn.
Faza 3: Rurka rozpoczyna następnie własny proces ewersji, aby wydłużyć się w miękką tkankę celu, uwalniając po drodze neurotoksyny.

Cały proces trwa zaledwie kilka tysięcznych sekundy¹²¹³.

Skład jadu meduz

Jad meduz jest złożoną mieszaniną substancji bioaktywnych, które można podzielić na trzy główne kategorie¹⁴:

Toksyny białkowe – w tym poryny (toksyny tworzące pory w błonach komórkowych), które mogą bezpośrednio uszkadzać komórki poprzez naruszenie integralności ich błon¹⁵¹⁶.
Toksyny niebiałkowe – w tym związki amoniowe czwartorzędowe, histamina, serotonina i katecholaminy¹⁷.
Enzymy bioaktywne – w tym fosfolipazy, metaloproteinazy i proteazy¹⁸.

Wśród najważniejszych składników jadu meduz, które wywołują istotne efekty toksyczne, znajdują się¹⁹²⁰:

Poryny (PFTs – pore-forming toxins) – dobrze scharakteryzowana grupa białek toksycznych, które mogą oddziaływać z błoną komórkową, powodując zmiany strukturalne i przepuszczalności. Zakłóca to gradient jonowy komórki, prowadząc do infiltracji komórkowej, obrzęku, pęknięcia i śmierci komórki²¹.
Fosfolipaza A2 – zidentyfikowana u wielu gatunków meduz, wywołuje szereg efektów toksykologicznych, w tym stan zapalny, ból, krwotok i martwicę skóry²².
Metaloproteinazy – odgrywają kluczową rolę w patogenezie zapalenia skóry po ukąszeniu meduzy. Inhibitory metaloproteinaz (np. Batimastat, galusan epigallokatechiny (EGCG) i kwas etylenodiaminotetraoctowy (EDTA)) wykazują działanie hamujące uszkodzenia skóry wywołane przez metaloproteinazy²³.
Proteazy – ich aktywność proteolityczna prowadzi do degradacji macierzy pozakomórkowej i warstwy błony podstawnej naczyń, a także ułatwia penetrację, dyfuzję i aktywację innych toksycznych składników²⁴.
Hialuronidaza – enzym, który rozkłada kwas hialuronowy znajdujący się w tkankach łącznych, co pomaga w skuteczniejszym rozprzestrzenianiu się jadu w organizmie ofiary²⁵.

Mechanizmy działania jadu

Jad meduz wywiera swoje efekty toksyczne poprzez różne mechanizmy działania²⁶²⁷:

Formowanie porów w błonach komórkowych – najlepiej opisaną aktywnością toksyczną jadu meduz jest liza komórek przez toksyny tworzące pory. Toksyny te mogą tworzyć kanały lub pory w błonach komórkowych neuronów i komórek mięśniowych, prowadząc do napływu jonów wapnia, obrzęku osmotycznego i lizy komórek²⁸²⁹.
Wpływ na transport jonowy – jady morskie mogą wpływać na transport jonów, szczególnie sodu i wapnia. Niektóre neurotoksyny działają na kanały jonowe, takie jak szybkie kanały sodowe i wewnętrznie prostujące kanały potasowe³⁰³¹.
Działanie cytotoksyczne – niektóre składniki jadu działają jako cytotoksyny, uszkadzając komórki w miejscu ukąszenia³².
Indukcja stresu oksydacyjnego – jako mechanizm patofizjologiczny został również zgłoszony stres oksydacyjny³³.

Efekty kardiotoksyczne

Wpływ jadu meduz na układ sercowo-naczyniowy wykazuje dużą zmienność, od braku wyraźnej kardiotoksyczności po podwyższone poziomy troponiny I, kardiomiopatię tako-tsubo i ostry zawał mięśnia sercowego³⁴.

Chociaż dokładny mechanizm ostrej dysfunkcji serca nie jest jeszcze w pełni zrozumiały, zidentyfikowano kluczowe czynniki napędzające kardiotoksyczność jadu meduz³⁵:

Nadmiar wewnątrzkomórkowego Ca²⁺ spowodowany wejściem Ca²⁺ zewnątrzkomórkowego przez toksyny tworzące pory.
Wewnątrzkomórkowe uwalnianie Ca²⁺ kierowane przez sygnalizację β-adrenergiczną.

Poważne ukąszenia powodują zatrzymanie krążenia poprzez zaburzenia rytmu serca (z powodu hiperkaliemii) i zaburzenia regulacji osmotycznej tkanek śródbłonka i serca przez toksyny tworzące pory zawarte w jadzie³⁶. Na przykład, jad Chironex fleckeri powoduje, że błony komórkowe stają się porowate, umożliwiając napływ K⁺ i hiperkaliemię³⁷.

Odpowiedź układu immunologicznego

Ukąszenia meduz mogą wywoływać złożoną odpowiedź immunologiczną w ludzkiej skórze, podobną do odpowiedzi na patogeny lub alergeny³⁸. Objawy ukąszenia meduz mogą wynikać pośrednio z reakcji immunologicznych organizmu na cząsteczki toksyn i nematocysty, w tym zmiany skórne, stan zapalny, gorączkę, mioklonie i parestezje³⁹.

Komórkowa odpowiedź immunologiczna

W odpowiedzi immunologicznej na jad meduzy uczestniczą różne typy komórek⁴⁰⁴¹:

Keratynocyty – nie tylko pełnią funkcję bariery fizycznej, ale również uwalniają białko zwane limfopoetynę zrębu grasicy. Białko to aktywuje limfocyty T do produkcji cytokin, które są zaangażowane w alergiczne reakcje skórne⁴².
Komórki dendrytyczne – wychwytują i prezentują antygeny (obce substancje) limfocytom T lub migrują do węzłów chłonnych, aby zainicjować odpowiedź immunologiczną. Przyczyniają się do odpowiedzi immunologicznej na jad meduzy i jego składniki poprzez różne receptory zaangażowane w rozpoznawanie patogenów⁴³.
Komórki tuczne – odgrywają znaczącą rolę w procesach zapalnych. Gdy są stymulowane, uwalniają różne substancje promujące stan zapalny, takie jak histamina, czynnik aktywujący płytki krwi, prostaglandyny, leukotrieny, proteazy i cytokiny⁴⁴⁴⁵.

Komórki tuczne mogą być aktywowane na trzy sposoby podczas ukąszenia meduzy⁴⁶:

Bezpośrednio przez bioaktywne substancje jadu.
Poprzez interakcję ze składnikami komórek żądlących meduzy.
Poprzez zmiany fizyczne w miejscu ukąszenia.

Aktywacja szlaków sygnałowych

Ponadto, liczne bioaktywne składniki jadu meduzy mogą wywoływać odpowiedzi immunologiczne poprzez powiązane szlaki sygnałowe i mechanizmy komórkowe⁴⁷:

Toksyny tworzące pory (PFTs) wykazują podobieństwa do bakteryjnych PFT, które mogą indukować wypływ K⁺ poprzez penetrację błony komórkowej⁴⁸.
Redukcja wewnątrzkomórkowego stężenia K⁺ aktywuje inflamasom NLRP3 i szlaki sygnałowe p38 MAPK, regulując uwalnianie cytokin i inicjując odpowiedzi immunologiczne⁴⁹.
Komórki tuczne są bezpośrednio stymulowane lub ich wewnętrzne lub receptory rozpoznające wzorce są aktywowane przez toksyczne składniki, co prowadzi do degranulacji i szybkiego uwalniania cytokin, takich jak histamina, prostaglandyny i leukotrieny⁵⁰.

Reakcje alergiczne i nadwrażliwości

Białka i polipeptydy obecne w jadzie meduzy, wraz z kolagenem, glikoproteinami i polisacharydami znajdującymi się w nematocystach, mogą działać jako antygeny lub alergeny w organizmie człowieka, wywołując komórkowe lub humoralne odpowiedzi immunologiczne⁵¹.

W przypadku powtarzających się ukąszeń meduzy, odpowiedź alergiczna zapośredniczona przez typ przeciwciał IgE może również przyczyniać się do aktywacji komórek tucznych i uwalniania mediatorów w odpowiedzi na określone substancje związane z ich powierzchniami. Może to prowadzić do cięższych objawów⁵².

Mogą wystąpić ciężkie ogólnoustrojowe reakcje alergiczne, głównie z powodu wcześniejszej ekspozycji na toksyny antygenowe lub podobne składniki biologiczne, a przeciwciała immunoglobulinowe specyficzne dla gatunku w surowicy mogą pozostać wysokie przez kilka lat⁵³.

Chitin, kolagen, polisacharydy i inne składniki nematocyst mogą trwale aktywować prozapalne komórki układu odporności wrodzonej, takie jak komórki dendrytyczne Langerhansa, makrofagi i komórki tuczne, prowadząc do utrzymujących się i nawracających objawów pęcherzykowego lub swędzącego zapalenia skóry⁵⁴.

Istnieją pewne dowody na to, że ukąszenia niektórych meduz mogą wywołać reakcje nadwrażliwości natychmiastowej i opóźnionej⁵⁵. Reakcja typu IV nadwrażliwości wywołana przez antygen przetrwały w skórze lub antygen reagujący krzyżowo w jadzie jest postulowana jako geneza opóźnionych, utrzymujących się reakcji po ukąszeniach meduz⁵⁶.

Objawy kliniczne ukąszeń meduz

Ukąszenia meduz mogą wywoływać spektrum objawów o różnym nasileniu, od miejscowych reakcji skórnych po ogólnoustrojowe objawy zagrażające życiu⁵⁷.

Objawy skórne

Miejscowe objawy skórne po ukąszeniu meduzy są najczęstsze i mogą obejmować⁵⁸⁵⁹:

Wyraźne tworzenie się pęcherzy
Rozwój pęcherzy
Krwotok podskórny
Rumień
Grudki
Bąble
Wybroczyny
Owrzodzenia lub martwica skóry
Zmiany przypominające ślady bicza

Miejscowe objawy skórne mogą utrzymywać się przez kilka tygodni lub nawet miesięcy po początkowym ukąszeniu⁶⁰. Mimo agresywnego leczenia, wiele uszkodzeń skóry nadal skutkuje znaczną pigmentacją lub bliznami po wyzdrowieniu⁶¹.

W momencie kontaktu z meduzą, osoba ukąszona może odczuwać wrażenie podobne do porażenia prądem, a następnie pieczenie i ostry ból, który może nasilać się przez 30-40 minut⁶².

Objawy ogólnoustrojowe

W cięższych przypadkach, ukąszenia meduz mogą prowadzić do ogólnoustrojowych objawów⁶³⁶⁴:

Nudności i wymioty
Skurcze żołądka
Zawroty głowy
Bóle głowy
Skurcze mięśni
Trudności w oddychaniu
Ból mięśni i skurcze
Łzawienie oczu i wyciek z nosa
Nadmierne pocenie się
Ból w klatce piersiowej nasilający się podczas oddychania

Niewielka część ofiar rozwija reakcje ogólnoustrojowe z powodu jadu, które mogą powodować intensywny ból mięśniowy, arytmie serca, niski rzut serca i wstrząs⁶⁵.

Zespół Irukandji

Szczególnym przypadkiem ogólnoustrojowej reakcji na ukąszenie meduzy jest zespół Irukandji, który występuje głównie po ukąszeniach przez małe do średnich rozmiarów meduzy z gatunków Carukia barnesi oraz innych gatunków z rodzajów Carybdea, Malo, Alatina, Gerongia i Morbakka⁶⁶.

Objawy zespołu Irukandji obejmują⁶⁷⁶⁸:

Nudności i wymioty
Ból pleców
Silne skurcze brzucha
Poczucie nadchodzącej śmierci
Może powodować nadciśnienie (hipertensję)
Uszkodzenie serca, które może prowadzić do niewydolności serca

Mechanizm powstawania zespołu Irukandji jest związany z działaniem jadu na układ nerwowy i sercowo-naczyniowy⁶⁹:

Jad Carukia barnesi może aktywować neuronalne kanały Na⁺, indukując uwalnianie katecholamin i skurcz naczyń.
Ten mechanizm wydaje się być odpowiedzialny za objawy podobne do sympatykomimetycznych w zespole Irukandji, mianowicie nadciśnienie i tachykardię.

Najskuteczniejszą terapią zespołu Irukandji wydaje się być dożylna infuzja magnezu (MgSO₄ lub MgCl₂)⁷⁰.

Reakcje zagrażające życiu

W najcięższych przypadkach, ukąszenia meduz mogą prowadzić do reakcji zagrażających życiu, szczególnie po ukąszeniach przez meduzy z rodziny Cubozoa (meduzy kostkowe)⁷¹.

Ukąszenia niektórych meduz kostkowych, takich jak Chironex fleckeri (australijska meduza kostkowa), mogą zabić dorosłego człowieka w ciągu kilku minut⁷²⁷³. Inne meduzy kostkowe mogą prowadzić do śmierci w ciągu 4-48 godzin po ukąszeniu z powodu opóźnionej reakcji związanej z zespołem Irukandji⁷⁴.

Śmierć spowodowana ukąszeniem meduzy może nastąpić poprzez⁷⁵:

Mechanizm nadwrażliwości (reakcja anafilaktyczna)
Wpływ kilku toksyn na układy sercowo-naczyniowy lub oddechowy
Wpływ na wątrobę

Śmierć w wyniku ukąszenia australijskiej meduzy kostkowej jest w dużej mierze spowodowana szybkim działaniem kardiotoksycznym toksyn tworzących pory. Autopsje wykazują obrzęk płuc⁷⁶.

Czynniki wpływające na ciężkość ukąszeń

Ciężkość reakcji na ukąszenie meduzy zależy od kilku czynników⁷⁷⁷⁸:

Czynniki związane z meduzą

Gatunek meduzy – różne gatunki meduz produkują jady o różnej toksyczności. Meduzy kostkowe, takie jak Chironex fleckeri i Carukia barnesi, są uważane za najbardziej niebezpieczne⁷⁹.
Wielkość meduzy – większe meduzy mają większe knidoblasty, które mogą głębiej penetrować skórę⁸⁰.
Długość kontaktu z mackami – im dłuższy kontakt, tym więcej jadu zostaje wstrzykniętego⁸¹.
Liczba macek, które miały kontakt ze skórą – więcej macek oznacza więcej nematocystów i więcej wstrzykniętego jadu⁸².

Czynniki związane z ofiarą

Wiek – dzieci są bardziej podatne na efekty toksyn, ponieważ są mniejsze i bardziej wrażliwe, często mają poważniejsze reakcje⁸³.
Powierzchnia kontaktu – ciężkość obrażeń jest proporcjonalna do obszaru ciała, który miał kontakt z meduzą⁸⁴.
Wcześniejsza ekspozycja – osoby, które zostały ukąszone kilkakrotnie przez meduzy, mogą rozwinąć reakcję alergiczną na jad⁸⁵.
Stan układu odpornościowego – osoby z obniżoną odpornością mogą cierpieć bardziej z powodu ukąszeń⁸⁶.
Osobiste cechy – indywidualne cechy ofiary wpływają na prognozę⁸⁷.

Czynniki związane z leczeniem

Szybkość udzielenia pomocy – szybkie i właściwe leczenie może znacznie zmniejszyć ciężkość reakcji⁸⁸.
Dostępność antidotum – w przypadku ukąszeń przez australijską meduzę kostkową dostępne jest swoiste antidotum, które może być skuteczne, jeśli jest podane odpowiednio wcześnie⁸⁹.
Odpowiednie postępowanie z uwolnionymi nematocystami – niewłaściwe postępowanie może prowadzić do uwolnienia większej ilości jadu⁹⁰.

Według Emergency Care Institute of New South Wales, jeśli 10 procent lub więcej skóry osoby jest dotknięte jadem Chironex fleckeri, ukąszenie staje się śmiertelne, szczególnie u dzieci⁹¹.

Leczenie i zapobieganie

Leczenie ukąszeń meduz ma na celu złagodzenie miejscowych efektów jadu, zapobieganie dalszym wyładowaniom nematocystów i kontrolowanie reakcji ogólnoustrojowych, w tym wstrząsu⁹².

Pierwsza pomoc

Najważniejszym krokiem po ciężkim ukąszeniu jest podstawowe podtrzymywanie życia (ABC – drogi oddechowe, oddychanie, krążenie) z celem utrzymania oddychania i krążenia krwi, oraz usunięcie macek, ponieważ dopóki macki przylegają do skóry, nematocysty nadal uwalniają jad⁹³.

Podstawowe zasady pierwszej pomocy dla ukąszeń meduz obejmują⁹⁴⁹⁵:

Wyjście z wody – jak najszybciej wyjdź z wody po ukąszeniu.
Usunięcie pozostałości macek – ostrożnie usuń wszystkie widoczne macki ze skóry, używając pincety lub zakładając rękawiczki, aby uniknąć kontaktu z gołymi rękami.
Płukanie odpowiednim roztworem – przepłucz obszar ukąszenia wodą morską lub słoną, a nie wodą słodką, która może zmienić pH i aktywować nematocysty.
Deaktywacja nematocystów – w zależności od gatunku meduzy, może być pomocne zastosowanie octu (5% kwas octowy), wodnego roztworu wodorowęglanu sodu (1:1) lub nasyconego roztworu siarczanu magnezu w roztworze chlorku sodu.
Unikanie czynności zwiększających uwalnianie jadu – nie pocieraj, nie skrob obszaru piaskiem lub ręcznikiem, nie nakładaj moczu ani napojów alkoholowych, gdyż może to spowodować uwolnienie większej ilości nematocystów.

W przypadku ukąszeń przez meduzę kostkową, zaleca się stosowanie octu jako początkowego płukania przez 30 sekund, a następnie zanurzenie skóry w gorącej wodzie (45°C) lub zastosowanie gorącego prysznica przez 45 minut⁹⁶.

Leczenie medyczne

Leczenie medyczne ukąszeń meduz zależy od rodzaju reakcji⁹⁷:

Reakcje skórne – pacjenci z niepowikłanymi reakcjami skórnymi są leczeni objawowo kortykosteroidami miejscowymi i doustnymi lekami przeciwhistaminowymi i wykazują dobrą odpowiedź w ciągu kilku dni.
Reakcje ogólnoustrojowe – w przypadku ciężkich reakcji ogólnoustrojowych, może być konieczne zastosowanie leków przeciwbólowych, przeciwwymiotnych, przeciwdrgawkowych oraz płynów dożylnych.
Reakcje alergiczne – anafilaksja jest leczona jako nagły przypadek medyczny w szpitalu. Leczenie rozpoczyna się od wstrzyknięcia epinefryny (adrenaliny), która pomaga rozluźnić drogi oddechowe, aby ułatwić oddychanie i zwęża naczynia krwionośne, aby zwiększyć ciśnienie krwi⁹⁸.

Dla ukąszeń przez meduzę kostkową Chironex fleckeri i inne wieloczułkowe meduzy kostkowe dostępna jest specyficzna antysurowica⁹⁹. Badania wskazują, że dodanie siarczanu magnezu do jadu podczas podawania może poprawić skuteczność leczenia¹⁰⁰.

Zapobieganie

Najlepszym sposobem uniknięcia ukąszeń meduz jest zapobieganie kontaktowi z tymi zwierzętami¹⁰¹:

Unikaj pływania w wodach, w których występują meduzy.
Zachowaj ostrożność w pobliżu meduz – nawet tych, które zostały wyrzucone na plażę – ponieważ oderwane macki są w stanie spowodować ukąszenia.
Na rynku dostępne są środki ochronne przed ukąszeniami, które dezaktywują komórki żądlące na kilka sposobów, w tym zmniejszając przyczepianie się macek do skóry, naśladując samo-rozpoznawanie meduzy, blokując aktywację komórek żądlących i zmniejszając wewnętrzne ciśnienie osmotyczne w kapsule nematocysty¹⁰².

Zastosowania badawcze i inne

Zrozumienie mechanizmu działania nematocystów meduz ma potencjalne zastosowania w przyszłości¹⁰³:

Projektowanie urządzeń mikroskopowych – wyjaśnienie skomplikowanej choreografii wyładowania nematocysty w ukwiałach morskich ma interesujące implikacje dla projektowania inżynieryjnych urządzeń mikroskopowych.
Dostarczanie leków na poziomie komórkowym – współpraca między laboratorium Gibsona a Stowers Institute Technology Centers może mieć przyszłe zastosowania w dostarczaniu leków u ludzi na poziomie komórkowym.
Ulepszenia w systemach podawania leków przezskórnych – naśladowanie sposobu, w jaki meduza wstrzykuje jad, może służyć jako podstawa do udoskonalonej metody dostarczania leków¹⁰⁴.

Obecne wyzwanie dla immunotoksykologów polega na zrozumieniu działania składników jadu w celu opracowania ukierunkowanych metod terapeutycznych dla leczenia ukąszeń¹⁰⁵.

Podsumowanie

Ukąszenia meduz stanowią rosnący problem zdrowotny na całym świecie, szczególnie w rejonach przybrzeżnych. Mechanizm ukąszenia obejmuje wyładowanie nematocystów, które wstrzykują złożoną mieszaninę toksyn do skóry ofiary w procesie, który jest jednym z najszybszych zdarzeń biologicznych w przyrodzie.

Jad meduz zawiera liczne składniki bioaktywne, w tym poryny, neurotoksyny, fosfolipazy i proteazy, które wywołują różnorodne efekty toksyczne. Odpowiedź organizmu na ukąszenie meduzy obejmuje złożone mechanizmy immunologiczne, z udziałem keratynocytów, komórek dendrytycznych i komórek tucznych.

Objawy ukąszeń meduz mogą wahać się od łagodnych reakcji skórnych do poważnych reakcji ogólnoustrojowych, takich jak zespół Irukandji, a nawet śmierci w przypadku ukąszeń przez najbardziej jadowite gatunki, jak australijska meduza kostkowa.

Leczenie obejmuje pierwszą pomoc mającą na celu deaktywację nematocystów, usunięcie macek i złagodzenie skutków jadu, a w ciężkich przypadkach może wymagać specjalistycznego leczenia medycznego, w tym podania antysurowicy.

Trwające badania nad mechanizmem działania jadu meduz mogą prowadzić do rozwoju nowych metod terapeutycznych i innowacyjnych zastosowań w medycynie, takich jak systemy dostarczania leków.

Kolejne rozdziały

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Wybierz kolejny rozdział z menu poniżej, aby otworzyć nową podstronę kompedium wiedzy i uzyskać szczegółowe informację o leku, substancji lub chorobie.

Materiały źródłowe

#1 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Despite aggressive treatment, many skin injuries still result in significant pigmentation or scarring after recovery. […] To address this issue effectively, it is imperative to conduct comprehensive evidence-based medical research, elucidate various components within jellyfish venom, and elucidate its pathogenic mechanism to develop targeted treatment programs. […] The precise pathogenic mechanisms and constituents of jellyfish venom remain unclear, and the management of jellyfish stings continues to be an important medical topic. […] The tentacles of jellyfish are densely covered with epidermal cells possessing specialized structures and functions, commonly referred to as cnidocytes. […] Within the cnidocytes, there is a specialized organelle structure enclosed by a collagenous cystic shell known as the nematocyst.
#2 How Do Jellyfish Sting? | Smithsonian Ocean
https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/how-do-jellyfish-sting
Jellyfish’s stinging cells are called cnidocytes. They are small compartments that house a mini needle-like stinger. When an outside force triggers a stinger, the cell opens, letting ocean water rush in. This causes the stinger to shoot out into what triggered the action; once its there, venom is released. Though the venom of most jellyfish is not harmful, some can be deadly. For example, the Indo-Pacific box jellyfish or sea wasp releases venom that makes the heart contract. There is an antidote, but the poison acts fast, so someone who is stung must seek medical attention immediately.
#3 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
With the surge in the human coastal population and the increasing frequency of human activities along the coast, cases of marine envenomation, particularly jellyfish envenomation, have notably risen. […] Jellyfish stings can induce a spectrum of symptoms that vary in severity, encompassing skin injuries, acute systemic venom effects, delayed indirect sequelae, and even fatality, causing significant distress to patients. […] Among these manifestations, the occurrence of skin lesions following jellyfish stings is prevalent and substantial. […] These lesions are characterized by evident blister formation, development of bullae, subcutaneous hemorrhage, erythema, papules, wheal, ecchymosis, and ulceration or skin necrosis. […] Local cutaneous manifestations may persist for several weeks or even months after the initial sting.
#4 The architecture and operating mechanism of a cnidarian stinging organelle | Nature Communications
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-31090-0
The stinging organelles of jellyfish, sea anemones, and other cnidarians, known as nematocysts, are remarkable cellular weapons used for both predation and defense. Nematocysts consist of a pressurized capsule containing a coiled harpoon-like thread. These structures are in turn built within specialized cells known as nematocytes. When triggered, the capsule explosively discharges, ejecting the coiled thread which punctures the target and rapidly elongates by turning inside out in a process called eversion. Due to the structural complexity of the thread and the extreme speed of discharge, the precise mechanics of nematocyst firing have remained elusive. […] Previous studies indicate that the high-speed of nematocyst discharge is driven by the accumulation of osmotic pressure inside the capsule by a matrix of cation binding poly–glutamate polymers (PGs) and the elastically stretched capsule wall releasing energy by a powerful spring-like mechanism during discharge. Upon triggering, but prior to discharge, the capsule approximately doubles in volume due to the rapid influx of water. This causes the matrix to swell osmotically and stretches the capsule wall. This energy is subsequently utilized to eject the thread with high velocity, which impacts and penetrates target tissue. The later phases of nematocyst discharge involve the elongation of the thread, which proceeds on a slower timescale and is completed in milliseconds. During this phase, the nematocyst thread undergoes a shape transformation, turning inside-out through a process called eversion which is caused by the release of both osmotically generated pressure and elastic energy stored in the thread. Thus, the nematocyst operates in distinct phases that involve an initial phase of piercing the target and later phases of eversion to form a lumen.
#5 Jellyfish Sting Mechanism Unveiled; Could Help Design Future Delivery Devices
https://www.genengnews.com/topics/drug-discovery/jellyfish-sting-mechanism-unveiled-could-help-design-future-delivery-devices/
Jellyfish Sting Mechanism Unveiled; Could Help Design Future Delivery Devices […] New research from the Stowers Institute for Medical Research has unveiled a precise operational model for the stinging organelleâor nematocystâof the starlet sea anemone, Nematostella vectensis. […] The stinging organelles of jellyfish, sea anemones, and related cnidarian organisms are âremarkable cellular weapons,â which are used for both predation and defense, the authors wrote. Nematocysts consist of a pressurized capsule containing a coiled harpoon-like thread that delivers a cocktail of neurotoxins. […] Previous studies suggest that the high speed of nematocyst discharge is driven by the accumulation of osmotic pressure inside the capsule, and the elastically stretched capsule wall releasing energy by a powerful spring-like mechanism during discharge.
#6 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Upon physical or chemical stimulation, the nematocysts undergo a rapid increase in static hydraulic pressure. […] The significant pressure disparity between the interior and exterior of the nematocysts ultimately propels the thread tube to function as a spring transmitter. […] Discharge of the tubule is one of natures most rapid mechanical events, which effectively penetrates human skin and delivers a substantial dose of jellyfish venom. […] The patients prognosis is contingent upon factors such as the jellyfish species, sting location, and individual characteristics. […] The symptoms of jellyfish stings can arise indirectly from the bodys immune responses to toxin molecules and nematocysts, including skin lesions, inflammation, pyrexia, myoclonus, and paresthesia. […] The proteins and polypeptides present in jellyfish venom, along with the collagen, glycoproteins, and polysaccharides found in the nematocysts, all can function as antigens or allergens within the human body, eliciting cellular or humoral immune responses.
#7 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Upon physical or chemical stimulation, the nematocysts undergo a rapid increase in static hydraulic pressure. […] The significant pressure disparity between the interior and exterior of the nematocysts ultimately propels the thread tube to function as a spring transmitter. […] Discharge of the tubule is one of natures most rapid mechanical events, which effectively penetrates human skin and delivers a substantial dose of jellyfish venom. […] The patients prognosis is contingent upon factors such as the jellyfish species, sting location, and individual characteristics. […] The symptoms of jellyfish stings can arise indirectly from the bodys immune responses to toxin molecules and nematocysts, including skin lesions, inflammation, pyrexia, myoclonus, and paresthesia. […] The proteins and polypeptides present in jellyfish venom, along with the collagen, glycoproteins, and polysaccharides found in the nematocysts, all can function as antigens or allergens within the human body, eliciting cellular or humoral immune responses.
#8 Australian box jellyfish stings
https://dermnetnz.org/topics/australian-box-jellyfish-stings
Stings from the Australian box jellyfish are difficult to study because: […] Envenomation (or stinging) occurs when human skin contacts the thousands of densely packed nematocysts that line the jellyfish tentacles. Within 700 Ns of contact, the nematocyst capsules fire thousands of barbed, poison-filled darts. These travel 67 km/hour with an impact pressure on the epidermis of 7.7 GPa (about 1,116,790.5 psi). […] Each poison-filled dart is filled with porins (transmembrane proteins), neurotoxic peptides and bioactive lipids. […] The Australian box jellyfish toxin is injected into the skin. It has direct effects on muscle and nerves, and can cause chronic immunological complications. […] Death from Australian box jellyfish envenomation is largely due to the rapid cardiovascular effects of pore-forming toxins. Autopsies reveal pulmonary oedema. […] The spiny darts that explode into the epidermis are made up of collagens, glycoproteins and polysaccharides. These may trigger antigenic and innate immune responses, separate from the toxins they carry. Angioedema and anaphylaxis may occur.
#9 Australian box jellyfish stings
https://dermnetnz.org/topics/australian-box-jellyfish-stings
Stings from the Australian box jellyfish are difficult to study because: […] Envenomation (or stinging) occurs when human skin contacts the thousands of densely packed nematocysts that line the jellyfish tentacles. Within 700 Ns of contact, the nematocyst capsules fire thousands of barbed, poison-filled darts. These travel 67 km/hour with an impact pressure on the epidermis of 7.7 GPa (about 1,116,790.5 psi). […] Each poison-filled dart is filled with porins (transmembrane proteins), neurotoxic peptides and bioactive lipids. […] The Australian box jellyfish toxin is injected into the skin. It has direct effects on muscle and nerves, and can cause chronic immunological complications. […] Death from Australian box jellyfish envenomation is largely due to the rapid cardiovascular effects of pore-forming toxins. Autopsies reveal pulmonary oedema. […] The spiny darts that explode into the epidermis are made up of collagens, glycoproteins and polysaccharides. These may trigger antigenic and innate immune responses, separate from the toxins they carry. Angioedema and anaphylaxis may occur.
#10 Jellyfish stings – UpToDate
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/jellyfish-stings
Jellyfish are members of the phylum Cnidaria. They are invertebrates that float in salt and brackish water and have a central bell and lengthy tentacles that disconnect easily. Jellyfish consume fish, crustaceans, and mollusks by injecting venomous capsules called nematocysts into their prey. The nematocysts are clustered along the jellyfish’s tentacles and discharge rapidly on contact. […] After skin contact, jellyfish nematocysts release a hollow barbed tube that injects a mixture of proteinaceous toxins into the victims’ skin. These rapidly fire with an approximate force of 2 to 5 pounds per square inch. […] The venom enters the dermis and systemic circulation. Depending upon the stinging species, it can cause both skin and systemic symptoms. Victims may also experience an immune reaction to the implanted barb of the nematocyst.
#11 Inside the Jellyfish’s Sting: Exploring the Micro-architecture of a Cellular Weapon – environment coastal & offshore
https://ecomagazine.com/news/research/inside-the-jellyfish-s-sting-exploring-the-micro-architecture-of-a-cellular-weapon/
New research from the Stowers Institute for Medical Research unveils a precise operational model for the stinging organelle of the starlet sea anemone, Nematostella vectensis. […] The Stowers teams new model for stinging cell function provides crucial insights into the extraordinarily complex architecture and firing mechanism of nematocysts, the technical name for cnidarian stinging organelles. […] Using these state-of-the-art methods, the researchers characterized the explosive discharge and biomechanical transformation of N. vectensis nematocysts during firing, grouping this process into three distinct phases. The first phase is the initial, projectile-like discharge and target penetration of a densely coiled thread from the nematocyst capsule. This process is driven by a change in osmotic pressure from the sudden influx of water and elastic stretching of the capsule. The second phase marks the discharge and elongation of the threads shaft substructure which is further propelled by the release of elastic energy through a process called eversion the mechanism where the shaft turns inside out forming a triple helical structure to surround a fragile inner tubule decorated with barbs containing a cocktail of toxins. In the third phase, the tubule then begins its own eversion process to elongate into the soft tissue of the target, releasing neurotoxins along the way.
#12 Jellyfish Sting Mechanism Unveiled; Could Help Design Future Delivery Devices
https://www.genengnews.com/topics/drug-discovery/jellyfish-sting-mechanism-unveiled-could-help-design-future-delivery-devices/
This entire stinging operation is completed within just a few thousandths of a second. […] Elucidating the elaborate choreography of nematocyst firing in a sea anemone has some interesting implications for the design of engineered microscopic devices, and the collaborative effort between the Gibson Lab and the Stowers Institute Technology Centers may have future applications for delivering medicines in humans at the cellular level. […] this study demonstrates the operational capability of the nematocyst as a complex and self-assembling biological micromachine.
#13 Inside the jellyfishâsâ¦ | Stowers Institute for Medical Research
https://www.stowers.org/news/inside-jellyfishs-sting-exploring-micro-architecture-cellular-weapon
New research from the Stowers Institute for Medical Research unveils a precise operational model for the stinging organelle of the starlet sea anemone, Nematostella vectensis. […] The Stowers teams new model for stinging cell function provides crucial insights into the extraordinarily complex architecture and firing mechanism of nematocysts, the technical name for cnidarian stinging organelles. […] Using these state-of-the-art methods, the researchers characterized the explosive discharge and biomechanical transformation of N. vectensis nematocysts during firing, grouping this process into three distinct phases. […] Understanding this complex stinging mechanism can have potential future applications for humans, said Gibson. […] The entire stinging operation is completed within just a few thousandths of a second, making it one of the fastest biological processes occurring in nature.
#14 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Additionally, chitin, collagen, polysaccharides, and other constituents within nematocysts can persistently activate proinflammatory innate immune cells such as Langerhans dendritic cells, macrophages, and mast cells, thereby resulting in persistent and recurrent symptoms of vesicular or pruritic dermatitis. […] Jellyfish toxins are mainly divided into 3 categories: Proteinoid toxins, non-protein toxins, and bioactive enzymes. […] These bioactive ingredients exhibit various biological toxicities including dermal necrosis, hemolysis, and adverse effects on cardiovascular, nervous, hepatic, and renal systems. […] PFTs are a well-characterized group of toxin proteins that can be extracted from cnidarian venoms and are usually soluble in water at their very initial stage. […] Most PFTs have potent cytotoxicity and lethality in mice, crayfish, sheep and humans.
#15 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Additionally, chitin, collagen, polysaccharides, and other constituents within nematocysts can persistently activate proinflammatory innate immune cells such as Langerhans dendritic cells, macrophages, and mast cells, thereby resulting in persistent and recurrent symptoms of vesicular or pruritic dermatitis. […] Jellyfish toxins are mainly divided into 3 categories: Proteinoid toxins, non-protein toxins, and bioactive enzymes. […] These bioactive ingredients exhibit various biological toxicities including dermal necrosis, hemolysis, and adverse effects on cardiovascular, nervous, hepatic, and renal systems. […] PFTs are a well-characterized group of toxin proteins that can be extracted from cnidarian venoms and are usually soluble in water at their very initial stage. […] Most PFTs have potent cytotoxicity and lethality in mice, crayfish, sheep and humans.
#16 How Do Jellyfish Sting? Exploring Their Venomous Defense Mechanism – Ask.com
https://www.ask.com/lifestyle/jellyfish-sting-exploring-venomous-defense-mechanism
Jellyfish have tentacles that trail behind them as they swim through the water. These tentacles are lined with thousands of specialized cells called cnidocytes. […] Each cnidocyte contains a tiny harpoon-like structure called a nematocyst, which houses the venom. When triggered by touch or chemical signals, the nematocyst fires rapidly, injecting venom into its target. […] The venom found in jellyfish is a complex mixture of proteins and peptides that vary between different species. Some of these compounds act as neurotoxins, disrupting nerve function and causing pain or paralysis in their prey or predators. Others act as cytotoxins, damaging cells at the site of the sting. […] One well-known component of jellyfish venom is a protein called porin. Porin forms pores in cell membranes, disrupting their integrity and causing cell death. Another notable compound is hyaluronidase, an enzyme that breaks down hyaluronic acid found in connective tissues. This enzyme helps spread the venom more effectively through the victims body.
#17 Jellyfish Envenomation with Skin and Cardiovascular Manifestations and Treatments | OMICS International
https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/jellyfish-envenomation-with-skin-and-cardiovascular-manifestations-andtreatments-2476-2067-1000132.php?aid=92861
Jellyfish are smooth-formed animals in the phylum cnidaria, living in around coastal water zones worldwide. Interacting with jellyfish tentacles, even the beached and dying jellyfish, can prompt millions of nematocysts to perforate the skin and infuse the venom through the inverted long spiny tubules, thereby causing toxic manifestations from no effect to extreme pain to death. […] However, the mechanism of jellyfish venom is not clear. In this review, we focus on Jellyfish toxins, symptoms and treatment after sting in order to reduce treatment time, improve the survival rate for medical providers and to set a reference for follow-up study. […] The venom in nematocyst consists of many polypeptides, quaternary ammonium compounds, histamine, 5-HT and catecholamines. […] Upon physical contact, the capsules of the nematocysts (springloaded syringes) hits a barbed arrow-like tubule within 700 ns of physical contact at high velocity (18.6 m/s) and acceleration (5.4 106 g) creating a pressure of 7.7 GPa at the site of impact.
#18 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
PFTs can interact with the cellular membrane, inducing structural and permeability alterations, which disrupts cells ion gradient, resulting in cellular infiltration, swelling, rupture, and cell death. […] The enzymes in jellyfish venom can significantly upregulate the expression of inflammatory factors in dermal cells. […] The suppressive effect of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitors Batimastat, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) on toxic metalloproteinases-mediated skin damage suggested a pivotal role of metalloproteinases in the pathogenesis of jellyfish dermatitis. […] Phospholipase, which is another prominent enzyme of jellyfish venom, has been identified in Cyanea capillata, Nemopilema nomurai, and Aurelia aurita. […] Phospholipase A2 induces a diverse range of toxicological effects, including inflammation, pain, hemorrhage, and skin necrosis. […] The proteolytic activity of venom-derived proteases leads to degradation of the extracellular matrix and vascular basement membrane layer and also facilitates the penetration, diffusion, and activation of other toxic components.
#19 Immunological and Toxinological Responses to Jellyfish Stings
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3773479/
Just over a century ago, animal responses to injections of jellyfish extracts unveiled the phenomenon of anaphylaxis. […] Upon contact, jellyfish stinging cells discharge complex venoms, through thousands of barbed tubules, into the skin resulting in painful and, potentially, lethal envenomations. […] Jellyfish venoms are composed of potent proteinaceous porins (cellular membrane pore-forming toxins), neurotoxic peptides, bioactive lipids and other small molecules whilst the tubules contain ancient collagens and chitins. […] We postulate that immunologically, both tubular structural and functional biopolymers as well as venom components can initiate innate, adaptive, as well as immediate and delayed hypersensitivity reactions that may be amenable to topical anti-inflammatory-immunomodifier therapy.
#20 Raising Awareness on the Clinical and Forensic Aspects of Jellyfish Stings: A Worldwide Increasing Threat
https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/14/8430
Jellyfish are ubiquitous animals registering a high and increasing number of contacts with humans in coastal areas. These encounters result in a multitude of symptoms, ranging from mild erythema to death. This work aims to review the state-of-the-art regarding pathophysiology, diagnosis, treatment, and relevant clinical and forensic aspects of jellyfish stings. […] Cnidarian venom consists of a complex combination of bioactive elements, including components such as serotonin and histamine, along with high molecular weight proteins. Of these, there have been described lipases, proteases, serine protease inhibitors, hyaluronidases, deoxyribonucleases, l-amino acid oxidases, c-type lectins, neurotoxins, ion channel blockers, pore-forming toxins, and cysteine-rich secretory protein. […] Despite extensive research, the pathophysiological processes and mechanisms of this venom remain unknown. In general, cardiotoxicity is thought to be the leading cause of mortality, whereas hemolytic activity seems to be a preliminary damaging factor, providing a method for disentangling the complex venom.
#21 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
PFTs can interact with the cellular membrane, inducing structural and permeability alterations, which disrupts cells ion gradient, resulting in cellular infiltration, swelling, rupture, and cell death. […] The enzymes in jellyfish venom can significantly upregulate the expression of inflammatory factors in dermal cells. […] The suppressive effect of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitors Batimastat, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) on toxic metalloproteinases-mediated skin damage suggested a pivotal role of metalloproteinases in the pathogenesis of jellyfish dermatitis. […] Phospholipase, which is another prominent enzyme of jellyfish venom, has been identified in Cyanea capillata, Nemopilema nomurai, and Aurelia aurita. […] Phospholipase A2 induces a diverse range of toxicological effects, including inflammation, pain, hemorrhage, and skin necrosis. […] The proteolytic activity of venom-derived proteases leads to degradation of the extracellular matrix and vascular basement membrane layer and also facilitates the penetration, diffusion, and activation of other toxic components.
#22 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
PFTs can interact with the cellular membrane, inducing structural and permeability alterations, which disrupts cells ion gradient, resulting in cellular infiltration, swelling, rupture, and cell death. […] The enzymes in jellyfish venom can significantly upregulate the expression of inflammatory factors in dermal cells. […] The suppressive effect of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitors Batimastat, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) on toxic metalloproteinases-mediated skin damage suggested a pivotal role of metalloproteinases in the pathogenesis of jellyfish dermatitis. […] Phospholipase, which is another prominent enzyme of jellyfish venom, has been identified in Cyanea capillata, Nemopilema nomurai, and Aurelia aurita. […] Phospholipase A2 induces a diverse range of toxicological effects, including inflammation, pain, hemorrhage, and skin necrosis. […] The proteolytic activity of venom-derived proteases leads to degradation of the extracellular matrix and vascular basement membrane layer and also facilitates the penetration, diffusion, and activation of other toxic components.
#23 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
PFTs can interact with the cellular membrane, inducing structural and permeability alterations, which disrupts cells ion gradient, resulting in cellular infiltration, swelling, rupture, and cell death. […] The enzymes in jellyfish venom can significantly upregulate the expression of inflammatory factors in dermal cells. […] The suppressive effect of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitors Batimastat, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) on toxic metalloproteinases-mediated skin damage suggested a pivotal role of metalloproteinases in the pathogenesis of jellyfish dermatitis. […] Phospholipase, which is another prominent enzyme of jellyfish venom, has been identified in Cyanea capillata, Nemopilema nomurai, and Aurelia aurita. […] Phospholipase A2 induces a diverse range of toxicological effects, including inflammation, pain, hemorrhage, and skin necrosis. […] The proteolytic activity of venom-derived proteases leads to degradation of the extracellular matrix and vascular basement membrane layer and also facilitates the penetration, diffusion, and activation of other toxic components.
#24 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
PFTs can interact with the cellular membrane, inducing structural and permeability alterations, which disrupts cells ion gradient, resulting in cellular infiltration, swelling, rupture, and cell death. […] The enzymes in jellyfish venom can significantly upregulate the expression of inflammatory factors in dermal cells. […] The suppressive effect of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitors Batimastat, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) on toxic metalloproteinases-mediated skin damage suggested a pivotal role of metalloproteinases in the pathogenesis of jellyfish dermatitis. […] Phospholipase, which is another prominent enzyme of jellyfish venom, has been identified in Cyanea capillata, Nemopilema nomurai, and Aurelia aurita. […] Phospholipase A2 induces a diverse range of toxicological effects, including inflammation, pain, hemorrhage, and skin necrosis. […] The proteolytic activity of venom-derived proteases leads to degradation of the extracellular matrix and vascular basement membrane layer and also facilitates the penetration, diffusion, and activation of other toxic components.
#25 How Do Jellyfish Sting? Exploring Their Venomous Defense Mechanism – Ask.com
https://www.ask.com/lifestyle/jellyfish-sting-exploring-venomous-defense-mechanism
Jellyfish have tentacles that trail behind them as they swim through the water. These tentacles are lined with thousands of specialized cells called cnidocytes. […] Each cnidocyte contains a tiny harpoon-like structure called a nematocyst, which houses the venom. When triggered by touch or chemical signals, the nematocyst fires rapidly, injecting venom into its target. […] The venom found in jellyfish is a complex mixture of proteins and peptides that vary between different species. Some of these compounds act as neurotoxins, disrupting nerve function and causing pain or paralysis in their prey or predators. Others act as cytotoxins, damaging cells at the site of the sting. […] One well-known component of jellyfish venom is a protein called porin. Porin forms pores in cell membranes, disrupting their integrity and causing cell death. Another notable compound is hyaluronidase, an enzyme that breaks down hyaluronic acid found in connective tissues. This enzyme helps spread the venom more effectively through the victims body.
#26 Raising Awareness on the Clinical and Forensic Aspects of Jellyfish Stings: A Worldwide Increasing Threat
https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/14/8430
The best-described jellyfish toxic activity is cell lysis by pore-forming toxins. There have also been isolated neurotoxins, targeting ionic channels and neurotransmitter receptors. Oxidative stress has also been reported as a pathophysiologic mechanism. […] Jellyfish venom cardiac effect shows great variation, ranging from no apparent cardiotoxicity to raised troponin I levels, Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy, and acute myocardial infarction. […] Although the precise mechanism of the acute cardiac malfunction is yet to be fully understood, intracellular Ca2+ excess caused by extracellular Ca2+ entry through pore-forming toxins, as well as Ca2+ intracellular release led by Î² adrenergic signaling have been identified as key factors driving the cardiotoxicity of jellyfish venom. […] The venom of P. noctiluca (scyphozoan) nematocysts can induce an ionic current, mainly Na+, through the plasma membrane, most likely due to a pore-forming process.
#27 Immunological and Toxinological Responses to Jellyfish Stings
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3773479/
Some evidence exists that stings by this jellyfish may provoke immediate and delayed hypersensitivity responses. […] The toxins appear to be able to form pores in the plasma membranes of cells leading to influx of calcium, osmotic swelling and subsequent cellular lysis. […] The venom may act by creating pores in myocytic membranes as has been shown for toxins of Physalia. […] The most effective therapy for Irukandji syndrome seems to be an intravenous infusion of magnesium (MgSO4 or MgCl2). […] The pharmacological mechanism underlying the severe pain of Irukandji syndrome remains to be determined. […] Even if the offending species was not P. noctiluca, this phenomenon illustrates the propensity for immunological reactions or cross reactions to jellyfish venoms or to their tubular elements, or both. […] The numerous other illnesses following jellyfish stings may be either toxin or immune-based, or both. […] Jellyfish stings also deposit in the skin foreign structural biopolymers including chitin and mini-collagens that we speculate may contribute to the resultant host immune response.
#28 Raising Awareness on the Clinical and Forensic Aspects of Jellyfish Stings: A Worldwide Increasing Threat
https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/14/8430
The best-described jellyfish toxic activity is cell lysis by pore-forming toxins. There have also been isolated neurotoxins, targeting ionic channels and neurotransmitter receptors. Oxidative stress has also been reported as a pathophysiologic mechanism. […] Jellyfish venom cardiac effect shows great variation, ranging from no apparent cardiotoxicity to raised troponin I levels, Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy, and acute myocardial infarction. […] Although the precise mechanism of the acute cardiac malfunction is yet to be fully understood, intracellular Ca2+ excess caused by extracellular Ca2+ entry through pore-forming toxins, as well as Ca2+ intracellular release led by Î² adrenergic signaling have been identified as key factors driving the cardiotoxicity of jellyfish venom. […] The venom of P. noctiluca (scyphozoan) nematocysts can induce an ionic current, mainly Na+, through the plasma membrane, most likely due to a pore-forming process.
#29 Immunological and Toxinological Responses to Jellyfish Stings
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3773479/
Some evidence exists that stings by this jellyfish may provoke immediate and delayed hypersensitivity responses. […] The toxins appear to be able to form pores in the plasma membranes of cells leading to influx of calcium, osmotic swelling and subsequent cellular lysis. […] The venom may act by creating pores in myocytic membranes as has been shown for toxins of Physalia. […] The most effective therapy for Irukandji syndrome seems to be an intravenous infusion of magnesium (MgSO4 or MgCl2). […] The pharmacological mechanism underlying the severe pain of Irukandji syndrome remains to be determined. […] Even if the offending species was not P. noctiluca, this phenomenon illustrates the propensity for immunological reactions or cross reactions to jellyfish venoms or to their tubular elements, or both. […] The numerous other illnesses following jellyfish stings may be either toxin or immune-based, or both. […] Jellyfish stings also deposit in the skin foreign structural biopolymers including chitin and mini-collagens that we speculate may contribute to the resultant host immune response.
#30
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02267823
Venoms and poisons of jellyfish and other marine animals can induce damage to the human nervous and circulatory systems. […] Clues to the pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of these lesions can be obtained from data of human envenomations and animal experimentation. […] Because many investigators are unaware that marine animal venoms have autonomic actions, this paper aims to elucidate the broad antagonistic or toxic effects these compounds have on the autonomic nervous system. […] Marine venoms can affect ion transport of particularly sodium and calcium, induce channels or pores in neural and muscular cellular membranes, alter intracellular membranes of organelles and release mediators of inflammation. […] The multiplicity of these venom activities means that a thorough understanding of the sting pathogenesis will be essential in devising effective therapies.
#31 Jellyfish stings – UpToDate
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/jellyfish-stings
Jellyfish venom is a complex mixture of enzymes. These include cytolytic pore-forming toxins, neurotoxins with activity at fast sodium and inwardly-rectifying potassium channels, and nonprotein bioactive components. The functions and contributions of these toxins to clinical envenomation are evolving but still poorly understood.
#32 How Do Jellyfish Sting? Exploring Their Venomous Defense Mechanism – Ask.com
https://www.ask.com/lifestyle/jellyfish-sting-exploring-venomous-defense-mechanism
Jellyfish have tentacles that trail behind them as they swim through the water. These tentacles are lined with thousands of specialized cells called cnidocytes. […] Each cnidocyte contains a tiny harpoon-like structure called a nematocyst, which houses the venom. When triggered by touch or chemical signals, the nematocyst fires rapidly, injecting venom into its target. […] The venom found in jellyfish is a complex mixture of proteins and peptides that vary between different species. Some of these compounds act as neurotoxins, disrupting nerve function and causing pain or paralysis in their prey or predators. Others act as cytotoxins, damaging cells at the site of the sting. […] One well-known component of jellyfish venom is a protein called porin. Porin forms pores in cell membranes, disrupting their integrity and causing cell death. Another notable compound is hyaluronidase, an enzyme that breaks down hyaluronic acid found in connective tissues. This enzyme helps spread the venom more effectively through the victims body.
#33 Raising Awareness on the Clinical and Forensic Aspects of Jellyfish Stings: A Worldwide Increasing Threat
https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/14/8430
The best-described jellyfish toxic activity is cell lysis by pore-forming toxins. There have also been isolated neurotoxins, targeting ionic channels and neurotransmitter receptors. Oxidative stress has also been reported as a pathophysiologic mechanism. […] Jellyfish venom cardiac effect shows great variation, ranging from no apparent cardiotoxicity to raised troponin I levels, Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy, and acute myocardial infarction. […] Although the precise mechanism of the acute cardiac malfunction is yet to be fully understood, intracellular Ca2+ excess caused by extracellular Ca2+ entry through pore-forming toxins, as well as Ca2+ intracellular release led by Î² adrenergic signaling have been identified as key factors driving the cardiotoxicity of jellyfish venom. […] The venom of P. noctiluca (scyphozoan) nematocysts can induce an ionic current, mainly Na+, through the plasma membrane, most likely due to a pore-forming process.
#34 Raising Awareness on the Clinical and Forensic Aspects of Jellyfish Stings: A Worldwide Increasing Threat
https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/14/8430
The best-described jellyfish toxic activity is cell lysis by pore-forming toxins. There have also been isolated neurotoxins, targeting ionic channels and neurotransmitter receptors. Oxidative stress has also been reported as a pathophysiologic mechanism. […] Jellyfish venom cardiac effect shows great variation, ranging from no apparent cardiotoxicity to raised troponin I levels, Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy, and acute myocardial infarction. […] Although the precise mechanism of the acute cardiac malfunction is yet to be fully understood, intracellular Ca2+ excess caused by extracellular Ca2+ entry through pore-forming toxins, as well as Ca2+ intracellular release led by Î² adrenergic signaling have been identified as key factors driving the cardiotoxicity of jellyfish venom. […] The venom of P. noctiluca (scyphozoan) nematocysts can induce an ionic current, mainly Na+, through the plasma membrane, most likely due to a pore-forming process.
#35 Raising Awareness on the Clinical and Forensic Aspects of Jellyfish Stings: A Worldwide Increasing Threat
https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/14/8430
The best-described jellyfish toxic activity is cell lysis by pore-forming toxins. There have also been isolated neurotoxins, targeting ionic channels and neurotransmitter receptors. Oxidative stress has also been reported as a pathophysiologic mechanism. […] Jellyfish venom cardiac effect shows great variation, ranging from no apparent cardiotoxicity to raised troponin I levels, Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy, and acute myocardial infarction. […] Although the precise mechanism of the acute cardiac malfunction is yet to be fully understood, intracellular Ca2+ excess caused by extracellular Ca2+ entry through pore-forming toxins, as well as Ca2+ intracellular release led by Î² adrenergic signaling have been identified as key factors driving the cardiotoxicity of jellyfish venom. […] The venom of P. noctiluca (scyphozoan) nematocysts can induce an ionic current, mainly Na+, through the plasma membrane, most likely due to a pore-forming process.
#36 Box jellyfish envenomation – WikEM
https://wikem.org/wiki/Box_jellyfish_envenomation
Box jellyfish Nematocyst stages of discharge […] Most stings are benign (requiring local treatment only), recent data suggests fatality rate is much lower than the 20% previously reported. Morbidity and Mortality are dose- and time-dependent, which explains why majority of deaths have been children. […] Contact with the tentacles cause rapid onset of pruritic/burning […] Thought to affect sodium/potassium/calcium channels […] Rhabodmyolysis can occur from sustained muscle contractions caused by myotoxins in venom. […] Cardiovascular collapse can occur d/t dysrhythmia (from hyperkalemia) and osmotic dysregulation of endothelial and cardiac tissues from pore-forming toxins within the venom. […] Chironex fleckeri venom causes cell membranes to become porous allowing K+ influx/hyperkalemia.
#37 Box jellyfish envenomation – WikEM
https://wikem.org/wiki/Box_jellyfish_envenomation
Box jellyfish Nematocyst stages of discharge […] Most stings are benign (requiring local treatment only), recent data suggests fatality rate is much lower than the 20% previously reported. Morbidity and Mortality are dose- and time-dependent, which explains why majority of deaths have been children. […] Contact with the tentacles cause rapid onset of pruritic/burning […] Thought to affect sodium/potassium/calcium channels […] Rhabodmyolysis can occur from sustained muscle contractions caused by myotoxins in venom. […] Cardiovascular collapse can occur d/t dysrhythmia (from hyperkalemia) and osmotic dysregulation of endothelial and cardiac tissues from pore-forming toxins within the venom. […] Chironex fleckeri venom causes cell membranes to become porous allowing K+ influx/hyperkalemia.
#38 Jellyfish dermatitis – Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellyfish_dermatitis
Jellyfish dermatitis is a cutaneous condition caused by stings from a jellyfish. […] Jellyfish stings can trigger a complex immune response in human skin similar to the response to pathogens or allergens. When jellyfish venom, carried by the stinging cells of the animal (nematocysts), comes into contact with the skin, it interacts with various cells and substances in the body. These interactions involve keratinocytes, tissue macrophages, dendritic cells, and mast cells, which are key players in the immune system. […] Keratinocytes, which form the outer layer of the skin, not only act as a physical barrier but also release a protein called thymic stromal lymphopoietin. This protein activates T-cells to produce cytokines, which are known to be involved in allergic skin reactions. […] Dendritic cells, a type of immune cell, capture and present antigens (foreign substances) to T-cells, or they migrate to lymph nodes to initiate immune responses. They contribute to the immune response to jellyfish venom and its components through various receptors involved in recognizing pathogens.
#39 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Upon physical or chemical stimulation, the nematocysts undergo a rapid increase in static hydraulic pressure. […] The significant pressure disparity between the interior and exterior of the nematocysts ultimately propels the thread tube to function as a spring transmitter. […] Discharge of the tubule is one of natures most rapid mechanical events, which effectively penetrates human skin and delivers a substantial dose of jellyfish venom. […] The patients prognosis is contingent upon factors such as the jellyfish species, sting location, and individual characteristics. […] The symptoms of jellyfish stings can arise indirectly from the bodys immune responses to toxin molecules and nematocysts, including skin lesions, inflammation, pyrexia, myoclonus, and paresthesia. […] The proteins and polypeptides present in jellyfish venom, along with the collagen, glycoproteins, and polysaccharides found in the nematocysts, all can function as antigens or allergens within the human body, eliciting cellular or humoral immune responses.
#40 Immunological and Toxinological Responses to Jellyfish Stings
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3773479/
The current challenge for immunotoxinologists is to deconstruct the actions of venom components to target therapeutic modalities for sting treatment. […] The deposition of the complex mixture of nematocyst constituents, venom, carried by jellyfish tubules probably sets off a complicated system of cellular and cytokine interactions analogous to that described on entry of pathogens or allergens into human skin. […] Although little is known about the effects of purified venom components in the skin, it is speculated that the immune response to them is like that to any potential allergen or antigen with keratinocytes, tissue macrophages, dendritic cells (DC) and mast cells being the key cellular mediators. […] Mast cells are potent drivers of inflammation, releasing biogenic amines such as histamine and other substances including platelet activating factor, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, proteases and cytokines into their tissue environment when stimulated.
#41 Jellyfish dermatitis – Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellyfish_dermatitis
Jellyfish dermatitis is a cutaneous condition caused by stings from a jellyfish. […] Jellyfish stings can trigger a complex immune response in human skin similar to the response to pathogens or allergens. When jellyfish venom, carried by the stinging cells of the animal (nematocysts), comes into contact with the skin, it interacts with various cells and substances in the body. These interactions involve keratinocytes, tissue macrophages, dendritic cells, and mast cells, which are key players in the immune system. […] Keratinocytes, which form the outer layer of the skin, not only act as a physical barrier but also release a protein called thymic stromal lymphopoietin. This protein activates T-cells to produce cytokines, which are known to be involved in allergic skin reactions. […] Dendritic cells, a type of immune cell, capture and present antigens (foreign substances) to T-cells, or they migrate to lymph nodes to initiate immune responses. They contribute to the immune response to jellyfish venom and its components through various receptors involved in recognizing pathogens.
#42 Jellyfish dermatitis – Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellyfish_dermatitis
Jellyfish dermatitis is a cutaneous condition caused by stings from a jellyfish. […] Jellyfish stings can trigger a complex immune response in human skin similar to the response to pathogens or allergens. When jellyfish venom, carried by the stinging cells of the animal (nematocysts), comes into contact with the skin, it interacts with various cells and substances in the body. These interactions involve keratinocytes, tissue macrophages, dendritic cells, and mast cells, which are key players in the immune system. […] Keratinocytes, which form the outer layer of the skin, not only act as a physical barrier but also release a protein called thymic stromal lymphopoietin. This protein activates T-cells to produce cytokines, which are known to be involved in allergic skin reactions. […] Dendritic cells, a type of immune cell, capture and present antigens (foreign substances) to T-cells, or they migrate to lymph nodes to initiate immune responses. They contribute to the immune response to jellyfish venom and its components through various receptors involved in recognizing pathogens.
#43 Jellyfish dermatitis – Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellyfish_dermatitis
Jellyfish dermatitis is a cutaneous condition caused by stings from a jellyfish. […] Jellyfish stings can trigger a complex immune response in human skin similar to the response to pathogens or allergens. When jellyfish venom, carried by the stinging cells of the animal (nematocysts), comes into contact with the skin, it interacts with various cells and substances in the body. These interactions involve keratinocytes, tissue macrophages, dendritic cells, and mast cells, which are key players in the immune system. […] Keratinocytes, which form the outer layer of the skin, not only act as a physical barrier but also release a protein called thymic stromal lymphopoietin. This protein activates T-cells to produce cytokines, which are known to be involved in allergic skin reactions. […] Dendritic cells, a type of immune cell, capture and present antigens (foreign substances) to T-cells, or they migrate to lymph nodes to initiate immune responses. They contribute to the immune response to jellyfish venom and its components through various receptors involved in recognizing pathogens.
#44 Jellyfish dermatitis – Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellyfish_dermatitis
Mast cells, which are abundant in the skin, play a significant role in inflammation. When stimulated, they release various substances that promote inflammation, such as histamine, platelet activating factor, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, proteases, and cytokines. Mast cells can be activated in three ways during a jellyfish sting: directly through the venom’s bioactive substances, through the interaction with components of the jellyfish stinging cells, or through physical changes at the sting site. […] In the case of repeated jellyfish stings, an allergic response mediated by a type of antibody called IgE may also contribute to mast cell activation and the release of mediators in response to specific substances bound to their surfaces. This could lead to more severe symptoms.
#45 Immunological and Toxinological Responses to Jellyfish Stings
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3773479/
The current challenge for immunotoxinologists is to deconstruct the actions of venom components to target therapeutic modalities for sting treatment. […] The deposition of the complex mixture of nematocyst constituents, venom, carried by jellyfish tubules probably sets off a complicated system of cellular and cytokine interactions analogous to that described on entry of pathogens or allergens into human skin. […] Although little is known about the effects of purified venom components in the skin, it is speculated that the immune response to them is like that to any potential allergen or antigen with keratinocytes, tissue macrophages, dendritic cells (DC) and mast cells being the key cellular mediators. […] Mast cells are potent drivers of inflammation, releasing biogenic amines such as histamine and other substances including platelet activating factor, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, proteases and cytokines into their tissue environment when stimulated.
#46 Jellyfish dermatitis – Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellyfish_dermatitis
Mast cells, which are abundant in the skin, play a significant role in inflammation. When stimulated, they release various substances that promote inflammation, such as histamine, platelet activating factor, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, proteases, and cytokines. Mast cells can be activated in three ways during a jellyfish sting: directly through the venom’s bioactive substances, through the interaction with components of the jellyfish stinging cells, or through physical changes at the sting site. […] In the case of repeated jellyfish stings, an allergic response mediated by a type of antibody called IgE may also contribute to mast cell activation and the release of mediators in response to specific substances bound to their surfaces. This could lead to more severe symptoms.
#47 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Severe systemic allergic reactions sometimes occur, mainly due to prior exposure to antigenic toxins or similar biological components, and species-specific immunoglobulin antibodies in serum can remain high for several years. […] Moreover, the multiple bioactive constituents within jellyfish venom can elicit immune responses via associated signaling pathways and cellular mechanisms. […] For instance, Yap et al proposed that cnidarian pore-forming toxins (PFTs) exhibit similarities to bacterial PFTs, which can induce K+ efflux by penetrating the plasma membrane. […] Therefore, the reduction in intracellular K+ concentration activates NLRP3 inflammasome and p38 MAPK signaling pathways, regulating cytokine release and initiating immune responses. […] Furthermore, mast cells, serving as potent promoters of inflammation, can be directly stimulated or their intrinsic or pattern recognition receptors can be activated by toxic components, resulting in degranulation and prompt release of cytokines such as histamine, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes, ultimately triggering accumulation or extravasation of immune cells at the sting site.
#48 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Severe systemic allergic reactions sometimes occur, mainly due to prior exposure to antigenic toxins or similar biological components, and species-specific immunoglobulin antibodies in serum can remain high for several years. […] Moreover, the multiple bioactive constituents within jellyfish venom can elicit immune responses via associated signaling pathways and cellular mechanisms. […] For instance, Yap et al proposed that cnidarian pore-forming toxins (PFTs) exhibit similarities to bacterial PFTs, which can induce K+ efflux by penetrating the plasma membrane. […] Therefore, the reduction in intracellular K+ concentration activates NLRP3 inflammasome and p38 MAPK signaling pathways, regulating cytokine release and initiating immune responses. […] Furthermore, mast cells, serving as potent promoters of inflammation, can be directly stimulated or their intrinsic or pattern recognition receptors can be activated by toxic components, resulting in degranulation and prompt release of cytokines such as histamine, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes, ultimately triggering accumulation or extravasation of immune cells at the sting site.
#49 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Severe systemic allergic reactions sometimes occur, mainly due to prior exposure to antigenic toxins or similar biological components, and species-specific immunoglobulin antibodies in serum can remain high for several years. […] Moreover, the multiple bioactive constituents within jellyfish venom can elicit immune responses via associated signaling pathways and cellular mechanisms. […] For instance, Yap et al proposed that cnidarian pore-forming toxins (PFTs) exhibit similarities to bacterial PFTs, which can induce K+ efflux by penetrating the plasma membrane. […] Therefore, the reduction in intracellular K+ concentration activates NLRP3 inflammasome and p38 MAPK signaling pathways, regulating cytokine release and initiating immune responses. […] Furthermore, mast cells, serving as potent promoters of inflammation, can be directly stimulated or their intrinsic or pattern recognition receptors can be activated by toxic components, resulting in degranulation and prompt release of cytokines such as histamine, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes, ultimately triggering accumulation or extravasation of immune cells at the sting site.
#50 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Severe systemic allergic reactions sometimes occur, mainly due to prior exposure to antigenic toxins or similar biological components, and species-specific immunoglobulin antibodies in serum can remain high for several years. […] Moreover, the multiple bioactive constituents within jellyfish venom can elicit immune responses via associated signaling pathways and cellular mechanisms. […] For instance, Yap et al proposed that cnidarian pore-forming toxins (PFTs) exhibit similarities to bacterial PFTs, which can induce K+ efflux by penetrating the plasma membrane. […] Therefore, the reduction in intracellular K+ concentration activates NLRP3 inflammasome and p38 MAPK signaling pathways, regulating cytokine release and initiating immune responses. […] Furthermore, mast cells, serving as potent promoters of inflammation, can be directly stimulated or their intrinsic or pattern recognition receptors can be activated by toxic components, resulting in degranulation and prompt release of cytokines such as histamine, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes, ultimately triggering accumulation or extravasation of immune cells at the sting site.
#51 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Upon physical or chemical stimulation, the nematocysts undergo a rapid increase in static hydraulic pressure. […] The significant pressure disparity between the interior and exterior of the nematocysts ultimately propels the thread tube to function as a spring transmitter. […] Discharge of the tubule is one of natures most rapid mechanical events, which effectively penetrates human skin and delivers a substantial dose of jellyfish venom. […] The patients prognosis is contingent upon factors such as the jellyfish species, sting location, and individual characteristics. […] The symptoms of jellyfish stings can arise indirectly from the bodys immune responses to toxin molecules and nematocysts, including skin lesions, inflammation, pyrexia, myoclonus, and paresthesia. […] The proteins and polypeptides present in jellyfish venom, along with the collagen, glycoproteins, and polysaccharides found in the nematocysts, all can function as antigens or allergens within the human body, eliciting cellular or humoral immune responses.
#52 Jellyfish dermatitis – Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellyfish_dermatitis
Mast cells, which are abundant in the skin, play a significant role in inflammation. When stimulated, they release various substances that promote inflammation, such as histamine, platelet activating factor, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, proteases, and cytokines. Mast cells can be activated in three ways during a jellyfish sting: directly through the venom’s bioactive substances, through the interaction with components of the jellyfish stinging cells, or through physical changes at the sting site. […] In the case of repeated jellyfish stings, an allergic response mediated by a type of antibody called IgE may also contribute to mast cell activation and the release of mediators in response to specific substances bound to their surfaces. This could lead to more severe symptoms.
#53 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Severe systemic allergic reactions sometimes occur, mainly due to prior exposure to antigenic toxins or similar biological components, and species-specific immunoglobulin antibodies in serum can remain high for several years. […] Moreover, the multiple bioactive constituents within jellyfish venom can elicit immune responses via associated signaling pathways and cellular mechanisms. […] For instance, Yap et al proposed that cnidarian pore-forming toxins (PFTs) exhibit similarities to bacterial PFTs, which can induce K+ efflux by penetrating the plasma membrane. […] Therefore, the reduction in intracellular K+ concentration activates NLRP3 inflammasome and p38 MAPK signaling pathways, regulating cytokine release and initiating immune responses. […] Furthermore, mast cells, serving as potent promoters of inflammation, can be directly stimulated or their intrinsic or pattern recognition receptors can be activated by toxic components, resulting in degranulation and prompt release of cytokines such as histamine, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes, ultimately triggering accumulation or extravasation of immune cells at the sting site.
#54 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Additionally, chitin, collagen, polysaccharides, and other constituents within nematocysts can persistently activate proinflammatory innate immune cells such as Langerhans dendritic cells, macrophages, and mast cells, thereby resulting in persistent and recurrent symptoms of vesicular or pruritic dermatitis. […] Jellyfish toxins are mainly divided into 3 categories: Proteinoid toxins, non-protein toxins, and bioactive enzymes. […] These bioactive ingredients exhibit various biological toxicities including dermal necrosis, hemolysis, and adverse effects on cardiovascular, nervous, hepatic, and renal systems. […] PFTs are a well-characterized group of toxin proteins that can be extracted from cnidarian venoms and are usually soluble in water at their very initial stage. […] Most PFTs have potent cytotoxicity and lethality in mice, crayfish, sheep and humans.
#55 Immunological and Toxinological Responses to Jellyfish Stings
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3773479/
Some evidence exists that stings by this jellyfish may provoke immediate and delayed hypersensitivity responses. […] The toxins appear to be able to form pores in the plasma membranes of cells leading to influx of calcium, osmotic swelling and subsequent cellular lysis. […] The venom may act by creating pores in myocytic membranes as has been shown for toxins of Physalia. […] The most effective therapy for Irukandji syndrome seems to be an intravenous infusion of magnesium (MgSO4 or MgCl2). […] The pharmacological mechanism underlying the severe pain of Irukandji syndrome remains to be determined. […] Even if the offending species was not P. noctiluca, this phenomenon illustrates the propensity for immunological reactions or cross reactions to jellyfish venoms or to their tubular elements, or both. […] The numerous other illnesses following jellyfish stings may be either toxin or immune-based, or both. […] Jellyfish stings also deposit in the skin foreign structural biopolymers including chitin and mini-collagens that we speculate may contribute to the resultant host immune response.
#56 Raising Awareness on the Clinical and Forensic Aspects of Jellyfish Stings: A Worldwide Increasing Threat
https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/14/8430
Recent data suggest that the variation in pain severity could be attributed to the tubule length of the nematocyst, this way causing variable epithelial lesions. […] Rhizostoma pulmo (scyphozoan) venom was found to be able to influence the hemostatic system on three separate levels, exhibiting fibrinolysis, fibrinogenolysis, and suppression of ADP-induced platelet aggregation. […] The venom of Nemopilema nomurai (scyphozoan) can induce significant edema. This venom does not seem to operate as an acute proinflammatory agent, but rather it plays a role in the persistence of inflammation. […] A type IV hypersensitivity reaction triggered either by a sequestered antigen persisting in the skin or by a cross-reacting antigen in the venom is postulated to be in the genesis of the delayed, persistent reactions after jellyfish stings. […] Carukia barnesi venom can activate neural Na+ channels, inducing catecholamine release and vasoconstriction. This mechanism seems to be accountable for the sympathomimetic-like symptoms of Irukandji syndrome, namely hypertension, and tachycardia.
#57 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
With the surge in the human coastal population and the increasing frequency of human activities along the coast, cases of marine envenomation, particularly jellyfish envenomation, have notably risen. […] Jellyfish stings can induce a spectrum of symptoms that vary in severity, encompassing skin injuries, acute systemic venom effects, delayed indirect sequelae, and even fatality, causing significant distress to patients. […] Among these manifestations, the occurrence of skin lesions following jellyfish stings is prevalent and substantial. […] These lesions are characterized by evident blister formation, development of bullae, subcutaneous hemorrhage, erythema, papules, wheal, ecchymosis, and ulceration or skin necrosis. […] Local cutaneous manifestations may persist for several weeks or even months after the initial sting.
#58 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
With the surge in the human coastal population and the increasing frequency of human activities along the coast, cases of marine envenomation, particularly jellyfish envenomation, have notably risen. […] Jellyfish stings can induce a spectrum of symptoms that vary in severity, encompassing skin injuries, acute systemic venom effects, delayed indirect sequelae, and even fatality, causing significant distress to patients. […] Among these manifestations, the occurrence of skin lesions following jellyfish stings is prevalent and substantial. […] These lesions are characterized by evident blister formation, development of bullae, subcutaneous hemorrhage, erythema, papules, wheal, ecchymosis, and ulceration or skin necrosis. […] Local cutaneous manifestations may persist for several weeks or even months after the initial sting.
#59 Jellyfish Sting or Tattoo? | Actas Dermo-SifiliogrÃ¡ficas
https://www.actasdermo.org/es-jellyfish-sting-or-tattoo-articulo-S1578219012001102
Immediate local reactions are characterized by burning and itching of varying intensity according to the species of jellyfish that caused the sting. Involvement of surrounding soft tissue is common. The disease frequently presents as whiplash-like erythematous papules and papulovesicular lesions. […] Medical treatment depends on the type of reaction. Patients with uncomplicated skin reactions are treated symptomatically with topical corticosteroids and oral antihistamines and show a good response in a few days. […] The most important advice for the first-aid management of jellyfish envenomation is to take measures to avoid release of the venom toxins: to wash the area with sea water rather than fresh water, to apply ice in packs rather than directly, to avoid rubbing the affected area, and to avoid applying urine or alcoholic drinks, which can change the pH and activate the nematocysts. Depending on the species of jellyfish that causes the sting, it can be useful to apply vinegar, a 1:1 aqueous solution of sodium bicarbonate, or a saturated solution of magnesium sulfate in a solution of sodium chloride.
#60 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
With the surge in the human coastal population and the increasing frequency of human activities along the coast, cases of marine envenomation, particularly jellyfish envenomation, have notably risen. […] Jellyfish stings can induce a spectrum of symptoms that vary in severity, encompassing skin injuries, acute systemic venom effects, delayed indirect sequelae, and even fatality, causing significant distress to patients. […] Among these manifestations, the occurrence of skin lesions following jellyfish stings is prevalent and substantial. […] These lesions are characterized by evident blister formation, development of bullae, subcutaneous hemorrhage, erythema, papules, wheal, ecchymosis, and ulceration or skin necrosis. […] Local cutaneous manifestations may persist for several weeks or even months after the initial sting.
#61 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Despite aggressive treatment, many skin injuries still result in significant pigmentation or scarring after recovery. […] To address this issue effectively, it is imperative to conduct comprehensive evidence-based medical research, elucidate various components within jellyfish venom, and elucidate its pathogenic mechanism to develop targeted treatment programs. […] The precise pathogenic mechanisms and constituents of jellyfish venom remain unclear, and the management of jellyfish stings continues to be an important medical topic. […] The tentacles of jellyfish are densely covered with epidermal cells possessing specialized structures and functions, commonly referred to as cnidocytes. […] Within the cnidocytes, there is a specialized organelle structure enclosed by a collagenous cystic shell known as the nematocyst.
#62 Jellyfish stings – Guardian, I.D.A. and Remedy’sRx
https://www.guardian-ida-remedysrx.ca/en/article/disease/jellyfish-stings
The areas that came in contact with the jellyfish usually become covered with several whiplash-like lesions. Upon contact with the jellyfish, you might feel an electric shock-like sensation, followed by a burning sensation and acute pain that can increase over 30 to 40 minutes. […] In more severe cases, pain can be associated with nausea, stomach cramps, dizziness, vertigo, headaches, muscle cramps or breathing difficulty. […] As soon as you feel the sting, get out of the water as quickly as possible. Rinse the area with sea water, saltwater or vinegar but do not rub. […] If tentacles are stuck to the lesion, remove them carefully making sure you do not touch them with your bare hands (use tweezers or wear gloves). […] Some people who get stung several times by jellyfish can develop an allergic reaction to the venom. Consequently, if upon a second or third sting you observe a much more severe reaction than the first, it would be prudent to seek medical help immediately.
#63 Jellyfish stings – Guardian, I.D.A. and Remedy’sRx
https://www.guardian-ida-remedysrx.ca/en/article/disease/jellyfish-stings
The areas that came in contact with the jellyfish usually become covered with several whiplash-like lesions. Upon contact with the jellyfish, you might feel an electric shock-like sensation, followed by a burning sensation and acute pain that can increase over 30 to 40 minutes. […] In more severe cases, pain can be associated with nausea, stomach cramps, dizziness, vertigo, headaches, muscle cramps or breathing difficulty. […] As soon as you feel the sting, get out of the water as quickly as possible. Rinse the area with sea water, saltwater or vinegar but do not rub. […] If tentacles are stuck to the lesion, remove them carefully making sure you do not touch them with your bare hands (use tweezers or wear gloves). […] Some people who get stung several times by jellyfish can develop an allergic reaction to the venom. Consequently, if upon a second or third sting you observe a much more severe reaction than the first, it would be prudent to seek medical help immediately.
#64 Cochrane Corner: how effective are interventions for reducing symptoms and signs resulting from jellyfish stings?
https://firstaidjournal.org/article/id/2540/
Jellyfish stings are produced by specialized stinging cells on the jellyfish called nematocysts. Nematocysts are triggered by physical or chemical stimuli (or both), after which a barb is fired, and venom is injected into the person. Depending on the number of nematocysts that may discharge and the potential toxicity of the venom, a jellyfish sting may produce a range of signs and symptoms of varying severity, including pain, redness, and itching of the skin. Some jellyfish species can cause more serious reactions, such as Irukandji syndrome, which may include pain in the abdomen, back, or chest, as well as increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, cardiac phenomena, and, rarely, death. […] Many treatments have been suggested for the symptoms and signs of jellyfish stings, in order to deactivate the attached nematocysts, neutralize the venom, and provide symptomatic relief (including pain relief) and supportive care.
#65 Cochrane Corner: how effective are interventions for reducing symptoms and signs resulting from jellyfish stings?
https://firstaidjournal.org/article/id/2540/
The most frequent cnidarians around the world mainly cause localized injuries, manifested by intense local pain, swelling, and irregular, rounded, or oval erythematous plaques (solid, raised, often red, and associated with the irritation) that are rarely linear (unlike species that cause serious envenomation), and more rarely, with small marks of tentacles. […] A small proportion of victims develop systemic reactions because of the venom, which can cause intense muscular pain, cardiac arrhythmias, low cardiac output, and shock. […] As highlighted in the Cochrane Review a vast majority of envenomation has extremely favorable outcomes and can be controlled by iced marine water compresses and a popular use of vinegar baths.
#66 Guideline 9.4.5 – Envenomation – Jellyfish Stings
https://www.anzcor.org/home/first-aid-for-bites-stings-and-poisoning/guideline-9-4-5-envenomation-jellyfish-stings/
Approximately 10 small to medium-sized offshore and onshore jellyfish [including Carukia barnes and species of the Carybdea, Malo, Alatina, Gerongia and Morbakka genera] are known or suspected to produce an Irukandji syndrome. 5-8 These jellyfish have only 4 tentacles and some are too small to be seen by the victim. […] A minor sting on the skin with no tentacle visible, is followed in 5-40 (typically 20-30) minutes by severe generalised pain (often cramping in nature), nausea and vomiting, difficulty breathing, sweating, restlessness and a feeling of impending doom. Victims may develop heart failure, pulmonary oedema and hypertensive stroke. […] When a sting occurs, pieces of tentacles and non-discharged nematocysts may be left on the victims skin. In large or life-threatening stings it is important to inhibit non-discharged nematocysts so that subsequent handling or treatment does not cause further envenomation.
#67 All about jellyfish stings – Curious
https://www.science.org.au/curious/people-medicine/all-about-jellyfish-stings
Jellyfish have thousands of stinging cells on their tentacles, which each house a specialised structure called a nematocyst. A sting which is designed to immobilise prey occurs when nematocysts fire harpoon-like barbs into the victim. […] The barb releases toxins, which generally create painful localised reactions in humans. These can also affect various systems within the body such as the cardiovascular and respiratory systems and may result in fatalities in some cases. The levels and chemical composition of the toxins within each barb, as well as the number of nematocysts fired, results in variation and degree of severity of symptoms. […] Irukandji syndrome presents as nausea, vomiting, back pain and powerful stomach cramps, among other symptoms, including a feeling of impending doom. It can cause high blood pressure (hypertension) and injury to the heart that may result in heart failure. Currently, there are around 20 species of jellyfish thought to cause Irukandji syndrome in humans. […] The more understanding we have, the better we will become at treating and preventing these potentially deadly, and just downright painful, stings.
#68 Guideline 9.4.5 – Envenomation – Jellyfish Stings
https://www.anzcor.org/home/first-aid-for-bites-stings-and-poisoning/guideline-9-4-5-envenomation-jellyfish-stings/
Approximately 10 small to medium-sized offshore and onshore jellyfish [including Carukia barnes and species of the Carybdea, Malo, Alatina, Gerongia and Morbakka genera] are known or suspected to produce an Irukandji syndrome. 5-8 These jellyfish have only 4 tentacles and some are too small to be seen by the victim. […] A minor sting on the skin with no tentacle visible, is followed in 5-40 (typically 20-30) minutes by severe generalised pain (often cramping in nature), nausea and vomiting, difficulty breathing, sweating, restlessness and a feeling of impending doom. Victims may develop heart failure, pulmonary oedema and hypertensive stroke. […] When a sting occurs, pieces of tentacles and non-discharged nematocysts may be left on the victims skin. In large or life-threatening stings it is important to inhibit non-discharged nematocysts so that subsequent handling or treatment does not cause further envenomation.
#69 Raising Awareness on the Clinical and Forensic Aspects of Jellyfish Stings: A Worldwide Increasing Threat
https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/14/8430
Recent data suggest that the variation in pain severity could be attributed to the tubule length of the nematocyst, this way causing variable epithelial lesions. […] Rhizostoma pulmo (scyphozoan) venom was found to be able to influence the hemostatic system on three separate levels, exhibiting fibrinolysis, fibrinogenolysis, and suppression of ADP-induced platelet aggregation. […] The venom of Nemopilema nomurai (scyphozoan) can induce significant edema. This venom does not seem to operate as an acute proinflammatory agent, but rather it plays a role in the persistence of inflammation. […] A type IV hypersensitivity reaction triggered either by a sequestered antigen persisting in the skin or by a cross-reacting antigen in the venom is postulated to be in the genesis of the delayed, persistent reactions after jellyfish stings. […] Carukia barnesi venom can activate neural Na+ channels, inducing catecholamine release and vasoconstriction. This mechanism seems to be accountable for the sympathomimetic-like symptoms of Irukandji syndrome, namely hypertension, and tachycardia.
#70 Immunological and Toxinological Responses to Jellyfish Stings
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3773479/
Some evidence exists that stings by this jellyfish may provoke immediate and delayed hypersensitivity responses. […] The toxins appear to be able to form pores in the plasma membranes of cells leading to influx of calcium, osmotic swelling and subsequent cellular lysis. […] The venom may act by creating pores in myocytic membranes as has been shown for toxins of Physalia. […] The most effective therapy for Irukandji syndrome seems to be an intravenous infusion of magnesium (MgSO4 or MgCl2). […] The pharmacological mechanism underlying the severe pain of Irukandji syndrome remains to be determined. […] Even if the offending species was not P. noctiluca, this phenomenon illustrates the propensity for immunological reactions or cross reactions to jellyfish venoms or to their tubular elements, or both. […] The numerous other illnesses following jellyfish stings may be either toxin or immune-based, or both. […] Jellyfish stings also deposit in the skin foreign structural biopolymers including chitin and mini-collagens that we speculate may contribute to the resultant host immune response.
#71 Box jellyfish – Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_jellyfish
Box jellyfish produce potent venom delivered by contact with their tentacles. Stings from some species, including Chironex fleckeri, Carukia barnesi, Malo kingi, and a few others, are extremely painful and often fatal to humans. […] The venom of cubozoans is distinct from that of scyphozoans, and is used to catch prey (small fish and invertebrates, including prawns and bait fish) and for defence from predators, which include the butterfish, batfish, rabbitfish, crabs (blue swimmer crab) and various species of turtle including the hawksbill sea turtle and flatback sea turtle. It seems that sea turtles are unaffected by the stings because they seem to relish box jellyfish. […] The lethality of the Cubozoan venom to humans is the primary reason for its research. Although unspecified species of box jellyfish have been called in newspapers „the world’s most venomous creature” and the deadliest creature in the sea, only a few species in the class have been confirmed to be involved in human deaths; some species are not harmful to humans, possibly delivering a sting that is no more than painful. When the venom of the box jellyfish was sequenced, it was found that more than 170 toxin proteins were identified. The high quantity of toxin proteins that the box jellyfish possess is the reason they are known to be so dangerous. Stings from the box jellyfish can lead to skin irritation, cardiotoxicity, and can even be fatal.
#72 Box Jellyfish – Divers Alert Network
https://dan.org/health-medicine/health-resources/diseases-conditions/box-jellyfish/
Box jellyfish (cubozoans) are cube-shaped medusa notorious for having one of the most potent venoms known. Certain species can kill an adult human in as little as three minutes, scarcely enough time for any rescue response. […] Contact with these animals triggers the most powerful and lethal envenomation process known to science. Sea wasp envenomation causes immediate excruciating pain followed by cardiac failure. Death may occur in as little as three minutes. Recent studies have identified a component of the venom that drills a hole in red blood cells, causing a massive release of potassium, possibly responsible for the lethal cardiovascular depression. […] These small cubozoans bells measure only a few millimeters and their tentacles may be as long as 3 feet (1 meter). Fortunately, fatalities from these smaller species are rare, but stings are extremely painful and can cause systemic symptoms including cardiovascular instability that should prompt immediate medical attention. Survivors have reported a feeling of impending doom, claiming they were certain that they could not survive such intense, generalized pain; however, it is important to note that a single sting should not be fatal. Though stings from lesser-known species of cubozoans are not necessarily lethal, they can still be very painful. An immediate medical evaluation is always recommended.
#73 What to Know About Box Jellyfish Stings – Consensus: AI Search Engine for Research
https://consensus.app/home/blog/what-to-know-about-box-jellyfish-stings/
Box jellyfish stings are a significant concern for swimmers and beachgoers in various parts of the world, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. These stings can cause severe pain and, in some cases, life-threatening reactions. […] The venom is delivered through nematocysts, specialized cells that inject toxins into the victim. […] When a box jellyfish tentacle comes into contact with skin, nematocysts fire and inject venom. This process can cause immediate and intense pain, along with other symptoms such as redness, swelling, and in severe cases, cardiovascular and respiratory distress. […] The pain from a box jellyfish sting can vary in intensity. Studies have shown that the initial pain can be quite severe, often described as burning or stinging. The severity of pain can depend on the species of jellyfish, the amount of venom injected, and the location of the sting on the body. […] Box jellyfish stings are a serious concern due to the intense pain and potential for severe systemic reactions. Understanding the species, distribution, and symptoms associated with these stings can help in recognizing and responding to incidents effectively.
#74 Jellyfish stings Information | Mount Sinai – New York
https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/poison/jellyfish-stings
Jellyfish venom which contains several chemicals including neurotoxic peptides. […] For the great majority of bites, stings, or other forms of poisoning, the danger is either drowning after being stung or an allergic reaction to the venom. […] Certain box jellyfish stings can kill a person within minutes. Other box jellyfish stings can lead to death in 4 to 48 hours after a sting due to „Irukandji syndrome,” a delayed reaction to the sting. […] It is important to carefully monitor box jellyfish sting victims for hours after a sting. Seek medical attention right away for any breathing difficulties, chest or abdominal pains, or profuse sweating.
#75 Jellyfish Sting or Tattoo? | Actas Dermo-SifiliogrÃ¡ficas
https://www.actasdermo.org/es-jellyfish-sting-or-tattoo-articulo-S1578219012001102
Jellyfish are marine invertebrates. They are divided into 4 groups: Hydrozoa (e.g., the Portuguese man-of-war), Scyphozoa (true jellyfish), Cubozoa (e.g., Chironex fleckeri or the sea wasp, considered the most toxic), and Anthozoa (sea anemones and corals). Jellyfish are the main cause of marine envenomation. Their tentacles have stinging cells, or nematocysts, which they use to capture prey and to defend themselves. These cells contain a capsule with a thread that injects the venom on contact with the prey. The toxicity of the jellyfish sting varies according to the species: most jellyfish stings cause a painful burning sensation but the symptoms are usually short-lasting. However, bathers are advised to leave the water immediately because of the risk of anaphylactic shock and drowning. […] Reactions that occur after jellyfish envenomation are divided into 3 groups: immediate allergic reactions, immediate toxic reactions, and delayed allergic reactions. Death from stinging occurs through a hypersensitivity mechanism or through the effect of several toxins on the cardiovascular or respiratory systems or on the liver.
#76 Australian box jellyfish stings
https://dermnetnz.org/topics/australian-box-jellyfish-stings
Stings from the Australian box jellyfish are difficult to study because: […] Envenomation (or stinging) occurs when human skin contacts the thousands of densely packed nematocysts that line the jellyfish tentacles. Within 700 Ns of contact, the nematocyst capsules fire thousands of barbed, poison-filled darts. These travel 67 km/hour with an impact pressure on the epidermis of 7.7 GPa (about 1,116,790.5 psi). […] Each poison-filled dart is filled with porins (transmembrane proteins), neurotoxic peptides and bioactive lipids. […] The Australian box jellyfish toxin is injected into the skin. It has direct effects on muscle and nerves, and can cause chronic immunological complications. […] Death from Australian box jellyfish envenomation is largely due to the rapid cardiovascular effects of pore-forming toxins. Autopsies reveal pulmonary oedema. […] The spiny darts that explode into the epidermis are made up of collagens, glycoproteins and polysaccharides. These may trigger antigenic and innate immune responses, separate from the toxins they carry. Angioedema and anaphylaxis may occur.
#77 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Upon physical or chemical stimulation, the nematocysts undergo a rapid increase in static hydraulic pressure. […] The significant pressure disparity between the interior and exterior of the nematocysts ultimately propels the thread tube to function as a spring transmitter. […] Discharge of the tubule is one of natures most rapid mechanical events, which effectively penetrates human skin and delivers a substantial dose of jellyfish venom. […] The patients prognosis is contingent upon factors such as the jellyfish species, sting location, and individual characteristics. […] The symptoms of jellyfish stings can arise indirectly from the bodys immune responses to toxin molecules and nematocysts, including skin lesions, inflammation, pyrexia, myoclonus, and paresthesia. […] The proteins and polypeptides present in jellyfish venom, along with the collagen, glycoproteins, and polysaccharides found in the nematocysts, all can function as antigens or allergens within the human body, eliciting cellular or humoral immune responses.
#78 Jellyfish Sting – DoveMed
https://www.dovemed.com/diseases-conditions/jellyfish-sting
The severity of signs and symptoms of Jellyfish Sting depends on the following factors: The type or species of jellyfish, the amount of toxin injected, the reaction of the human body to the toxin. […] The prognosis of Jellyfish Sting is generally good with effective and immediate treatment. However, severe stings combined with delayed treatment may be life-threatening or can even result in death.
#79 Box jellyfish – Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_jellyfish
Box jellyfish produce potent venom delivered by contact with their tentacles. Stings from some species, including Chironex fleckeri, Carukia barnesi, Malo kingi, and a few others, are extremely painful and often fatal to humans. […] The venom of cubozoans is distinct from that of scyphozoans, and is used to catch prey (small fish and invertebrates, including prawns and bait fish) and for defence from predators, which include the butterfish, batfish, rabbitfish, crabs (blue swimmer crab) and various species of turtle including the hawksbill sea turtle and flatback sea turtle. It seems that sea turtles are unaffected by the stings because they seem to relish box jellyfish. […] The lethality of the Cubozoan venom to humans is the primary reason for its research. Although unspecified species of box jellyfish have been called in newspapers „the world’s most venomous creature” and the deadliest creature in the sea, only a few species in the class have been confirmed to be involved in human deaths; some species are not harmful to humans, possibly delivering a sting that is no more than painful. When the venom of the box jellyfish was sequenced, it was found that more than 170 toxin proteins were identified. The high quantity of toxin proteins that the box jellyfish possess is the reason they are known to be so dangerous. Stings from the box jellyfish can lead to skin irritation, cardiotoxicity, and can even be fatal.
#80 How Jellyfish Work | HowStuffWorks
https://animals.howstuffworks.com/marine-life/jellyfish.htm
Jellyfish are carnivores– they eat other animals. Smaller jellyfish eat algae and other tiny plankton called zooplankton. Larger jellyfish eat crustaceans and other bigger aquatic animals. They don’t seek out people to attack — their nervous system is too simple to do that. Their sting is both a defense mechanism and a way to capture their prey. […] Each jellyfish tentacle is covered with thousands of cells called cnidoblasts, which house nematocysts containing stinging threads. When a jellyfish encounters another object, pressure inside the nematocyst causes the threads to uncoil. The stinging cells spring out at the unwitting victim like tiny darts, firing venom into it. The venom is a neurotoxin designed to paralyze jellyfish prey. Although a jellyfish can kill a small aquatic animal, its sting is not usually fatal to humans. It tends to cause pain, skin rashes, fever and muscle cramps. The degree of pain and reaction to a jellyfish sting can depend on the species — larger jellyfish have larger cnidoblasts that can penetrate deeper into the skin, and some jellyfish have stronger venom than others. […] Although jellyfish are not aggressive by nature, their sting is painful and sometimes dangerous.
#81 Guideline 9.4.5 – Envenomation – Jellyfish Stings
https://www.anzcor.org/home/first-aid-for-bites-stings-and-poisoning/guideline-9-4-5-envenomation-jellyfish-stings/
The mechanism of jellyfish envenomation.1,2,3 […] Stinging by jellyfish is caused by the simultaneous discharge of many thousands of microscopic stinging capsules called nematocysts. These are located on the surface of tentacles and in some species on the body of a jellyfish. Nematocysts contain coiled threads (tubules) loaded with venom. Upon contact, the nematocysts discharge their tubules into the victims skin like mini-harpoons. The more tentacles which make skin contact, the more venom is injected. […] Potentially fatal envenomation is caused by two jellyfish types in Australian waters. […] The Australian Box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri, has a large (box-like) bell up to 20 x 30 cm and multiple tentacles. It inhabits estuarine and on-shore coastal waters. Contact with tentacles causes severe immediate pain and whip-like marks on the skin. A sting with several metres of tentacles can cause respiratory and cardiac arrest within a few minutes. Approximately 80 deaths have been recorded.
#82 Guideline 9.4.5 – Envenomation – Jellyfish Stings
https://www.anzcor.org/home/first-aid-for-bites-stings-and-poisoning/guideline-9-4-5-envenomation-jellyfish-stings/
The mechanism of jellyfish envenomation.1,2,3 […] Stinging by jellyfish is caused by the simultaneous discharge of many thousands of microscopic stinging capsules called nematocysts. These are located on the surface of tentacles and in some species on the body of a jellyfish. Nematocysts contain coiled threads (tubules) loaded with venom. Upon contact, the nematocysts discharge their tubules into the victims skin like mini-harpoons. The more tentacles which make skin contact, the more venom is injected. […] Potentially fatal envenomation is caused by two jellyfish types in Australian waters. […] The Australian Box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri, has a large (box-like) bell up to 20 x 30 cm and multiple tentacles. It inhabits estuarine and on-shore coastal waters. Contact with tentacles causes severe immediate pain and whip-like marks on the skin. A sting with several metres of tentacles can cause respiratory and cardiac arrest within a few minutes. Approximately 80 deaths have been recorded.
#83 Jellyfish stings – Proxim
https://www.groupeproxim.ca/en/article/disease/jellyfish-stings
Jellyfish, which are almost entirely made of water, are marine animals. There are over 900 species of jellyfish. Their only defence mechanism is a poison found in their tentacles that causes paralysis. When a jellyfish brushes against another animal, a thin tube comes out and pierces its skin. Paralysing venom is then excreted from that tube into the other animal, making it possible for the jellyfish to escape a potential predator. In humans, this venom is usually not potent enough to cause paralysis and is generally the source of superficial damage. […] The severity of an injury caused by a jellyfish sting is proportionate to the body area affected. Children, more susceptible to the effects of toxins because they are smaller and more sensitive, often have more serious reactions. Use caution when around jellyfish – even those that have washed up on the beach – as detached tentacles are capable of causing stings. Furthermore, jellyfish toxins can be carried in the water and cause minor burns. Avoid swimming in jellyfish-infested waters! […] Some people who get stung several times by jellyfish can develop an allergic reaction to the venom. Consequently, if upon a second or third sting you observe a much more severe reaction than the first, it would be prudent to seek medical help immediately.
#84 Jellyfish stings – Proxim
https://www.groupeproxim.ca/en/article/disease/jellyfish-stings
Jellyfish, which are almost entirely made of water, are marine animals. There are over 900 species of jellyfish. Their only defence mechanism is a poison found in their tentacles that causes paralysis. When a jellyfish brushes against another animal, a thin tube comes out and pierces its skin. Paralysing venom is then excreted from that tube into the other animal, making it possible for the jellyfish to escape a potential predator. In humans, this venom is usually not potent enough to cause paralysis and is generally the source of superficial damage. […] The severity of an injury caused by a jellyfish sting is proportionate to the body area affected. Children, more susceptible to the effects of toxins because they are smaller and more sensitive, often have more serious reactions. Use caution when around jellyfish – even those that have washed up on the beach – as detached tentacles are capable of causing stings. Furthermore, jellyfish toxins can be carried in the water and cause minor burns. Avoid swimming in jellyfish-infested waters! […] Some people who get stung several times by jellyfish can develop an allergic reaction to the venom. Consequently, if upon a second or third sting you observe a much more severe reaction than the first, it would be prudent to seek medical help immediately.
#85 Jellyfish stings – Proxim
https://www.groupeproxim.ca/en/article/disease/jellyfish-stings
Jellyfish, which are almost entirely made of water, are marine animals. There are over 900 species of jellyfish. Their only defence mechanism is a poison found in their tentacles that causes paralysis. When a jellyfish brushes against another animal, a thin tube comes out and pierces its skin. Paralysing venom is then excreted from that tube into the other animal, making it possible for the jellyfish to escape a potential predator. In humans, this venom is usually not potent enough to cause paralysis and is generally the source of superficial damage. […] The severity of an injury caused by a jellyfish sting is proportionate to the body area affected. Children, more susceptible to the effects of toxins because they are smaller and more sensitive, often have more serious reactions. Use caution when around jellyfish – even those that have washed up on the beach – as detached tentacles are capable of causing stings. Furthermore, jellyfish toxins can be carried in the water and cause minor burns. Avoid swimming in jellyfish-infested waters! […] Some people who get stung several times by jellyfish can develop an allergic reaction to the venom. Consequently, if upon a second or third sting you observe a much more severe reaction than the first, it would be prudent to seek medical help immediately.
#86 How To Treat A Jellyfish Sting – First Aid Training Cooperative
https://firstaidtrainingcooperative.co.uk/how-to-treat-a-jellyfish-sting/
None of the jelly fish usually found in UK waters are severely toxic, but younger people and people with compromised immune systems may suffer more from stings. Jellyfish stings can be widespread and very painful but the majority can be treated with some basic first aid remove all of the stings from your flesh and then rinse the affected area with lots of water. […] If the stinging is severe, pain is not subsiding or there are any other symptoms or more severe reactions, call 999/112 as soon as possible. Taking a photo of the jellyfish if possible can help medical staff to identify it and give the appropriate treatment. […] Occasionally more harmful jellyfish are found in UK waters having been brought in on ocean currents and the treatment is the same as for our native jellyfish.
#87 Jellyfish Stings: A Review of Skin Symptoms, Pathophysiology, and Management
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11297359/
Upon physical or chemical stimulation, the nematocysts undergo a rapid increase in static hydraulic pressure. […] The significant pressure disparity between the interior and exterior of the nematocysts ultimately propels the thread tube to function as a spring transmitter. […] Discharge of the tubule is one of natures most rapid mechanical events, which effectively penetrates human skin and delivers a substantial dose of jellyfish venom. […] The patients prognosis is contingent upon factors such as the jellyfish species, sting location, and individual characteristics. […] The symptoms of jellyfish stings can arise indirectly from the bodys immune responses to toxin molecules and nematocysts, including skin lesions, inflammation, pyrexia, myoclonus, and paresthesia. […] The proteins and polypeptides present in jellyfish venom, along with the collagen, glycoproteins, and polysaccharides found in the nematocysts, all can function as antigens or allergens within the human body, eliciting cellular or humoral immune responses.
#88 Jellyfish Stings – Safety and Treatment
https://www.urgentcare247.com/blog/jellyfish-stings
Jellyfish sting to trap prey and also sting as a defense mechanism. They dont seek out humans, but if they come into contact with one (as they swim or are carried in by the waves) their tentacles reach out and shoot harpoon-like stingers (nematocysts) that contain neurotoxic venom. […] The timeline for treatment can sometimes mean the difference between life and death. […] Its still important to see a professional since the jellyfish nematocysts release poison into your bloodstream. […] Burning, itching, and severe pain are often a side effect of the jellyfish sting.
#89 Guideline 9.4.5 – Envenomation – Jellyfish Stings
https://www.anzcor.org/home/first-aid-for-bites-stings-and-poisoning/guideline-9-4-5-envenomation-jellyfish-stings/
Nematocysts from different species of jellyfish are either inhibited or stimulated to discharge by different substances used for first-aid. 1,2,3,9 […] Vinegar (4-6% acetic acid) inhibits nematocyst discharge of Box jellyfish 10 but does not provide pain relief from the venom already injected. […] Since it is usually difficult to recognise which species of jellyfish has caused a sting, management is based on the risk of serious stings in the known geographical distribution of dangerous species. Jellyfish able to cause life-threatening stings primarily occur along the tropical coastline of Australia i.e. from Bundaberg (Queensland) northwards, across the northern coastline and down to Geraldton (Western Australia).1,2,3 […] Antivenom is available for Chironex fleckeri and other multi-tentacled box jellyfish stings. In tropical coastal areas, hospitals keep and ambulances carry antivenom. […] Patients who initially appear stable but experience severe symptoms in the following 30 minutes may be suffering Irukandji syndrome and need urgent medical care.
#90 Guideline 9.4.5 – Envenomation – Jellyfish Stings
https://www.anzcor.org/home/first-aid-for-bites-stings-and-poisoning/guideline-9-4-5-envenomation-jellyfish-stings/
Nematocysts from different species of jellyfish are either inhibited or stimulated to discharge by different substances used for first-aid. 1,2,3,9 […] Vinegar (4-6% acetic acid) inhibits nematocyst discharge of Box jellyfish 10 but does not provide pain relief from the venom already injected. […] Since it is usually difficult to recognise which species of jellyfish has caused a sting, management is based on the risk of serious stings in the known geographical distribution of dangerous species. Jellyfish able to cause life-threatening stings primarily occur along the tropical coastline of Australia i.e. from Bundaberg (Queensland) northwards, across the northern coastline and down to Geraldton (Western Australia).1,2,3 […] Antivenom is available for Chironex fleckeri and other multi-tentacled box jellyfish stings. In tropical coastal areas, hospitals keep and ambulances carry antivenom. […] Patients who initially appear stable but experience severe symptoms in the following 30 minutes may be suffering Irukandji syndrome and need urgent medical care.
#91 Box Jellyfish Sting: Emergency First Aid, Side Effects, and Symptoms
https://www.healthline.com/health/box-jellyfish-sting
Box jellyfish have highly potent venom. The more lethal types, which belong to the class Cubozoa, release toxins with their nematocysts. […] Not all cubozoan toxins are the same, but generally, they can destroy and poison human cells. If you’re stung, these toxins will be particularly poisonous to your red blood cells and your heart. […] According to the Emergency Care Institute of New South Wales, if 10 percent or more of a person’s skin is affected by the venom of Chironex fleckeri, the sting becomes deadly, especially in children. […] The sting of Chironex fleckeri and other box jellyfish can lead to heart rhythm problems and ultimately death by causing nonstop contraction of the muscles and overproduction of potassium in the blood. The lethal reaction, when severe, is usually immediate.
#92 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review
https://www.mdpi.com/1660-3397/11/2/523
Jellyfish (cnidarians) have a worldwide distribution. Despite most being harmless, some species may cause local and also systemic reactions. Treatment of jellyfish envenomation is directed at: alleviating the local effects of venom, preventing further nematocyst discharges and controlling systemic reactions, including shock. In severe cases, the most important step is stabilizing and maintaining vital functions. […] Nematocysts are discharged onto the skin within a fraction of a second, making a jellyfish nematocyst discharge one of the most rapid mechanical events in nature. Nematocysts can function even when separated or if the organism is dead, although discharge rate decreases after death. […] Discharge of the jellyfish venom is triggered by mechanical stimuli (such as skin rubbing or tentacle traction), sudden increase in the osmotic pressure of the capsular fluid due to the removal of bound calcium ions and sudden relaxation of spring-like tensions in the nematocyst collagen framework.
#93 Jellyfish Stings and Their Management: A Review
https://www.mdpi.com/1660-3397/11/2/523
The most important step after envenomation is basic life support (ABCs), with the aim of maintaining respiration and blood circulation, and tentacle removal, since as long as tentacles adhere to the skin, nematocysts continue to discharge venom. […] Although there are differences between species, there seems to be evidence and consensus on oral/topical analgesics, baking soda, hot water, ice packs and (for cubozoans and non-Australian Physalia) topical vinegar. […] The ideal treatment would be readily available, cheap, effective for inactivating toxins of various jellyfish species and would prevent further discharge of venom.
#94 Jellyfish Sting or Tattoo? | Actas Dermo-SifiliogrÃ¡ficas
https://www.actasdermo.org/es-jellyfish-sting-or-tattoo-articulo-S1578219012001102
Immediate local reactions are characterized by burning and itching of varying intensity according to the species of jellyfish that caused the sting. Involvement of surrounding soft tissue is common. The disease frequently presents as whiplash-like erythematous papules and papulovesicular lesions. […] Medical treatment depends on the type of reaction. Patients with uncomplicated skin reactions are treated symptomatically with topical corticosteroids and oral antihistamines and show a good response in a few days. […] The most important advice for the first-aid management of jellyfish envenomation is to take measures to avoid release of the venom toxins: to wash the area with sea water rather than fresh water, to apply ice in packs rather than directly, to avoid rubbing the affected area, and to avoid applying urine or alcoholic drinks, which can change the pH and activate the nematocysts. Depending on the species of jellyfish that causes the sting, it can be useful to apply vinegar, a 1:1 aqueous solution of sodium bicarbonate, or a saturated solution of magnesium sulfate in a solution of sodium chloride.
#95 Guideline 9.4.5 – Envenomation – Jellyfish Stings
https://www.anzcor.org/home/first-aid-for-bites-stings-and-poisoning/guideline-9-4-5-envenomation-jellyfish-stings/
Nematocysts from different species of jellyfish are either inhibited or stimulated to discharge by different substances used for first-aid. 1,2,3,9 […] Vinegar (4-6% acetic acid) inhibits nematocyst discharge of Box jellyfish 10 but does not provide pain relief from the venom already injected. […] Since it is usually difficult to recognise which species of jellyfish has caused a sting, management is based on the risk of serious stings in the known geographical distribution of dangerous species. Jellyfish able to cause life-threatening stings primarily occur along the tropical coastline of Australia i.e. from Bundaberg (Queensland) northwards, across the northern coastline and down to Geraldton (Western Australia).1,2,3 […] Antivenom is available for Chironex fleckeri and other multi-tentacled box jellyfish stings. In tropical coastal areas, hospitals keep and ambulances carry antivenom. […] Patients who initially appear stable but experience severe symptoms in the following 30 minutes may be suffering Irukandji syndrome and need urgent medical care.
#96
https://wms.org/magazine/magazine/1283/Jellyfishtreatment/default.aspx
An extensive literature review by Drs. Wilcox and Yanagihara concluded that the preponderance of published evidence support the use of hot water immersion and heat application, not ice application, for reducing pain from jellyfish envenomation by denaturing heat labile venom components. […] Based on their studies, we now have evidence-based first aid recommendations that apply to different types of jellyfish stings. […] In particular it has highlighted which popular home remedies and prior first aid approaches are harmful, leading to additional nematocyst stimulation and venom release worsening the sting. These jellyfish sting recommendations decrease venom load in the tissues with the following threefold approach: 1) Deactivate nematocysts preventing further envenomation: use vinegar (acetic acid 5%) or Sting No More as the initial 30 second rinse. 2) Decontaminate skin by plucking tentacles from skin with tweezers or gloved hand (do not scrape, shave or rub as pressure and manipulation triggers nematocyst release). 3) Denature injected venom in tissues: immerse the affected skin in hot water (45 C/113 F), hot shower to tolerance or heat pack application for 45 minutes. […] The aim now is to help educate others with these up-to-date recommendations.
#97 Jellyfish Sting or Tattoo? | Actas Dermo-SifiliogrÃ¡ficas
https://www.actasdermo.org/es-jellyfish-sting-or-tattoo-articulo-S1578219012001102
Immediate local reactions are characterized by burning and itching of varying intensity according to the species of jellyfish that caused the sting. Involvement of surrounding soft tissue is common. The disease frequently presents as whiplash-like erythematous papules and papulovesicular lesions. […] Medical treatment depends on the type of reaction. Patients with uncomplicated skin reactions are treated symptomatically with topical corticosteroids and oral antihistamines and show a good response in a few days. […] The most important advice for the first-aid management of jellyfish envenomation is to take measures to avoid release of the venom toxins: to wash the area with sea water rather than fresh water, to apply ice in packs rather than directly, to avoid rubbing the affected area, and to avoid applying urine or alcoholic drinks, which can change the pH and activate the nematocysts. Depending on the species of jellyfish that causes the sting, it can be useful to apply vinegar, a 1:1 aqueous solution of sodium bicarbonate, or a saturated solution of magnesium sulfate in a solution of sodium chloride.
#98 Jellyfish Sting: Treatment and Tips
https://www.verywellhealth.com/how-to-treat-a-jellyfish-sting-1298222
Jellyfish stings can be painful, itchy, and in extreme cases deadly. The sting is caused by a reaction to a protein-based venom. Jellyfish release venom from microscopic stingers on their tentacles called nematocysts. […] Depending on the species and the venom dose, a sting can cause reactions ranging from mild to severe and even life-threatening. […] In some cases, the symptoms may be caused by the venom itself (typically a neurotoxic reaction affecting the heart and respiration). In others, a sting may provoke a severe reaction known as anaphylaxis, in which the immune system overreacts to the venom. Both may be involved and are often difficult to tell apart. […] If left untreated, anaphylaxis can lead to shock, respiratory obstruction due to swelling, cardiac or respiratory arrest, or death. […] Anaphylaxis is treated as a medical emergency in a hospital. The treatment starts with an injection of epinephrine (adrenaline), which helps relax the airways so you can breathe easier and tightens blood vessels to increase blood pressure. This latter effect helps reduce the risk of shock.
#99 Guideline 9.4.5 – Envenomation – Jellyfish Stings
https://www.anzcor.org/home/first-aid-for-bites-stings-and-poisoning/guideline-9-4-5-envenomation-jellyfish-stings/
Nematocysts from different species of jellyfish are either inhibited or stimulated to discharge by different substances used for first-aid. 1,2,3,9 […] Vinegar (4-6% acetic acid) inhibits nematocyst discharge of Box jellyfish 10 but does not provide pain relief from the venom already injected. […] Since it is usually difficult to recognise which species of jellyfish has caused a sting, management is based on the risk of serious stings in the known geographical distribution of dangerous species. Jellyfish able to cause life-threatening stings primarily occur along the tropical coastline of Australia i.e. from Bundaberg (Queensland) northwards, across the northern coastline and down to Geraldton (Western Australia).1,2,3 […] Antivenom is available for Chironex fleckeri and other multi-tentacled box jellyfish stings. In tropical coastal areas, hospitals keep and ambulances carry antivenom. […] Patients who initially appear stable but experience severe symptoms in the following 30 minutes may be suffering Irukandji syndrome and need urgent medical care.
#100 Box Jellyfish Sting: Emergency First Aid, Side Effects, and Symptoms
https://www.healthline.com/health/box-jellyfish-sting
A box jellyfish sting can result in a variety of side effects. […] This condition results primarily from the sting of the species Carukia barnesi, but can also from other box jellyfish in the same family of Carybdeida such Alatina mordens, Malo maxima, Carybdea alata, Carybdea xaymacana, and Carybdea rastonii. […] With this syndrome, the sting releases toxins in the human body, which increases anxiety and raises your blood pressure and heart rate. […] The tracks created from jellyfish stings along your skin may fade with time but may leave a lasting scar. […] An intravenous antivenom for Chironex fleckeri stings has been available since the 1970s. Scientists produced it from immunized sheep. However, the extent of its effectiveness isn’t fully clear. […] Research shows that adding magnesium sulfate to venom at administration may improve the effectiveness. […] Severe box jellyfish stings can be fatal, triggering cardiac arrest in your body within minutes.
#101 Jellyfish stings – Proxim
https://www.groupeproxim.ca/en/article/disease/jellyfish-stings
Jellyfish, which are almost entirely made of water, are marine animals. There are over 900 species of jellyfish. Their only defence mechanism is a poison found in their tentacles that causes paralysis. When a jellyfish brushes against another animal, a thin tube comes out and pierces its skin. Paralysing venom is then excreted from that tube into the other animal, making it possible for the jellyfish to escape a potential predator. In humans, this venom is usually not potent enough to cause paralysis and is generally the source of superficial damage. […] The severity of an injury caused by a jellyfish sting is proportionate to the body area affected. Children, more susceptible to the effects of toxins because they are smaller and more sensitive, often have more serious reactions. Use caution when around jellyfish – even those that have washed up on the beach – as detached tentacles are capable of causing stings. Furthermore, jellyfish toxins can be carried in the water and cause minor burns. Avoid swimming in jellyfish-infested waters! […] Some people who get stung several times by jellyfish can develop an allergic reaction to the venom. Consequently, if upon a second or third sting you observe a much more severe reaction than the first, it would be prudent to seek medical help immediately.
#102 Dual Protection | Anti-jellyfish Sting Protective Lotion SafeSeaÂ® Sunscreen
https://www.safesea.store/about-safesea-3/?srsltid=AfmBOoo1y7vZDNrkqkkgxgPBE8n0gtzYbuqGFD9XeCtB8DN1lixUqh7P
A. Stimulants from the skin initiate the discharge process. B. The high internal pressure of 200 atmospheres is built in the capsule. C. With 40,000xg of acceleration the needle drills a hole into the skin. D. A tubule follows the shaft and injects poison into the body. […] Safe Sea products protect from jellyfish stings in several ways: Safe Sea lotion works by inactivating the stinging cells in several biochemical sites. It reduces tentacle skin attachments, mimics jellyfish self-recognition, blocks stinging cells activation, and interferes with the cellular signal, reducing the internal osmotic pressure in the nematocyst capsule. […] The chemical stoppers reduce pressure in the stinging cells, preventing the jellyfish from firing its stings.
#103 Inside the Jellyfish’s Sting: Exploring the Micro-architecture of a Cellular Weapon – environment coastal & offshore
https://ecomagazine.com/news/research/inside-the-jellyfish-s-sting-exploring-the-micro-architecture-of-a-cellular-weapon/
Understanding this complex stinging mechanism can have potential future applications for humans, said Gibson. This could lead to the development of new therapeutic or targeted delivery methods of medicines as well as the design of microscopic devices. […] The entire stinging operation is completed within just a few thousandths of a second, making it one of the fastest biological processes occurring in nature. […] Elucidating the elaborate choreography of nematocyst firing in a sea anemone has some interesting implications for the design of engineered microscopic devices, and this collaborative effort between the Gibson Lab and the Stowers Institute Technology Centers may have future applications for delivering medicines in humans at the cellular level.
#104 How to turn a jellyfish sting into something good – ISRAEL21c
https://www.israel21c.org/how-to-turn-a-jellyfish-sting-into-something-good/
However, Shavit and colleagues from the Technion and the University of Haifa found that the driving force is not limited to the capsule. A powerful osmotic mechanism releases the needle and pulls it like a locomotive pulling railroad cars. […] According to Shavit, This means that the osmotic potential can be influenced along the pathway of the needle, thus reducing its ability to penetrate the skin and preventing the stinging. […] While this advance in revealing the mechanism of jellyfish stings may prove helpful in sparking ideas for preventing stings, the study authors have a different use in mind: Mimicking the way a jellyfish stings could serve as the basis for an improved method for delivering drugs. […] This new understanding is vital for future development of nematocyst-based systems such as osmotic nanotubes and transdermal drug delivery.
#105 Immunological and Toxinological Responses to Jellyfish Stings
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3773479/
The current challenge for immunotoxinologists is to deconstruct the actions of venom components to target therapeutic modalities for sting treatment. […] The deposition of the complex mixture of nematocyst constituents, venom, carried by jellyfish tubules probably sets off a complicated system of cellular and cytokine interactions analogous to that described on entry of pathogens or allergens into human skin. […] Although little is known about the effects of purified venom components in the skin, it is speculated that the immune response to them is like that to any potential allergen or antigen with keratinocytes, tissue macrophages, dendritic cells (DC) and mast cells being the key cellular mediators. […] Mast cells are potent drivers of inflammation, releasing biogenic amines such as histamine and other substances including platelet activating factor, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, proteases and cytokines into their tissue environment when stimulated.