Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Endometrial cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/endometrial-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20352461

  The cause of endometrial cancer isn’t known. What’s known is that something happens to cells in the lining of the uterus that changes them into cancer cells. […] Endometrial cancer starts when cells in the lining of the uterus, called the endometrium, get changes in their DNA. A cell’s DNA holds the instructions that tell the cell what to do. The changes tell the cells to multiply quickly. The changes also tell the cells to continue living when healthy cells would die as part of their natural life cycle. This causes a lot of extra cells. The cells might form a mass called a tumor. The cells can invade and destroy healthy body tissue. In time, the cells can break away and spread to other parts of the body. […] Factors that increase the risk of endometrial cancer include: Changes in the balance of hormones in the body. The two main hormones the ovaries make are estrogen and progesterone. Changes in the balance of these hormones cause changes in the endometrium.

• #2 What Causes Endometrial Cancer? | American Cancer Society | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/endometrial-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/what-causes.html

  We don’t yet know exactly what causes most cases of endometrial cancer, but we do know there are risk factors, like obesity and hormone imbalance, that are strongly linked to this cancer. […] We know that most endometrial cancer cells have estrogen and/or progesterone receptors on their surfaces. Somehow, interaction of these receptors and these hormones leads to increased growth of the endometrium. This increased growth can become more and more abnormal until it develops into a cancer. […] As noted in the risk factors section, many of the known endometrial cancer risk factors affect the balance between estrogen and progesterone in the body. […] Scientists are learning more about changes in the DNA of certain genes that occur when normal endometrial cells become cancer.

• #3 Endometrial Cancer in Reproductive-Aged Females: Etiology and Pathogenesis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11047839/

  Endometrial cancer is the most common gynecologic malignancy in developed countries, and the incidence is rising in premenopausal females. […] Estrogen unopposed by progesterone is considered to be the main driving factor in the pathogenesis of EC. […] Studies show that BMI 30 kg/m2, prolonged duration of menses, nulliparity, presence of polycystic ovarian syndrome, and Lynch syndrome are the most common causes of EC in premenopausal women. […] Hyperestrogenic states, or increased estrogen exposure, have been proven to be the main driver in the development of Type I EC. […] Studies have consistently demonstrated that premenopausal women with a hyperestrogenic state are at an increased risk of developing EC. […] The unopposed estrogen hypothesis, first described by Key et al. (1988), is a widely accepted theory stating that women with high circulating levels of endogenous estrogen unopposed by progesterone run an increased risk of developing EC.

• #4 What Causes Uterine Cancer? Risk Factors to Know

  https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/uterine-cancer/risk-factors

  Each year, more than 69,120 women are diagnosed with endometrial cancer or uterine sarcoma, the two primary uterine cancer types. […] While the exact cause of a womans uterine cancer may not be known, certain risk factors are strongly linked to the disease, including obesity and high blood sugar. […] Uterine cancer forms when the DNA in cells in the uterus mutate, disabling functions that control cell division and growth. […] Known risk factors for endometrial cancer include those listed below. […] Most women diagnosed with endometrial cancer are older than age 50 and have gone through menopause. […] Women who have had more menstrual cycles in their lifetime have an increased endometrial cancer risk. […] Researchers are investigating why pregnancy seems to reduce the risk of endometrial cancer.

• #5 Endometrial cancer: Symptoms, Causes and Treatment | MedPark Hospital

  https://www.medparkhospital.com/en-US/disease-and-treatment/endometrial-cancer

  Endometrial cancer arises from alterations in the DNA of cells within the uterine lining, triggering uncontrolled cell proliferation. This growth can result in the formation of a mass or tumor. These altered cells threaten healthy cells, initiating the invasion and potential spread to other parts of the body. […] Endometrial cancer predominantly affects women after menopause, with over 95% of cases occurring in those aged 40 and older. Postmenopausal women face an elevated risk of developing endometrial cancer if they: […] The risk of endometrial cancer is higher in women who use tamoxifen for breast cancer treatment or prevention, those who opt for estrogen-only hormone replacement therapy, and those with an ovarian tumor (but this is rare.). High-fat or red meat diets may contribute to an increased risk of endometrial and colon cancer.

• #6 Endometrial Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525981/

  Endometrial cancer is a malignancy originating within the epithelial lining of the uterus. […] The most significant risk factors associated with endometrial cancer development include those that increase long-term exposure to unopposed estrogen (eg, obesity and exogenous estrogen). […] Present consensus holds that the pathogenesis of most low-grade endometrial carcinomas begins with uninterrupted endometrial proliferation, hormonally stimulated by endogenous or exogenous estrogen unopposed by progesterone or progestins, progressing through states of simple to complex forms of endometrial hyperplasia. […] The 2 main histological subtypes of endometrial cancer that have traditionally been used for classification are type 1 cancers, which are typically caused by factors that increase unopposed estrogen exposure, and type 2 endometrial cancers, which are not associated with unopposed estrogen.

• #7 Endometrial Carcinoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/254083-overview

  The first type occurs in women who fall into the classic category. These women are obese and have hyperlipidemia, signs of hyperestrogenism, uterine bleeding, infertility, and late onset of menopause. […] The second type occurs in women who have none of the disease states present in the classic presentation. These individuals tend to have poorly differentiated tumors, deep myometrial invasion, a high degree of metastasis to the lymph nodes and other sites, decreased sensitivity to progestins, and a poor prognosis.

• #8 Endometrial Cancer in Reproductive-Aged Females: Etiology and Pathogenesis

  https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/12/4/886

  Endometrial cancer is the most common gynecologic malignancy in developed countries, and the incidence is rising in premenopausal females. […] Type I EC is more common than Type II EC (80% vs. 20%) and is associated with a hyperestrogenic state. Estrogen unopposed by progesterone is considered to be the main driving factor in the pathogenesis of EC. Studies show that BMI > 30 kg/m², prolonged duration of menses, nulliparity, presence of polycystic ovarian syndrome, and Lynch syndrome are the most common causes of EC in premenopausal women. […] Endometrial cancer can be divided into the following categories: Type I and Type II tumors. Type I tumors are FIGO Grade 1 endometrioid adenocarcinomas and are associated with unopposed estrogen stimulation. Type II tumors include FIGO Grade 3 endometrioid, serous, and clear cell carcinomas and are generally thought to be estrogen-independent. The incidence of Type I is 60–80% overall and that of Type II is 20% overall.

• #9 The Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/section-view/heading/The%20Epidemiology%20of%20Endometrial%20Cancer/item/236

  Endometrial cancer is the fourth most common cancer among women in the United States and the most frequently diagnosed gynecologic malignancy. […] A significant increase in the incidence of endometrial cancer occurred in North America between 1960 and 1975. This has been widely interpreted to be a result of the marked increase in exogenous estrogen use for hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women. […] It has been proposed that there are two types of endometrial cancer: estrogen dependent (type I) and estrogen independent (type II). Approximately 85% of endometrial cancers are type I. […] These cancers tend to occur in obese women and are typically preceded by complex atypical hyperplasia. […] Additionally, they are most commonly low grade endometrioid histology and confined to the uterus with minimal invasion.

• #10 The Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/section-view/heading/The%20Epidemiology%20of%20Endometrial%20Cancer/item/236

  In contrast, type II tumors are more likely to occur in thin, older patients with an atrophic endometrium. […] Their histology is typically high grade serous or clear cell, and patients commonly have early metastasis. […] Approximately half of all endometrial cancer relapses occur in patients with type II tumors. […] The majority of women diagnosed with endometrial cancer are peri- or postmenopausal between the ages of 50 and 65. […] The average age at diagnosis is 61. […] However, the risk of developing endometrial cancer increases with advancing age. […] In the United States, white women are more likely to be diagnosed with endometrial cancer than African-American, Asian, or Hispanic women. […] The most common risk factor for type II cancers is age. […] The first cases of endometrial cancer related to estrogen replacement therapy were reported in the 1960s.

• #11 Endometrial Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525981/

  Family history of endometrial, colorectal, ovarian, and other cancers that characterize Lynch syndrome and related MMRd hereditary diseases increase risks for endometrial cancer. […] High BMI, as well as type II diabetes and insulin resistance, anovulation, menstrual disruption, amenorrhea, and infertility, are consistently associated with increased risks for low-grade endometrioid carcinoma and, from recent study results, high-grade endometrioid carcinoma. […] The pathogenesis of non-endometrioid endometrial adenocarcinoma is related to genetic and somatic mutations and not necessarily hormonal factors. […] Other suspected etiologic factors, including insulin resistance and hyperandrogenemia, are being investigated, but these endometrial carcinogenic mechanisms are not fully understood.

• #12 Endometrial cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/endometrial-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20352461

  A disease or condition that increases the amount of estrogen, but not the level of progesterone, in the body can increase the risk of endometrial cancer. Examples include obesity, diabetes and irregular ovulation patterns, which might happen in polycystic ovary syndrome. Taking hormone therapy medicine that contains estrogen but not progestin after menopause increases the risk of endometrial cancer. […] A rare type of ovarian tumor that gives off estrogen also can increase the risk of endometrial cancer. […] More years of menstruation. Starting menstruation before age 12 or beginning menopause later increases the risk of endometrial cancer. The more periods you’ve had, the more exposure your endometrium has had to estrogen. […] Never having been pregnant. If you’ve never been pregnant, you have a higher risk of endometrial cancer than someone who has had at least one pregnancy.

• #13 Endometrial Cancer in Reproductive-Aged Females: Etiology and Pathogenesis

  https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/12/4/886

  The most commonly reported risk factors for Type I EC are obesity, nulliparity, longer duration of menses (earlier age at menarche or late age of menopause), history of anovulatory cycles, polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), diabetes mellitus (DM), or unopposed estrogen therapy. Hyperestrogenic states, or increased estrogen exposure, have been proven to be the main driver in the development of Type I EC. […] Studies have consistently demonstrated that premenopausal women with a hyperestrogenic state are at an increased risk of developing EC. […] The unopposed estrogen hypothesis, first described by Key et al. (1988), is a widely accepted theory stating that women with high circulating levels of endogenous estrogen unopposed by progesterone run an increased risk of developing EC. […] There is a rising rate of obesity in developed nations, which is a likely cause of the increase in the incidence of endometrial carcinoma in the premenopausal population. Obesity is established as a leading cause of Type I EC throughout the lifespan.

• #14 Endometrial Cancer | Nutrition Guide for Clinicians

  https://nutritionguide.pcrm.org/nutritionguide/view/Nutrition_Guide_for_Clinicians/1342025/all/Endometrial_Cancer

  Cancer of the endometrium is the most common gynecologic cancer in the United States, with more than 60,000 new cases diagnosed annually. […] Type 1 includes endometrioid and mucinous carcinoma and comprise about 80% of all endometrial cancers. They are associated with chronic exposure to elevated estrogen levels. […] The main risk for developing endometrial cancer comes from prolonged exposure to excess endogenous or exogenous estrogen in the absence of opposition by progestin. […] Obesity is frequently associated with endometrial cancer, presumably due to the peripheral conversion of androgens to estrogen in adipose tissue, which leads to greater endogenous estrogen concentrations in persons with obesity. […] Anovulation from polycystic ovary syndrome or other causes results in persistent exposure to unopposed endogenous estrogen.

• #15 Endometrial Cancer (Causes, Symptoms, Stages, and Treatment)

  https://patient.info/doctor/endometrial-cancer

  Women who have hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC) have a lifetime risk of 30-60% of developing endometrial cancer. […] Unopposed oestrogen increases the risk of endometrial cancer. Progesterone, however, counteracts the adverse effect of oestrogens. […] Taking combined oral contraceptives (birth control pills) actually reduces the risk of developing endometrial cancer in later life.

• #16

  https://myhealth.alberta.ca/Health/pages/conditions.aspx?hwid=tm6524

  Endometrial cancer is the growth of abnormal cells in the lining of the uterus. […] The most common cause of endometrial cancer is having too much of the hormone estrogen compared to the hormone progesterone in the body. This imbalance causes the lining of the uterus to get thicker and thicker. If the lining builds up and stays that way, then cancer cells can start to grow. […] The biggest risk factor is related to the hormone estrogen. When estrogen isn’t in balance with another hormone, progesterone, it can cause problems that raise the risk for this cancer. […] Testing for endometrial cancer may show that you have endometrial hyperplasia. This is not cancer but may develop into cancer. […] But in most cases of endometrial cancer, the endometrium has built up and has not shed and thinned. The lining has remained thick. This is called endometrial hyperplasia. If not treated, the lining cells can grow quickly and become cancer cells. […] If endometrial cancer isn’t treated, it may spread outside of the uterus. It may spread to the pelvic lymph nodes and the vagina or other pelvic organs. Advanced-stage cancer may spread to other lymph nodes, the bladder, the bowels, or the lungs.

• #17 Endometrial cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/endometrial-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20352461

  Older age. As you get older, your risk of endometrial cancer increases. Endometrial cancer occurs most often after menopause. […] Obesity. Being obese increases your risk of endometrial cancer. This may happen because extra body fat can alter your body’s balance of hormones. […] Hormone therapy for breast cancer. Taking the hormone therapy medicine tamoxifen for breast cancer can increase the risk of developing endometrial cancer. If you’re taking tamoxifen, talk about the risk with your health care team. For most, the benefits of tamoxifen outweigh the small risk of endometrial cancer. […] An inherited syndrome that increases the risk of cancer. Lynch syndrome increases the risk of colon cancer and other cancers, including endometrial cancer. Lynch syndrome is caused by a DNA change that’s passed from parents to children. If a family member has been diagnosed with Lynch syndrome, ask your health care team about your risk of this genetic syndrome. If you’ve been diagnosed with Lynch syndrome, ask what cancer screenings you need.

• #18 Endometrial Cancer in Reproductive-Aged Females: Etiology and Pathogenesis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11047839/

  Obesity is established as a leading cause of Type I EC throughout the lifespan. […] Higher BMIs have been associated with lower-grade cancers. […] For example, Crosbie et al. (2012) found that WHO class III obesity (BMI 40 kg/m2) was associated with a more significant proportion of isolated endometrial involvement and well-differentiated carcinomas when compared to normal-weight individuals (BMI 2025 kg/m2). […] The Million Women Study found that the relative risk of developing EC was 1.87 for every 5-kg/m2 increase in BMI in postmenopausal women. […] A systematic review and meta-analysis by Renehan et al. (2008) demonstrated that, in premenopausal women, the risk of developing EC increases 1.59-fold with each 5 kg/m2 increase in BMI at a BMI of 28 and above. […] Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS) is relatively common, affecting up to 8% of women, and polycystic ovaries (PCO) without the clinical diagnosis of PCOS affect up to 20% of women.

• #19 Endometrial Carcinoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/254083-overview

  Multiple epidemiological risk factors have been identified in patients who have adenocarcinoma of the endometrium. […] Endogenous factors are as follows: Obesity, Nulliparity, An individual who has had a late menopause (aged 52 y). […] Unopposed estrogen, either as replacement therapy or endogenously produced (eg, granulosa cell tumor, polycystic ovarian disease), increases the risk of endometrial cancer. […] Obesity is known to increase endogenous estrogen because the presence of fat appears to be responsible for the conversion of androstenedione to estrogen compounds at a much higher rate than if fat is not present. […] Anovulation, which may be secondary to unopposed estrogen, also appears to contribute to this situation. […] The most widely used anticancer drug is tamoxifen, and this drug has been suggested by some studies to cause an increased incidence of adenocarcinoma of the endometrium.

• #20 Endometrial Cancer in Reproductive-Aged Females: Etiology and Pathogenesis

  https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/12/4/886

  Higher BMIs have been associated with lower-grade cancers. […] Obesity (BMI > 30 kg/m²) is associated with a 4.5-fold increase in the incidence of EC compared to normal-weight women. […] A systematic review and meta-analysis by Renehan et al. (2008) demonstrated that, in premenopausal women, the risk of developing EC increases 1.59-fold with each 5 kg/m² increase in BMI at a BMI of 28 and above. […] Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS) is relatively common, affecting up to 8% of women, and polycystic ovaries (PCO) without the clinical diagnosis of PCOS affect up to 20% of women. […] The condition is characterized by oligo- or anovulation, signs of androgen excess, and an excess of small ovarian cysts. Chronic anovulation leads to chronic estrogen exposure which, as stated above, can lead to endometrial hyperplasia and neoplasia.

• #21 Endometrial Cancer (Causes, Symptoms, Stages, and Treatment)

  https://patient.info/doctor/endometrial-cancer

  Cancer of the endometrium, or uterine cancer, is mainly adenocarcinoma arising from the lining of the uterus and is an oestrogen-dependent tumour. This is distinct from carcinoma of the cervix which is squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer of the body of the uterus could include myometrial sarcoma. […] Prolonged periods of unopposed oestrogen are the main risk factor. When oestrogen is not modified by the effects of progesterone, this is termed 'unopposed oestrogen’. […] Risk factors for endometrial cancer include: Being nulliparous – this increases the risk two- or three-fold. This may be by choice or as a result of infertility with anovulatory cycles. […] Obesity – raises oestrogen levels: The greater the obesity, the greater the risk. In the UK, approximately 50% of endometrial cancers are attributable to obesity.

• #22 What causes uterine cancer? | Risk Factors » Professor Andreas Obermair

  https://www.obermair.info/latest-news/blog/what-causes-uterine-cancer/

  While the exact causes of uterine cancer are unknown, there are known risk factors that may increase your risk. […] Unfortunately, we do not know why these abnormal changes occur and lead to cancer, but we do know risk factors that will increase your risk of this occurring. […] Although certain factors can increase a woman’s risk of developing uterine cancer, it is important to know they will not always cause the cancer. […] Many women carry one or more risk factors, and they will never develop uterine cancer. […] Cancer Australia reports the following are risk factors for uterine cancer: women who are postmenopausal, or reaching menopause late (after age 55), a thickened wall lining (endometrial hyperplasia), women who have never been pregnant, starting periods early (before age 12 years), high blood pressure, diabetes, being overweight or obese, family history of ovarian, uterine, or bowel cancer, having a genetic condition such as Cowden syndrome or Lynch syndrome, previous ovarian tumours, or polycystic ovary syndrome, using oestrogen only hormone replacement therapy or fertility treatment, previous radiation therapy to the pelvis, taking tamoxifen to treat breast cancer. […] Obesity is a major risk factor for developing endometrial cancer. The relationship between obesity and cancer is stronger for endometrial cancer than for any other type of cancer. Over 50% of endometrial cancers are attributable to obesity.

• #23 The Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/section-view/heading/The%20Epidemiology%20of%20Endometrial%20Cancer/item/236

  Since then, there have been many studies that have found an increased risk of endometrial carcinoma among patients receiving unopposed estrogen replacement therapy for menopausal symptoms. […] Additionally, the longer a woman uses estrogen replacement, the higher her risk of developing endometrial cancer. […] Though it is generally thought to require 2-3 years of unopposed estrogen use to develop an increased risk of endometrial cancer, some studies have found up to a 40% increase in risk over baseline after only 1 year of estrogen use. […] It has also been noted that the risk of developing endometrial cancer increases with increased estrogen dose. […] Obesity, long recognized as an important risk factor for endometrial cancer, has been shown to increase exposure of the endometrium to endogenous estrogen in a number of ways.

• #24 Risk factors for uterine cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/uterine/risks

  Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) uses female sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone or both) to manage the symptoms of menopause, such as hot flashes, vaginal dryness and mood swings. Research shows that using HRT with estrogen alone (without progesterone) increases the risk for uterine cancer. […] Women who have a higher number of menstrual periods during their lifetime have a greater risk of developing uterine cancer. […] Women who never give birth to a child are 2 times more likely to develop uterine cancer than women who give birth at least once. […] Women who are overweight or obese have a higher risk of developing uterine cancer. […] Researchers dont know the exact reason why overweight or obesity increases the risk for uterine cancer. […] Tamoxifen (Nolvadex, Tamofen) is a hormonal therapy drug used to treat certain cancers, most commonly breast cancer. Women treated with tamoxifen for 2 or more years have a higher risk of developing uterine cancer.

• #25 Womb (uterus) cancer | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/cancer/cancer-types-in-adults/womb-uterus-cancer/

  Cancer begins with a change (mutation) in the structure of the DNA in cells, which can affect how they grow. This means cells grow and reproduce uncontrollably, producing a lump of tissue called a tumour. […] A number of things have been identified that increase the risk of developing womb cancer. […] The risk of developing womb cancer increases with age. The majority of cases occur in women and anyone with a womb aged 40 to 74. […] The risk of developing womb cancer is linked to the bodys exposure to oestrogen. […] Because of the link between increased levels of unopposed oestrogen and womb cancer, oestrogen-only hormone replacement therapy (HRT) should only be given to those who have had their womb surgically removed (hysterectomy). […] As oestrogen can be produced in fatty tissue, being overweight or obese increases the level of oestrogen in your body. This significantly increases your chances of developing womb cancer.

• #26 Uterine and Endometrial Cancer | Symptoms & Signs | MedStar Health

  https://www.medstarhealth.org/services/uterine-and-endometrial-cancer

  What causes uterine (endometrial) cancer? […] Although the exact cause of this type of cancer is unknown, increased levels of estrogen (a hormone that helps stimulate the buildup of the lining of the uterus) appear to play a role. […] Other risk factors that may increase your chance of this disease include: Diabetes, Estrogen replacement therapy without the use of progesterone, History of endometrial polyps or other benign growths of the uterine lining, Infertility (inability to become pregnant), Tamoxifen, a drug for breast cancer treatment, Never being pregnant, Obesity, Starting menstruation at an early age (before age 12), Starting menopause after age 50, Personal or family history of colon, ovarian, or breast cancer, Hypertension (high blood pressure), Polycystic ovarian disease.

• #27 Endometrial Cancer Risk Factors | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/endometrial-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  Although certain factors can increase the risk for developing endometrial cancer, they don’t always cause the disease. […] Many who have risk factors never develop endometrial cancer. […] Even if someone with endometrial cancer has one or more risk factors, there is no way to know which, if any, of them caused the cancer. […] Starting menstruation at a young age and going through menopause at a late age increases the exposure of the endometrium to estrogen and therefore increases the risk of endometrial cancer. […] The risk of endometrial cancer is higher if you have never been pregnant compared to having at least one pregnancy. […] Having a medical condition such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and estrogen-secreting ovarian tumors increases the risk of uterine cancer. […] Having more fat tissue can increase estrogen levels, especially after menopause, which increases the risk of endometrial cancer.

• #28 Endometrial Cancer | Nutrition Guide for Clinicians

  https://nutritionguide.pcrm.org/nutritionguide/view/Nutrition_Guide_for_Clinicians/1342025/all/Endometrial_Cancer

  Early menarche, late menopause, and nulliparity (especially when due to anovulation) may increase the risk for endometrial cancer. […] Although rare, tumors that secrete estrogen increase the risk of endometrial carcinoma. […] Estrogen therapy without progestin significantly increases the risk of endometrial cancer. […] Women with hypertension and diabetes (particularly type 2) have an increased risk for endometrial cancer, which may reflect the presence of common risk factors such as obesity. […] Women who have a 1st-degree relative with endometrial cancer are at increased risk of developing endometrial cancer. […] Contraceptive pills containing progestin reduce the risk of endometrial cancer by about 50%. […] Regular physical activity is associated with a 20-30% reduction in risk.

• #29 The Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/section-view/heading/The%20Epidemiology%20of%20Endometrial%20Cancer/item/236

  As a risk factor for endometrial cancer, obesity has been reported to account for 17-46% of all cases. […] The heaviest women are at the highest risk of developing endometrial cancer. […] A positive association between nulliparity and endometrial cancer was first recognized in the 1950s. […] Studies since then have found that nulliparous women have two to three times the risk of developing endometrial cancer compared with parous women. […] An increased incidence of diabetes mellitus among patients with endometrial cancer has been described for many years. […] However, given the strong association between obesity and type 2 diabetes, and that many patients with endometrial cancer are obese, the proposed relationship between diabetes and endometrial cancer was often attributed to confounding.

• #30

  https://www.mercy.net/service/uterine-cancer/

  Women over the age of 50 and who have been through menopause are at great risk. […] Having more menstrual cycles during a woman’s lifetime raises her risk as well as early menstruation (before age 12) and/or going through menopause later in life. […] Women who have never been pregnant have a higher risk of endometrial cancer than those who have had one or multiple pregnancies. […] Hormonal balance is disrupted when youre obese. […] An imbalanced metabolism can increase the risk of diabetes, as well as cause obesity. […] High blood pressure can increase the risk of endometrial cancer.

• #31 What Causes Uterine Cancer? Risk Factors to Know

  https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/uterine-cancer/risk-factors

  Irregular menstrual cycles and infertility also may cause imbalances in estrogen and progesterone levels, which may increase the risk of endometrial cancer. […] The risk for developing cancer is low among women with uterine polyps. However, polyps may be a risk factor for endometrial cancer in certain cases, particularly for some postmenopausal women who are experiencing vaginal bleeding. […] Fat tissues tend to produce higher levels of estrogen, particularly after menopause, which increases the endometrial cancer risk for older, overweight women. […] This syndrome occurs when a specific set of conditions develop at the same time, such as extra fat around the abdomen, high blood sugar, high blood pressure, high levels of triglycerides and low levels of high-density lipoproteins in the blood.

• #32 ‘How I knew I had endometrial (uterine) cancer’: Six survivors share symptoms  | MD Anderson Cancer Center

  https://www.mdanderson.org/cancerwise/-how-i-knew-i-had-endometrial-cancer—six-survivors-share-their-symptoms-stories.h00-159621801.html

  Maria and Kirstens experiences are not unusual. […] Post-menopausal bleeding is actually a wonderful signal the body gives us that something is not right, explains gynecologic oncologist Larissa Meyer, M.D. While not all postmenopausal bleeding is due to cancer, 90% of women with postmenopausal endometrial cancer experienced abnormal vaginal bleeding. […] Unlike ovarian cancer, which is often diagnosed in the later stages due to an absence of clear symptoms, vaginal bleeding after menopause is a sentinel sign of endometrial cancer that drives many people to see the doctor, she adds. […] Whether its not ovulating due to PCOS, obesity or some other cause, the same issues that can lead to infertility often predispose women to endometrial cancer, Meyer explains. […] Vaginal bleeding after menopause is a sentinel sign of endometrial cancer.

• #33 Endometrial Cancer in Reproductive-Aged Females: Etiology and Pathogenesis

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11047839/

  The association between PCOS and EC was described as early as 1949 and is based on several factors. […] Chronic anovulation leads to chronic estrogen exposure which, as stated above, can lead to endometrial hyperplasia and neoplasia. […] A systematic review by Chittenden et al. (2009) found that women with PCOS run up to three times the risk of developing EC when compared to the general population. […] Approximately 25% of endometrial cancers are associated with heritable predispositions. […] Lynch syndrome accounts for the majority of inherited endometrial cancers and 6% of all endometrial cancers. […] The majority of Lynch-associated endometrial cancers are FIGO Type I. […] The risk is approximately 4060% in mutation carriers and can be up to 71% with the specific mutation hMSH6.

• #34 Womb (uterus) cancer | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/cancer/cancer-types-in-adults/womb-uterus-cancer/

  Women and anyone with a womb who has not had children are at a higher risk of womb cancer. […] Women and anyone with a womb who are treated with tamoxifen (a hormone treatment for breast cancer) can be at an increased risk of developing womb cancer. […] Women and anyone with a womb with diabetes are twice as likely to develop womb cancer as those without the condition. […] Women and anyone with ovaries with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) are at a higher risk of developing womb cancer, as they have high levels of oestrogen in their bodies. […] Endometrial hyperplasia is when the lining of the womb becomes thicker. It may be increase risk of developing womb cancer.

• #35 Cancer of the Uterus

  https://www.health.ny.gov/statistics/cancer/registry/abouts/uterus.htm

  Women who took the drug tamoxifen to prevent or treat breast cancer are at increased risk for cancer of the uterus. […] Scientists are studying other possible personal risk factors for uterine cancer including diet, smoking, alcohol use and physical inactivity. Some studies have shown that women with diabetes are at increased risk for uterine cancer, but others have not. The role that the human papilloma virus (HPV), the virus that causes cervical cancer, may play in the development of uterine cancer is also being examined. Additional research is needed to determine the role, if any, these factors may have in the development of cancer of the uterus.

• #36 Uterine cancer | Causes, Symptoms & Treatments | Cancer Council

  https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer/uterine-cancer

  Some factors that can increase your risk of uterine cancer include: […] being postmenopausal, or reaching menopause (after age 55) […] a thickened wall lining (endometrial hyperplasia) […] never having children […] starting periods early (before age 12) […] having high blood pressure or diabetes […] being overweight or obese […] family history of ovarian, uterine, or bowel cancer […] having a genetic condition such as Cowden syndrome or Lynch syndrome […] previous ovarian tumours, or polycystic ovary syndrome […] using oestrogen only hormone replacement therapy or fertility treatment […] previous radiation therapy to the pelvis […] taking tamoxifen to treat breast cancer (the benefits of treating breast cancer usually outweigh the risk of uterine cancer – (talk to your doctor if you are concerned)

• #37 What Causes Uterine Cancer? Risk Factors to Know

  https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/uterine-cancer/risk-factors

  A type of ovarian cancer tumor called a granulosa cell tumor may produce estrogen that stimulates the growth of the uterine lining, which may lead to endometrial cancer. […] Replacing estrogen without increasing progesterone levels after menopause may increase a womans risk of developing endometrial cancer. […] A drug indicated for the prevention and treatment of breast cancer, called tamoxifen, may spur increased growth of the uterine lining in some post-menopausal women, raising the risk of endometrial cancer. […] Patients who have undergone radiation therapy in the pelvic area for cancer in the past may face an increased risk of developing endometrial cancer. […] About 5 percent of uterine cancers are linked to hereditary factors. […] Lynch syndrome patients face higher risks of both colorectal and endometrial cancers. […] Women who inherit mutations in the BRCA genes or the PTEN gene may also be at an increased risk for developing endometrial cancer. […] The exact cause of a womans endometrial cancer or uterine sarcoma may never be known.

• #38 Uterine Cancer (Endometrial Cancer): Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/16409-uterine-cancer

  A high-fat diet can increase your risk of several cancers, including uterine cancer. Fatty foods are also high in calories, which can lead to obesity. […] Some people inherit genetic disorders that increase cancer risk. People with Lynch syndrome, or hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC), have increased risk of endometrial cancer, along with other kinds of cancer. […] This disease is often related to obesity, a risk factor for cancer. But some studies suggest a more direct tie between diabetes and uterine cancer as well. […] Some hormones get changed to estrogen by fat tissue, raising uterine cancer risk. The higher the amount of fat tissue, the greater the effect on estrogen levels. […] People who have certain ovarian tumors have high estrogen levels and low progesterone levels. These hormone changes can increase uterine cancer risk.

• #39 Association of endometrial cancer risk with hypertension- an updated meta-analysis of observational studies | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-76896-8

  Our findings suggest that hypertension is significantly associated with an increased risk of this cancer. […] Hypertension may contribute to cancer development through several mechanisms, including remodeling of the extracellular matrix, influencing the secretion of VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor), generating ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species), and affecting the functioning of the RAA (Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System) and MMPs (matrix metalloproteinases). […] Our study demonstrated that obesity, diabetes, menarche before the age of 11, nulliparity, and hormone replacement therapy are factors that contribute to the development of endometrial cancer. […] Diabetes, especially type II, is widely recognized as a risk factor for endometrial cancer. […] According to our analysis, the use of oral contraceptives and smoking cigarettes appear to reduce the risk of developing endometrial cancer. […] Findings of this comprehensive review and meta-analysis indicate that women with hypertension may face a higher risk of developing endometrial cancer.

• #40 The Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer | GLOWM

  https://www.glowm.com/section-view/heading/The%20Epidemiology%20of%20Endometrial%20Cancer/item/236

  Multiple authors have since established type 2 diabetes to be an independent risk factor for developing endometrial cancer. […] Recently, there has been increasing interest in insulin resistance and endometrial cancer, with multiple studies suggesting a relationship between the two. […] An association between estrogen-producing tumors and endometrial cancer was first reported by Schroeder in 1922. […] Since then, studies of relatively large numbers of patients have found that between 6 and 10% of patients with estrogen-producing tumors will develop endometrial cancer. […] Approximately 5% of endometrial cancer cases can be attributed to an inherited predisposition. […] The majority of these cases are secondary to Lynch syndrome, also known as hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) syndrome. […] Women with Lynch syndrome have a 40-60% risk of developing endometrial cancer. […] Additionally, they typically develop endometrial cancer at an earlier age than the general population, with the mean age at diagnosis being 50.

• #41 Risk Factors for Endometrial Cancer: Obesity, Hypertension, and Diabetes

  https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/risk-factors-for-endometrial-cancer–obesity-hypertension-and-diabetes

  Most carcinomas arising from the uterus are estrogen-dependent and are associated with obesity and hypertension. They are designated type I ECs, diagnosed in younger or perimenopausal women, and typically, owing to their early diagnosis secondary to postmenopausal bleeding, have more benign histologic features and a good prognosis. By contrast, type II ECs develop in older patients, are not hormone-dependent, and are responsible for most of the recurrences and deaths associated with EC. […] As indicated above, impaired glucose tolerance and diabetes are risk factors for the development of endometrial cancer. Insulin sensitizers, especially the biguanide metformin, are broadly used for managing patients with PCOS; metformin ameliorates insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia in these women, but also improves ovulation and menstrual cycle regularity with long-term use. […] Nevadunsky et al concluded that diabetic EC patients with nonendometrioid tumors who used metformin had a lower risk of death than women with EC who did not use metformin, suggesting that metformin might be useful as adjuvant therapy for nonendometrioid EC.

• #42 Association of endometrial cancer risk with hypertension- an updated meta-analysis of observational studies | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-76896-8

  Endometrial cancer is one of the most common gynaecological cancers in the developed countries. […] Overall meta-analysis demonstrates significant association between hypertension and endometrial cancer risk (RR=1.37, 95% CI: 1.271.47, p0.001). […] Findings of this comprehensive review and meta-analysis indicate that hypertension is associated with higher overall risk of endometrial cancer. […] Several studies have shown that the risk of endometrial cancer increases with: older age, early menstruation, late menopause, obesity, family history of endometrial cancer, exposure to radiation, infertility, and prolonged use of estrogen in hormone therapy. […] The current understanding of the biological mechanism(s) that might account for the detrimental impact of hypertension on endometrial cancer risk remains unclear.

• #43 Risk Factors for Endometrial Cancer: Obesity, Hypertension, and Diabetes

  https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/risk-factors-for-endometrial-cancer–obesity-hypertension-and-diabetes

  Cancer is an ancient disease that has also frequently been described as the defining plague of our generation. Among women in the United States, 1 in 3 will develop cancer during her lifetime. With regard to genital cancer in women, five main sites are affected: the vulva, the vagina, the cervix, the uterus, and the ovary. Overall, in the U.S., endometrial cancer (EC; cancer of the endometrial lining of the uterus) is the most common cancer of the female reproductive organs, and its incidence is increasing. There has been close association of endometrial cancer with obesity, diabetes, and hypertension. Further, as prevalence of the metabolic syndrome increases, so may EC become more common as well. […] Major risk factors for EC are obesity, diabetes, and hypertension. Heredity contributes to EC in as many as 10% of cases, with approximately half of these cases occurring in families with hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (Lynch syndrome).

• #44 Uterine Cancer (Endometrial Cancer): Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/16409-uterine-cancer

  Endometrial cancer develops in the endometrium, the inner lining of your uterus. Its one of the most common gynecologic cancers cancers affecting your reproductive system. […] Researchers arent sure of the exact cause of uterine cancer. Something happens to create changes in cells in your uterus. The mutated cells grow and multiply out of control, which can form a mass called a tumor. […] There are several risk factors for endometrial cancer. Many of them relate to the balance between estrogen and progesterone. These risk factors include having obesity, a condition called polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) or taking unopposed estrogen (taking estrogen without taking progesterone, too). The genetic disorder Lynch syndrome is another risk factor unrelated to hormones. […] Risk factors include: Age: As you get older, your likelihood of developing uterine cancer increases. Most uterine cancers occur after age 50.

• #45

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/womb-cancer/causes/

  Womb cancer is most common in women who’ve been through menopause. […] Having a high level of a hormone called oestrogen is one of the main things that can increase your chance of getting womb cancer. […] You might also be more likely to get womb cancer if you have: diabetes, a family history of bowel, ovarian or womb cancer, inherited a rare gene that causes Lynch syndrome, taken medicines like tamoxifen (used to treat breast cancer), had radiotherapy on your pelvis.

• #46 What Causes Uterine Cancer? Risk Factors to Know

  https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/uterine-cancer/risk-factors

  Hyperplasia is not cancer, but the condition may increase the risk of developing cancer, depending on the type of hyperplasia, whether the cells in the endometrium have become abnormal, and other factors. […] High estrogen levels coupled with low progesterone levels make women with PCOS more vulnerable to developing endometrial cancer. […] Breast, ovarian and endometrial cancer share many of the same risk factors, especially those related to diet, hormones and reproduction. […] This causes a decrease in the production of important hormones and has been linked to endometrial cancer. […] Endometrial cancer is more common among white women compared with other races and ethnicities. […] Endometrial cancer is more common among women with type 2 diabetesabout two times more common than the average population, according to the ACS.

• #47 Endometrial Cancer Risk Factors | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/endometrial-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  These conditions are linked to an increased risk of endometrial cancer. […] A high-fat diet can increase the risk of many cancers, including endometrial cancer. […] If the hyperplasia is called atypical, it has a higher chance of becoming a cancer. […] The risk of endometrial cancer increases with age and most commonly occurs after menopause. […] Lynch syndrome or hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer (HNPCC) and Cowden syndrome are genetic conditions that increase the risk of endometrial cancer. […] Some families have a higher rate of only endometrial cancer. […] Some studies have found that using chemical hair straighteners (relaxers) often and for many years might increase the risk of endometrial cancer. […] Previous radiation therapy for another cancer in the pelvic area increases the risk of endometrial cancer.

• #48 Cancer of the uterus | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/cancer-of-the-uterus

  Cancer of the uterus occurs when cells in any part of the uterus become abnormal, grow out of control and form a lump called a tumour. […] The exact cause of cancer of the uterus is unknown, but factors that can increase the risk include: […] Uterine cancer is most common in women over 50 years old and in women who have stopped having periods (postmenopausal). […] Carrying extra body weight (overweight or obese) is a major risk factor. […] Medical factors including having diabetes, having previous pelvic radiation therapy for cancer and having endometrial hyperplasia. […] Family history having one or more close blood relatives diagnosed with uterine or ovarian cancer, or inheriting a genetic condition such as Lynch syndrome or Cowden syndrome. […] Reproductive history not having children.

• #49 Cancer of the Uterus – Women’s Health Issues – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/women-s-health-issues/cancers-of-the-female-reproductive-system/cancer-of-the-uterus

  Endometrial cancer is more common in high-resource countries where obesity rates are high. […] Risk factors for endometrial cancer are conditions that result in a high level of estrogen and a low level of progesterone, age over 45, obesity, use of tamoxifen for 2 years or longer, a hereditary syndrome called Lynch syndrome, and radiation therapy of the pelvis. […] Conditions that result in a high level of estrogen and a low level of progesterone include obesity, polycystic ovary syndrome or other menstrual problems related to release of the egg, early start of menstrual periods, late menopause, never being pregnant, estrogen therapy without a progestin, and estrogen-producing tumors. […] Estrogen promotes the growth of tissue and rapid cell division in the lining of the uterus. […] In approximately 5% of women with endometrial cancer, heredity plays a role. About half of endometrial cancers that involve heredity occur in women who have a hereditary syndrome called Lynch syndrome.

• #50 Uterine (Endometrial) Cancer Risk Factors & Prevention | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/uterine-endometrial/risk-factors

  Before menopause, a womans ovaries normally produce two main types of hormones: estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen encourages the growth of endometrial cells in the uterus, whereas progesterone inhibits it. When a woman has high circulating levels of estrogen and low levels of progesterone over long periods of time, the risk for uterine (endometrial) cancer rises. […] The cells in fatty tissue also make estrogen, which helps explain why obesity (50 pounds or more overweight) is the biggest risk factor for developing this cancer. […] The risk for developing uterine cancer also rises if you: are between the ages of 50 and 60, began menstruating before age 12, entered menopause relatively late, after age 52, never gave birth, have a history of infertility (an inability to become pregnant), have an ovarian disease, such as polycystic ovarian syndrome, that could cause you to have higher than normal levels of the hormone estrogen and lower than normal levels of the hormone progesterone, have elevated blood sugar (diabetes), have high blood pressure (hypertension), have a family history of endometrial carcinoma, have taken the drug tamoxifen after menopause; the increased risk depends in part on the dose taken and the length of time its used. Women who take tamoxifen should discuss the risks and benefits of this drug with their doctors, have been diagnosed with endometrial hyperplasia, take certain types of hormone replacement therapy (HRT). […] Women who inherit mutations in the PTEN gene (Cowdens syndrome) may also be at an increased risk of developing endometrial cancer.

• #51 Risks And Causes Of Womb Cancer | Cancer Research UK

  https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/womb-cancer/risks-causes

  A family history of womb cancer is associated with an increased risk of endometrial cancer. […] If you have a family history of Lynch syndrome, you may also be at increased risk of womb cancer. […] Studies show having children lowers womb cancer risk. […] The combined pill, the most common type of birth control pill, is linked with a reduced risk of womb cancer. […] Physical activity is thought to probably be protective against womb cancer. […] Some studies show coffee as probably protective against womb cancer, but we need more research to understand this.

• #52 Cancer of the Uterus

  https://www.health.ny.gov/statistics/cancer/registry/abouts/uterus.htm

  At this time, the causes of uterine cancer are not well understood. However, scientists agree that certain factors increase a person’s risk of developing endometrial cancer. These risk factors include: […] Women whose close relatives (mother, sister, daughter) have had uterine cancer are at higher risk for developing the disease. Also, women with a family history of hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (also known as Lynch syndrome) are at increased risk of uterine cancer. […] Women who are obese are at greater risk for uterine cancer. […] Women who have had radiation therapy to the pelvis for other cancers are at increased risk for uterine cancer. […] Women with PCOS are at increased risk of endometrial cancer. […] Long-term use of estrogen only (without progesterone) hormone replacement therapy for menopause increases the risk of developing uterine cancer.

• #53

  https://cancerconsult.care/en/articles/conditions/endometrial-cancer/causes-and-risk-factors-endometrium

  It also includes women who have undergone estrogen-based hormone replacement therapy. Tamoxifen, which is a hormonal treatment for breast cancer, increases the risk of uterine cancer when taken for two years or more. Polycystic ovary syndrome is also a risk factor for endometrial cancer. […] Among other factors, heredity may play a role. These hereditary forms are caused by genetic mutations that are passed down from generation to generation and are involved in the development of cancer. Due to these mutations, some women may have a genetic predisposition to develop cancer. […] A genetic predisposition to endometrial cancer is primarily observed in patients with Lynch syndrome. […] Additionally, there is a familial predisposition to developing endometrial cancer in some women. This familial predisposition may be due to genetic factors, a family lifestyle, chance, or a combination of these factors. The risk of developing endometrial cancer during one’s lifetime is doubled when a first-degree relative (mother, sister, child) has endometrial cancer.

• #54 Endometrial Cancer | Nutrition Guide for Clinicians

  https://nutritionguide.pcrm.org/nutritionguide/view/Nutrition_Guide_for_Clinicians/1342025/all/Endometrial_Cancer

  The risk for uterine cancers appears to be associated with greater intakes of foods found in Western diets (animal products, refined carbohydrates). […] The associations between meat and endometrial cancer have not been consistent; overall, case-control studies have identified increased risk of endometrial cancer associated with red meat in particular. […] A higher fat intake, particularly saturated fat, was associated with elevations of endometrial cancer risk by approximately 60-80%. […] Dairy products may contribute to these effects, as shown in the Nurses Health study, which found a 40% greater risk for endometrial cancer in postmenopausal nonusers of hormone replacement therapy who consumed 3 or more dairy servings per day. […] Although the NIH-AARP study found no significant relationship between fruit and vegetable intakes and endometrial cancer, previous studies suggested that these foods may be associated with reductions in risk by as much as 50-60%.

• #55 Endometrial Cancer | Nutrition Guide for Clinicians

  https://nutritionguide.pcrm.org/nutritionguide/view/Nutrition_Guide_for_Clinicians/1342025/all/Endometrial_Cancer

  A 2015 meta-analysis showed that a high soy intake is associated with a nearly 20% lower endometrial cancer risk. […] The Iowa Womens Health Study found a 78% greater risk for endometrial cancer in women who consumed the most sugar-sweetened beverages, compared with those who consumed the lowest amount. […] Women who consume the most coffee were found to have a 20% lower risk for endometrial cancer when compared with those who consumed the lowest amount. […] There appears to be a J-shaped relationship between ethanol consumption and risk for endometrial cancer. […] Limiting high-energy-dense foods and high salt (or foods high in sodium), exercising regularly, and maintaining a healthy weight may reduce cancer risk.

• #56 Endometrial Carcinoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/254083-overview

  In contrast to tamoxifen, increasing data indicate that the use of combination oral contraceptives (OCs) decreases the risk of developing endometrial cancer. […] Smoking apparently decreases the risk of developing endometrial cancer. […] Some associated medical conditions have been found to increase the incidence of endometrial cancer. […] Data suggest that women who have had breast cancer have a 2- to 3-fold increased risk of subsequently developing endometrial cancer. […] Women who have hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC) appear to have a markedly increased risk for developing endometrial cancer. […] Individuals with a family history of endometrial cancer appear to be at increased risk. […] At one time, a classic phenotypic characteristic was thought to exist for a woman who would develop endometrial cancer. This phenotype included patients who were obese, nulliparous, and anovulatory in many instances.

• #57 Endometrial Cancer – Uterine Cancer

  https://www.webmd.com/cancer/understanding-endometrial-cancer-basics

  Endometrial cancer usually happens after menopause. More than 95% of endometrial cancer affects those over 40. You have a higher risk for endometrial cancer if you: […] „Black women are at higher risk of developing endometrial cancer and also dying of endometrial cancer compared to other races, said Jeffrey How, MD, MPH, assistant professor in the department of gynecologic oncology and reproductive medicine at the MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston. This is true even when you consider things like income, health care access, and education, but its not clear why.” […] If youre taking the drug tamoxifen to treat or prevent breast cancer, you have a slightly higher risk of endometrial cancer. But if youve taken birth control pills, youre only half as likely to have endometrial cancer after menopause. […] Estrogen-only hormone replacement therapy increases your risk. So if you havent had a hysterectomy, you shouldnt be taking estrogen-only hormone replacement therapy. […] High-fat diets, especially those containing red meat, can increase the risk of cancer, including endometrial and colon cancer.

• #58

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10552-023-01716-9

  There are racial and ethnic differences in endometrial cancer incidence and mortality rates; compared with Non-Hispanic White women, Black women have a similar incidence rate for endometrial cancer, but their mortality is higher. […] Women with early menarche, late menopause, anovulation, unopposed estrogen use and obesity are at increased risk to develop endometrial cancer. The obesity epidemic has been suggested as a possible driver of the rising incidence of endometrial cancer in the United States. […] Although Black women have similar age-adjusted incidence rates of endometrial cancer as their Non-Hispanic White counterparts, they have an 80% increased risk for mortality regardless of stage or histology. […] There is ongoing research into the causes of this disparity including inquiries into age at time of presentation, sociodemographic characteristics, variability in somatic mutational pattern and standard of care delivery.

• #59

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10552-023-01716-9

  Access to care has been postulated as a possible reason for worse survival in Black patients which prompted our inquiry into the ACTUR, a repository for data collected from patients treated in the Military Health System where access to care is universal. […] This study reaffirmed these trends in endometrial cancer including higher rates of non-EEC and high-grade histology in Black women. […] In summary, we observed more aggressive tumor features (non-endometrioid and high-grade histology) in Black patients and a higher proportion of Pacific Islander patients received adjuvant therapy. It has been hypothesized that differences in access to care may contribute in part to the observed racial and ethnic disparities in endometrial cancer mortality. Thus our goal was to determine whether there were differences in mortality risk across racial and ethnic groups in an equal access to care environment. Compared with White endometrial cancer patients, Black patients had a 1.4-fold higher risk of all cause death; these differences in mortality risk persisted in our US Military system study population where patients have equal access to healthcare. This supports the hypothesis that factors other than access to care may contribute to the observed racial and ethnic disparities in endometrial cancer mortality.

• #60 Risk factors for uterine cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/uterine/risks

  Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is caused by changes to normal hormone cycles and the normal ovulation process. […] Women with diabetes are about 2 times more likely to develop uterine cancer compared to women without the disease. […] Women who have high-dose radiation to the pelvis have a higher risk of developing uterine cancer. […] Women with ovarian tumours that make estrogen have a higher risk for uterine cancer due to the higher estrogen levels. […] Women who dont get much physical activity have a higher risk of developing uterine cancer. […] Women with Lynch syndrome have a greater risk of developing uterine cancer in their lifetime. […] Cowden syndrome is an inherited condition that can cause many non-cancerous growths (called hamartomas) to form in the skin, breast, thyroid, colon, small intestine and mouth. Cowden syndrome is caused by a mutation in the PTEN gene. It increases the risk for uterine cancer.

• #61 Risk Factors for Endometrial Cancer in the World: A Narrative Review of the Recent Literature

  https://www.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/51/7/10.31083/j.ceog5107169/htm

  Objective: Endometrial cancer is the sixth most common cancer in women. Extensive studies have been conducted around the world to determine the risk factors of endometrial cancer. […] According to the literature, demographic factors, reproductive factors, gynecological factors, hormonal factors, lifestyle factors, medical conditions, and drugs can contribute to endometrial cancer. The study findings indicated that higher parity, oral contraceptive use, and regular physical activity may reduce the risk of developing endometrial cancer. Conversely, advanced age, prolonged reproductive period, infertility, polycystic ovary syndrome, postmenopausal hormone therapy, obesity, alcohol consumption, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes are associated with an increased susceptibility to this type of cancer.

• #62 Risk Factors for Endometrial Cancer in the World: A Narrative Review of the Recent Literature

  https://www.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/51/7/10.31083/j.ceog5107169/htm

  The findings of this study showed that reproductive factors such as early menarche, late menopause, nulliparity, and infertility increase the risk of endometrial cancer. Evidence shows that obesity, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes play a role in the occurrence of endometrial cancer. Although the use of menopausal hormone therapy increases the risk of endometrial cancer, the use of combined oral contraceptives is associated with a reduced risk.

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