Migotanie przedsionków typu trzepotanie
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Migotanie przedsionków typu trzepotanie (atrial flutter) to tachyarytmia przedsionkowa charakteryzująca się szybkim, regularnym rytmem przedsionków o częstości 240-400/min, zwykle z blokiem przewodzenia przedsionkowo-komorowego. Mechanizm arytmii opiera się na makroreentry wokół anatomicznych barier, głównie pierścienia zastawki trójdzielnej i cieśni trójdzielno-żylnej (CTI), która stanowi obszar wolnego przewodzenia. Typowe trzepotanie przedsionków (75-80% przypadków) obejmuje prawy przedsionek z aktywacją przeciwną do ruchu wskazówek zegara, natomiast nietypowe formy mogą obejmować różne obwody w prawym lub lewym przedsionku, często związane z bliznami po zabiegach kardiochirurgicznych lub ablacji. Kluczową rolę w patogenezie odgrywają bariery anatomiczne (pierścień zastawki trójdzielnej, ujścia żył głównych, grzbiet Eustachiusza) oraz bariery funkcjonalne, takie jak crista terminalis, które modulują przewodzenie impulsów i umożliwiają powstanie stabilnego obwodu reentry.

Migotanie przedsionków typu trzepotanie: Patogeneza i mechanizm

Migotanie przedsionków typu trzepotanie (atrial flutter) to tachyarytmia przedsionkowa charakteryzująca się szybkim, regularnym rytmem przedsionków o częstości 240-400 uderzeń na minutę, zazwyczaj z pewnym stopniem bloku przewodzenia przedsionkowo-komorowego.12 W przeciwieństwie do migotania przedsionków, trzepotanie przedsionków cechuje się regularną, ciągłą aktywacją elektryczną przedsionków, co daje charakterystyczny obraz w EKG przypominający zęby piły.3 Poznanie mechanizmu trzepotania przedsionków ma kluczowe znaczenie dla skutecznego leczenia tej arytmii, szczególnie w kontekście zabiegów ablacji przezskórnej.4

Mechanizm re-entry jako podstawa trzepotania przedsionków

Głównym mechanizmem powstawania trzepotania przedsionków jest zjawisko makroreentry, czyli krążącego pobudzenia wokół określonej anatomicznej przeszkody.56 Ten mechanizm różni się od mechanizmu migotania przedsionków, które wynika z wielu chaotycznych mikro-obwodów re-entry lub ogniskowych wyładowań.7 W przeciwieństwie do wcześniejszych hipotez o możliwej przyczynie ogniskowej, współczesne badania elektrofizjologiczne jednoznacznie potwierdziły, że trzepotanie przedsionków jest wynikiem pojedynczego, dużego obwodu makroreentry.8

Obwód reentry wymaga kilku kluczowych elementów do powstania i utrzymania arytmii:9

  • Przeszkody anatomicznej lub funkcjonalnej wokół której krąży fala pobudzenia
  • Obszaru wolnego przewodzenia
  • Odpowiedniej długości obwodu, by umożliwić repolaryzację tkanki przed powrotem fali pobudzenia

10

Typowe trzepotanie przedsionków (zależne od cieśni)

Najczęstszą formą trzepotania przedsionków (około 75-80% przypadków) jest tzw. typowe trzepotanie przedsionków, nazywane również zależnym od cieśni trójdzielno-żylnej (CTI-dependent, cavotricuspid isthmus-dependent).1112 W tym typie arytmii obwód reentry formuje się w prawym przedsionku wokół pierścienia zastawki trójdzielnej, z obszarem wolnego przewodzenia zlokalizowanym w cieśni trójdzielno-żylnej (CTI).13

Cieśń trójdzielno-żylna jest kluczowym elementem obwodu i stanowi krytyczny obszar dla podtrzymania trzepotania przedsionków. Anatomicznie jest ograniczona z przodu przez pierścień zastawki trójdzielnej, a z tyłu przez ujście żyły głównej dolnej, grzbiet Eustachiusza i zatokę wieńcową.14 U około 47% pacjentów centralna cieśń ma kształt wklęsły, a u 45% przypomina kieszeń, co może wpływać na charakterystykę przewodzenia w tym obszarze.15

W typowym trzepotaniu przedsionków aktywacja elektryczna przebiega najczęściej w kierunku przeciwnym do ruchu wskazówek zegara (counterclockwise), czyli:16

  • W górę wzdłuż przegrody międzyprzedsionkowej
  • Przez dach prawego przedsionka
  • W dół przez ścianę przednio-boczną
  • Przez cieśń trójdzielno-żylną z powrotem do przegrody międzyprzedsionkowej

17

Rzadziej obserwuje się kierunek zgodny z ruchem wskazówek zegara (clockwise), co daje odmienną sekwencję aktywacji i inny obraz załamków trzepotania w EKG.18

Obwód reentry w typowym trzepotaniu przedsionków obejmuje prawy przedsionek, podczas gdy lewy przedsionek jest aktywowany biernie poprzez połączenia międzyprzedsionkowe, głównie przez zatokę wieńcową.1920 To tłumaczy charakterystyczny obraz EKG z ujemnymi załamkami trzepotania w odprowadzeniach dolnych przy kierunku przeciwnym do ruchu wskazówek zegara i dodatnimi przy kierunku zgodnym.21

Nietypowe trzepotanie przedsionków

Nietypowe (atypowe) trzepotanie przedsionków to forma trzepotania, w której obwód reentry nie przebiega typową drogą przez cieśń trójdzielno-żylną lub znajduje się w lewym przedsionku.2223 Mechanizmy nietypowego trzepotania przedsionków są bardziej zróżnicowane i trudniejsze do scharakteryzowania elektrofizjologicznie.24

Nietypowe trzepotanie przedsionków może pochodzić z:25

  • Prawego przedsionka – jako tzw. „lower loop reentry” (obwód przez dolną część prawego przedsionka z wykorzystaniem szczeliny w crista terminalis), „upper loop reentry” (obwód przez górną część prawego przedsionka), trzepotanie wokół dołu owalnego lub żyły głównej górnej
  • Lewego przedsionka – najczęściej jako trzepotanie okołomitralne, okołopłucne, przegrodowe, dachowe lub ściana tylna
  • Obszarów bliznowatych po wcześniejszych zabiegach kardiochirurgicznych lub ablacji (tzw. trzepotanie ponacinaniowe)

26

Lokalizowane reentry jest częstym mechanizmem nietypowego trzepotania przedsionków, szczególnie w prawym przedsionku (około 70% przypadków) w porównaniu do lewego przedsionka (około 50%).27 Badania wykazały, że w niektórych przypadkach zmienne czasy przewodzenia przez krytyczne cieśnie mogą powodować trzepotanie przedsionków z naprzemiennymi długościami cyklu.28

Rola barier anatomicznych i funkcjonalnych

Dla powstania i utrzymania trzepotania przedsionków kluczowe są bariery anatomiczne i funkcjonalne. Do najważniejszych zaliczamy:2930

Bariery anatomiczne:31

  • Pierścień zastawki trójdzielnej
  • Ujścia żył głównych (górnej i dolnej)
  • Grzbiet Eustachiusza
  • Ujście zatoki wieńcowej
  • W przypadku trzepotania pooperacyjnego – blizny po zabiegach kardiochirurgicznych

32

Bariery funkcjonalne:33

  • Crista terminalis (grzebień graniczny) – działa jako bariera przewodzenia między żyłami głównymi
  • Obszary anizotropowego przewodzenia – gdzie kierunek przewodzenia impulsu jest zależny od orientacji włókien mięśniowych

34

Crista terminalis odgrywa szczególnie istotną rolę jako funkcjonalna bariera przewodzenia. Badania na modelach zwierzęcych wykazały, że blok przewodzenia między żyłą główną górną a dolną, podobny do crista terminalis w ludzkim prawym przedsionku, jest kluczowy dla inicjacji i podtrzymania arytmii.35 Grubość crista terminalis i jej zdolność do blokowania przewodzenia poprzecznego są zwiększone u pacjentów z trzepotaniem przedsionków w porównaniu do pacjentów z migotaniem przedsionków.36

Mechanizm wolnego przewodzenia

Dla powstania i utrzymania obwodu reentry niezbędny jest obszar wolnego przewodzenia. W typowym trzepotaniu przedsionków takim obszarem jest cieśń trójdzielno-żylna.37 Dokładny mechanizm wolnego przewodzenia nie jest w pełni poznany, ale wiąże się najprawdopodobniej z anizotropową orientacją włókien mięśniowych w tym obszarze.38

Włókna mięśniowe w cieśni trójdzielno-żylnej mają nieregularne ułożenie, co powoduje miejscowe spowolnienie przewodzenia z powodu lokalnej anizotropii.39 Końcowe rozgałęzienia crista terminalis wnikają do pierścienia trójdzielnego w obszarze cieśni CTI z nieregularnym ułożeniem włókien, co dodatkowo spowalnia przewodzenie w tym miejscu.40

Badania elektrofizjologiczne wykazały obecność obszarów o niskim napięciu potencjałów elektrycznych i wolnym przewodzeniu w prawym przedsionku, szczególnie w cieśni trójdzielno-żylnej, co jest objawem arytmogennej przebudowy mięśnia sercowego.41 Te zmiany elektrofizjologiczne są elementem substratu arytmogennego niezbędnego dla rozwoju trzepotania przedsionków.

Inicjacja trzepotania przedsionków

Trzepotanie przedsionków jest zwykle inicjowane przez przedwczesne pobudzenie przedsionkowe, które napotyka obszar tkanki o różnych okresach refrakcji.42 Interesujące jest, że przed inicjacją typowego trzepotania przedsionków niemal zawsze występuje przejściowy rytm migotania przedsionków o zmiennym czasie trwania.43

Ten przejściowy okres migotania przedsionków przyczynia się do powstania funkcjonalnego bloku w obszarze między żyłami głównymi, co jest niezbędne dla ukształtowania obwodu reentry typowego trzepotania przedsionków.44 Po uformowaniu stabilnego obwodu reentry, trzepotanie przedsionków może być samonapędzającym się procesem, dopóki nie zostanie przerwane przez farmakoterapię, kardiowersję lub spontaniczne ustanie.

W przypadku wcześniejszej interwencji chirurgicznej lub ablacji, obecność blizny może stać się arytmogenna i stanowić centralny punkt obwodu reentry. Arytmia zwykle pojawia się po kilku latach od zabiegu, prawdopodobnie na skutek przebudowy mięśnia sercowego.4546 U pacjentów bez interwencji kardiologicznych, obwód trzepotania przedsionków może tworzyć się w obszarach o niskim napięciu, takich jak boczna ściana prawego przedsionka.47

Relacja z migotaniem przedsionków

Trzepotanie przedsionków i migotanie przedsionków są ściśle powiązane patofizjologicznie i klinicznie.48 Obie arytmie często współistnieją u tych samych pacjentów i dzielą podobne czynniki ryzyka, w tym nadciśnienie tętnicze, chorobę wieńcową, wady zastawkowe, przewlekłą obturacyjną chorobę płuc i nadmierne spożycie alkoholu.4950

Wiele obserwacji klinicznych wskazuje na bliski związek między tymi arytmiami:51

  • Epizody trzepotania przedsionków często przeplatają się z epizodami migotania przedsionków
  • U około 50% pacjentów z początkowo izolowanym trzepotaniem przedsionków rozwija się migotanie przedsionków w długoterminowej obserwacji
  • Podobna proporcja pacjentów rozwija migotanie przedsionków po skutecznej ablacji cieśni trójdzielno-żylnej z powodu typowego trzepotania przedsionków
  • Trzepotanie przedsionków może pojawić się u pacjentów leczonych lekami przeciwarytmicznymi z powodu migotania przedsionków, prawdopodobnie na skutek zwiększenia anizotropii przewodzenia przez te leki

5253

Badania elektrofizjologiczne wykazały opóźnienia przewodzenia podobne do tych wykrywanych w migotaniu przedsionków, co potwierdza obecność wspólnego substratu elektrofizjologicznego.54 Progresja do migotania przedsionków po skutecznej ablacji cieśni trójdzielno-żylnej w trzepotaniu przedsionków podkreśla obecność arytmogennego substratu przedsionkowego, który może ewoluować w wielu przypadkach, nawet przy braku nawrotu trzepotania.55

Konsekwencje hemodynamiczne

Wpływ trzepotania przedsionków na hemodynamikę zależy od częstości rytmu komór, która jest miarą aktywności komorowej, a nie przedsionkowej.56 Impulsy z przedsionków są przewodzone do komór przez węzeł przedsionkowo-komorowy (AV), który dzięki dłuższemu okresowi refrakcji pełni funkcję ochronną, blokując nadmiarowe impulsy przedsionkowe przekraczające około 180 uderzeń na minutę.57

Najczęstszy stosunek przewodzenia AV w trzepotaniu przedsionków to 2:1, co przy częstości przedsionków około 300/min daje częstość komór około 150/min.58 Mogą występować również wyższe stopnie bloku (3:1, 4:1), zwykle z powodu przyjmowanych leków lub współistniejącej choroby serca, co prowadzi do wolniejszej częstości komór.59

Trzepotanie przedsionków z przewodzeniem 1:1 może wystąpić w stanie stymulacji współczulnej lub w obecności dodatkowej drogi przewodzenia. Jest to stan związany z ciężką niestabilnością hemodynamiczną i ryzykiem progresji do migotania komór.60

W trzepotaniu przedsionków, podobnie jak w migotaniu przedsionków, przedsionki nie opróżniają się całkowicie do komór przy każdym skurczu. Z czasem krew w przedsionkach może ulegać zastojowi, sprzyjając formowaniu skrzeplin i zwiększając ryzyko udaru mózgu, choć ryzyko to jest około trzykrotnie niższe niż w migotaniu przedsionków.6162

Gdy trzepotanie przedsionków powoduje zbyt szybką czynność serca, komory nie mają wystarczająco dużo czasu na całkowite napełnienie się krwią. Ponieważ nie napełniają się całkowicie, ilość krwi pompowanej przez serce maleje, co może prowadzić do niewydolności serca.63

Podsumowanie patogenezy i mechanizmu trzepotania przedsionków

Trzepotanie przedsionków to makroreentarna tachyarytmia, w której obwód krążącego pobudzenia elektrycznego formuje się najczęściej wokół pierścienia zastawki trójdzielnej, z obszarem wolnego przewodzenia w cieśni trójdzielno-żylnej. Mechanizm arytmii wymaga obecności barier anatomicznych lub funkcjonalnych oraz obszaru wolnego przewodzenia, który najprawdopodobniej wynika z anizotropowej orientacji włókien mięśniowych.

Typowe trzepotanie przedsionków obejmuje prawy przedsionek z bierną aktywacją lewego przedsionka, podczas gdy nietypowe trzepotanie może obejmować różne obwody w prawym lub lewym przedsionku, często związane z bliznami po zabiegach lub innymi patologiami.

Trzepotanie przedsionków i migotanie przedsionków są ściśle powiązane patofizjologicznie, często współistnieją u tych samych pacjentów i prawdopodobnie wynikają z podobnego arytmogennego substratu przedsionkowego.

Zrozumienie mechanizmu trzepotania przedsionków ma kluczowe znaczenie dla skutecznego leczenia, szczególnie w kontekście zabiegów ablacji przezskórnej, które mogą trwale przerwać obwód reentry i zapobiec nawrotom arytmii.

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  1. 12.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Atrial Flutter: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151210-overview
    Atrial flutter is a cardiac arrhythmia characterized by atrial rates of 240-400 beats/min, usually with some degree of atrioventricular (AV) node conduction block. […] Typical (or classic) atrial flutter involves a single reentrant circuit with circus activation in the right atrium around the tricuspid valve annulus. The electrical wavefront most often propagates in a counterclockwise direction. […] In humans, the most common form of atrial flutter (typical) involves a single reentrant circuit with circus activation in the right atrium around the tricuspid valve annulus (most often in a counterclockwise direction), with an area of slow conduction located between the tricuspid valve annulus and the coronary sinus ostium (subeustachian isthmus). […] Animal models have been used to demonstrate that an anatomic block (surgically created) or a functional block of conduction between the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, similar to the crista terminalis in the human right atrium, is key to initiating and maintaining the arrhythmia.
  • #2 Atrial Flutter — Diagnosis, Management and Treatment | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/48430
    Atrial flutter has been traditionally defined as a supraventricular arrhythmia with an atrial rate of 240-360 beats per minute (bpm). It is due to a macro-reentrant atrial activation around an anatomical barrier. […] Atrial flutter has been traditionally defined as a macro-reentrant arrhythmia around a macroscopic (more than 2 cm in area) anatomical barrier that is confined within the atria. […] The conduction of macro-reentrant circuit is up the inter-atrial septum and around the roof towards the crista terminalis and then down the anterolateral wall (RA free wall anterior to the crista terminalis) to the lateral aspect of the tricuspid annulus. […] Counterclockwise re-entry is the most common type of macro-reentrant atrial tachycardia. […] The mechanism can be due to triggered activity or increased automaticity of atrial cells. These mechanisms are distinct from that of atrial flutter which is macro-reentrant; however, atrial tachycardia can also be re-entrant in mechanism similar to atrial flutter but on a microscopic level (re-entry around barriers of less than 2 cm). […] Atrial flutter can be paroxysmal or persistent. […] Atrial flutter is a common atrial arrhythmia with a characteristic mechanism. Its morbidity and mortality are similar to atrial fibrillation; but unlike atrial fibrillation, it can be cured.
  • #3 Atrial Flutter, Typical and Atypical: A Review | AER Journal
    https://www.aerjournal.com/articles/atrial-flutter-typical-and-atypical-review?language_content_entity=en
    The term flutter was coined to designate the visual and tactile rapid, regular atrial contraction induced by faradic stimulation in animal hearts, in contrast with irregular, vermiform contraction in atrial fibrillation (AF). On the ECG, flutter was a regular continuous undulation between QRS complexes at a cycle length (CL) of 250 ms (240 bpm). Slower tachycardias displaying discrete P waves, separated by isoelectric baselines, were called atrial tachycardia. Early studies suggested that flutter had a re-entrant mechanism but others attributed flutter to focal discharge. Later human studies left the door open for a focal mechanism. This was not a significant consideration when digitalis and very few antiarrhythmic drugs (AADs) were the only therapeutic armamentarium, but determining the mechanism involved in flutter has become crucial for the design and application of catheter and surgical ablation techniques. Modern electrophysiology (EP) has confirmed the re-entrant mechanism of typical flutter, and has opened wide the spectrum of mechanisms of macro-re-entrant tachycardias (MRTs), prompting a new, more open view of clinical ECG-based classification.
  • #4 Treatment of atrial flutter | Heart
    https://heart.bmj.com/content/84/2/227.short
    After atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter is the most important and most common atrial tachyarrhythmia. […] A series of studies has advanced our understanding of the mechanism(s) of atrial flutter. […] Most of the advances in our understanding of atrial flutter have come from our understanding its mechanism.
  • #5 Atrial Flutter – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK540985/
    Atrial flutter is a macro-reentrant tachycardia and, depending on the site of origin, can be a typical or atypical atrial flutter. […] The etiology behind atrial flutter is the presence of a re-entry mechanism for the initiation of the tachycardia. […] Typical atrial flutter is the most common type of atrial flutter and is a macroreentrant atrial tachycardia that uses the CTI as an essential part of the circuit. […] The mechanism of slow conduction is not well understood but might be related to anisotropic fiber orientation. […] The arrhythmia mechanism is a macro-reentry activation of the right atrium from the interatrial septum and along the crista terminalis with passive activation of the left atrium via the coronary sinus muscular connection. […] Atypical atrial flutter or other macroreentrant atrial tachycardia has a circuit configuration different from the typical right atrial flutter circuit.
  • #6 Pathogenesis of atrial flutter – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9727671/
    It is now known that most cases of atrial flutter are due to reentrant excitation in the right atrium. In the usual reentrant circuit, the reentrant excitation wavefront travels up the interatrial septum and down the right atrial free wall. The boundaries of this reentrant circuit include on one side the tricuspid valve ring and on the other side an area of block, which is probably functional, in the region between the venae cavae. The latter area of block forms during the transitional atrial fibrillation rhythm of variable duration that almost always precedes the initiation of atrial flutter. An isthmus of conduction is also present in the reentrant circuit, and is bounded by the tricuspid ring and the inferior vena cava, the Eustachian ridge, and the coronary sinus. It is probable that an abnormal atrial tissue substrate is usually required. Reentrant circuits around a surgical incision in the atria or around the pulmonary veins (in whole or in part) may be also responsible for atrial flutter.
  • #7 Atrial Fibrillation and Atrial Flutter | Thoracic Key
    https://thoracickey.com/atrial-fibrillation-and-atrial-flutter/
    TAKE HOME POINT #1 Atrial fibrillation is a micro-reentrant arrhythmia that usually involves the left atrium and pulmonary veins while typical atrial flutter is a macro-reentrant arrhythmia that involves the cavo-tricuspid isthmus. […] Atrial flutter can be divided into typical or atypical atrial flutter. Typical atrial flutter occurs in the right atrium; it moves in a counterclockwise direction and involves a tract that passes through the cavo-triscuspid isthmus. While it shares some of the etiologic factors with atrial fibrillation, it is frequently idiopathic. In contrast, atypical atrial flutter is either a right atrial flutter that moves in a clockwise direction or a left-sided atrial flutter. Left atrial flutters are most common after a previous left atrial radiofrequency ablation procedure, MAZE procedure, or previous mitral valve surgery. In this situation, the myocardial scars from previous ablations or surgical suture lines create an anatomical substrate around which the flutter can move in a circular fashion.
  • #8 Atrial Flutter, Typical and Atypical: A Review | AER Journal
    https://www.aerjournal.com/articles/atrial-flutter-typical-and-atypical-review?language_content_entity=en
    The term flutter was coined to designate the visual and tactile rapid, regular atrial contraction induced by faradic stimulation in animal hearts, in contrast with irregular, vermiform contraction in atrial fibrillation (AF). On the ECG, flutter was a regular continuous undulation between QRS complexes at a cycle length (CL) of 250 ms (240 bpm). Slower tachycardias displaying discrete P waves, separated by isoelectric baselines, were called atrial tachycardia. Early studies suggested that flutter had a re-entrant mechanism but others attributed flutter to focal discharge. Later human studies left the door open for a focal mechanism. This was not a significant consideration when digitalis and very few antiarrhythmic drugs (AADs) were the only therapeutic armamentarium, but determining the mechanism involved in flutter has become crucial for the design and application of catheter and surgical ablation techniques. Modern electrophysiology (EP) has confirmed the re-entrant mechanism of typical flutter, and has opened wide the spectrum of mechanisms of macro-re-entrant tachycardias (MRTs), prompting a new, more open view of clinical ECG-based classification.
  • #9 Atrial Flutter | Thoracic Key
    https://thoracickey.com/atrial-flutter/
    Atrial Flutter Patrick Tchou Introduction The term atrial flutter has traditionally referred to an atrial tachycardia with monomorphic P waves, sometimes referred to as flutter waves, without an isoelectric baseline, having rates in the range of 240 to 300 beats per minute. […] However, with increasing understanding of the mechanisms of atrial reentrant rhythms, the modern use of the term atrial flutter refers to a regular reentrant tachycardia within the atria having a definable reentrant circuit by our current mapping techniques, also called a macro reentrant atrial tachycardia. The mechanisms of this arrhythmia in the human heart have only relatively recently been elucidated with the development of activation mapping systems capable of displaying the reentrant activation wavefront. Mechanism of Atrial Flutter: The Reentrant Circuit For a reentrant tachycardia to exist, it must have a reentrant pathway within the myocardium that is formed by conducting tissue around a barrier. Two types of barriers are thought to be involved in demarcating the reentrant circuit of atrial flutter, anatomic barriers and functional barriers. Anatomic barriers can be structures such as the atrioventricular valves, the venous openings into the atria, or scars from surgical incisions or other degenerative/inflammatory conditions affecting the myocardium.
  • #10 Atrial Flutter | Thoracic Key
    https://thoracickey.com/atrial-flutter/
    Functional barriers, on the other hand, consist of conducting myocardium, which under the proper circumstances, such as rapid rates or premature beats, will develop conduction block that forms the barrier around which the reentrant wavefront circulates. […] The most common form of atrial flutter is the so-called typical form of atrial flutter. The reentrant circuit involves cranial-caudal conduction over the crista terminalis, continuing across the cavotricuspid isthmus, breaking out onto the interatrial septum and posterior atrial wall, conducting up to the roof of the right atrium anterior to the superior vena cava opening, and then entering the superior end of the crista again. […] Although only one reentrant path is necessary for a tachycardia to exist, often there are two paths forming a figure-of-eight reentry.
  • #11 Atrial Flutter: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151210-overview
    Atrial flutter is a cardiac arrhythmia characterized by atrial rates of 240-400 beats/min, usually with some degree of atrioventricular (AV) node conduction block. […] Typical (or classic) atrial flutter involves a single reentrant circuit with circus activation in the right atrium around the tricuspid valve annulus. The electrical wavefront most often propagates in a counterclockwise direction. […] In humans, the most common form of atrial flutter (typical) involves a single reentrant circuit with circus activation in the right atrium around the tricuspid valve annulus (most often in a counterclockwise direction), with an area of slow conduction located between the tricuspid valve annulus and the coronary sinus ostium (subeustachian isthmus). […] Animal models have been used to demonstrate that an anatomic block (surgically created) or a functional block of conduction between the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, similar to the crista terminalis in the human right atrium, is key to initiating and maintaining the arrhythmia.
  • #12 Atrial Flutter: an Update – Revista Española de Cardiología (English Edition)
    https://www.revespcardiol.org/en-atrial-flutter-an-update-articulo-13092250
    Invasive electrophysiologic studies have changed the clinical outlook for patients with atrial flutter. Recognition of the reentrant circuit responsible for typical atrial flutter has led to the development of catheter ablation techniques that can prevent recurrence in 90% of cases. […] Despite the success of ablation, long-term prognosis is frequently overshadowed by the appearance of atrial fibrillation, which suggests that flutter and fibrillation share a common arrhythmogenic origin that is not modified by cavotricuspid isthmus ablation. […] Typical atrial flutter, which is due to rotational activation around the RA, is the mechanism underlying 75%-80% of atrial MRT. […] The combination of large valvular and venous orifices together with the functional obstacle in the crista terminalis makes the RA an ideal place for reentry and this is probably the means by which typical atrial flutter has such a characteristic electrocardiographic and functional image.
  • #13 Atrial Flutter | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/17963
    Atrial flutter is a macro-reentrant tachycardia and, depending on the site of origin, can be a typical or atypical atrial flutter. […] Typical or cavotricuspid isthmus (CTI) dependent is the most common type of atrial flutter; this rhythm originates in the right atrium at the level of the tricuspid valve annulus. […] The initiation of atrial flutter is due to an ectopic beat that depolarizes 1 segment of the pathway of the circuits that become refractory and starts the tachycardia from a no-refractory segment. […] Typical atrial flutter is the most common type of atrial flutter and is a macroreentrant atrial tachycardia that uses the CTI as an essential part of the circuit. […] The arrhythmia mechanism is a macro-reentry activation of the right atrium from the interatrial septum and along the crista terminalis with passive activation of the left atrium via the coronary sinus muscular connection.
  • #14 Atrial Flutter: Diagnosis and Management strategies | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/59994
    Atrial flutter (AFL) is a regular, macro reentrant arrhythmia traditionally defined as a supraventricular tachycardia with an atrial rate of 240-320 beats per minute (bpm). […] Pathophysiology of atrial flutter and atrial fibrillation (AF) is closely related to the similar risk of stroke and they coexist clinically. Atrial flutter is classified to cavotricuspid isthmus (CTI) dependent (or typical) and non-isthmus dependent (atypical). […] With regard to the mechanism of flutter (reentry), this atrial tachyarrhythmia is very amenable to Radiofrequency Ablation (RFA). […] Atypical flutter, or non-CTI-dependent macroreentrant atrial tachycardia, is attributed to those flutters that do not use the CTI originating in the right (RA) or left atrium (LA). […] The CTI is bounded anteriorly by the tricuspid annulus and posteriorly by the ostium of the IVC and the eustachian ridge.
  • #15 Atrial Flutter: Diagnosis and Management strategies | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/59994
    The central isthmus is concave and pouch-like in 47 and 45% of patients, respectively. […] The risk of AV block is less likely if ablation is done far away from the septum. […] The created lesion can recover conduction so bidirectional block should be verified with the current maneuver as the endpoint of RF ablation and repeated after 20-30 min monitoring. […] Atrial flutter is relatively common atrial arrhythmia with the nearly similar morbidity and mortality to atrial fibrillation. However, its highly amenable to RF ablation.
  • #16 Atrial Flutter: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151210-overview
    Typical atrial flutter is often referred to as isthmus-dependent flutter. The rhythm is due to macroreentry, there is an excitable gap, and the rhythm can be entrained. […] Typical counterclockwise atrial flutter has caudocranial activation (ie, activation counterclockwise around the tricuspid valve annulus when viewed in the left antero-oblique fluoroscopic view) of the atrial septum. […] Typical atrial flutter can also have the opposite activation sequence (ie, clockwise activation around the tricuspid valve annulus). Clockwise atrial flutter is much less common. […] Atypical atrial flutters are less extensively studied and electroanatomically characterized. Atypical atrial flutters may originate from the right atrium, as a result of surgical scars (ie, incisional reentry), or from the left atrium, specifically the pulmonary veins (ie, focal reentry) or mitral annulus.
  • #17 Atrial Flutter, Typical and Atypical: A Review | AER Journal
    https://www.aerjournal.com/articles/atrial-flutter-typical-and-atypical-review?language_content_entity=en
    Typical flutter is the type of MRT most frequently found in the clinical setting. The mechanism is a large re-entrant circuit contained in the right atrium (RA) with passive activation of the left atrium (LA). Activation courses superoinferiorly in the anterior and lateral RA and inferosuperiorly in the septal RA, with a critical inferior turning point between the tricuspid ring and inferior vena cava (IVC) known as the cavotricuspid isthmus (CTI). An area of transverse conduction block in the posterior RA related to anisotropic conduction at the terminal crest and other structures forces activation toward the high RA so that the upper turning point can be at the RA roof or high in the posterior RA, depending of the size of the area of block. In either case, the CTI remains an obligatory passage for activation in the inferior RA.
  • #18 Atrial Flutter: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151210-overview
    Typical atrial flutter is often referred to as isthmus-dependent flutter. The rhythm is due to macroreentry, there is an excitable gap, and the rhythm can be entrained. […] Typical counterclockwise atrial flutter has caudocranial activation (ie, activation counterclockwise around the tricuspid valve annulus when viewed in the left antero-oblique fluoroscopic view) of the atrial septum. […] Typical atrial flutter can also have the opposite activation sequence (ie, clockwise activation around the tricuspid valve annulus). Clockwise atrial flutter is much less common. […] Atypical atrial flutters are less extensively studied and electroanatomically characterized. Atypical atrial flutters may originate from the right atrium, as a result of surgical scars (ie, incisional reentry), or from the left atrium, specifically the pulmonary veins (ie, focal reentry) or mitral annulus.
  • #19 Atrial Flutter – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK540985/
    Atrial flutter is a macro-reentrant tachycardia and, depending on the site of origin, can be a typical or atypical atrial flutter. […] The etiology behind atrial flutter is the presence of a re-entry mechanism for the initiation of the tachycardia. […] Typical atrial flutter is the most common type of atrial flutter and is a macroreentrant atrial tachycardia that uses the CTI as an essential part of the circuit. […] The mechanism of slow conduction is not well understood but might be related to anisotropic fiber orientation. […] The arrhythmia mechanism is a macro-reentry activation of the right atrium from the interatrial septum and along the crista terminalis with passive activation of the left atrium via the coronary sinus muscular connection. […] Atypical atrial flutter or other macroreentrant atrial tachycardia has a circuit configuration different from the typical right atrial flutter circuit.
  • #20 Atrial Flutter • LITFL • ECG Library Diagnosis
    https://litfl.com/atrial-flutter-ecg-library/
    In both forms of typical atrial flutter, the reentrant circuit is formed in the right atrium. The left atrium is passively activated and is not necessary to maintain the tachycardia. […] The anticlockwise nature of the reentry circuit means that interatrial conduction occurs first via the coronary sinus os, and later via BB. The majority of left atrial conduction and activation thus occurs in a retrograde manner, forming negative flutter waves in inferior leads. […] Clockwise reentry circuit forms in the right atrium. Interatrial conduction occurs via the same pathways, with left atrial activation now occurring first via BB. The majority of left atrial activation occurs in an anterograde manner, forming positive flutter waves in inferior leads.
  • #21 Atrial Flutter • LITFL • ECG Library Diagnosis
    https://litfl.com/atrial-flutter-ecg-library/
    In both forms of typical atrial flutter, the reentrant circuit is formed in the right atrium. The left atrium is passively activated and is not necessary to maintain the tachycardia. […] The anticlockwise nature of the reentry circuit means that interatrial conduction occurs first via the coronary sinus os, and later via BB. The majority of left atrial conduction and activation thus occurs in a retrograde manner, forming negative flutter waves in inferior leads. […] Clockwise reentry circuit forms in the right atrium. Interatrial conduction occurs via the same pathways, with left atrial activation now occurring first via BB. The majority of left atrial activation occurs in an anterograde manner, forming positive flutter waves in inferior leads.
  • #22 Atrial Flutter: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151210-overview
    Typical atrial flutter is often referred to as isthmus-dependent flutter. The rhythm is due to macroreentry, there is an excitable gap, and the rhythm can be entrained. […] Typical counterclockwise atrial flutter has caudocranial activation (ie, activation counterclockwise around the tricuspid valve annulus when viewed in the left antero-oblique fluoroscopic view) of the atrial septum. […] Typical atrial flutter can also have the opposite activation sequence (ie, clockwise activation around the tricuspid valve annulus). Clockwise atrial flutter is much less common. […] Atypical atrial flutters are less extensively studied and electroanatomically characterized. Atypical atrial flutters may originate from the right atrium, as a result of surgical scars (ie, incisional reentry), or from the left atrium, specifically the pulmonary veins (ie, focal reentry) or mitral annulus.
  • #23 Atrial Flutter Topic Review
    https://www.healio.com/cardiology/learn-the-heart/cardiology-review/topic-reviews/atrial-flutter
    Typical atrial flutter results from a reentrant circuit around the tricuspid valve and through the cavo-tricuspid isthmus. […] Typical atrial flutter is counterclockwise in direction and originates from a reentrant circuit around the tricuspid valve annulus and through the cavo-tricuspid isthmus. […] Atypical atrial flutter originates from the left atrium or areas in the right atrium (such as surgical scars) and has a variable appearance on ECG in regards to the flutter waves.
  • #24 Atrial Flutter | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/17963
    The reason behind the circuit’s existence might relate to the nature of the anatomical structures circumscribing the circuit. […] Atypical atrial flutter or other macroreentrant atrial tachycardia has a circuit configuration different from the typical right atrial flutter circuit. […] Electrophysiologic studies and intracardiac mapping are the only means to determine the exact mechanism or area generating the atrial flutter. […] When prior surgery or intervention occurs, the presence of a scar can often become arrhythmogenic, and the center of the circuit and the onset of the arrhythmia mostly occur after several years of the procedure, likely secondary to remodeling. […] In patients without cardiac intervention, the atrial flutter circuit can be low voltage areas like the lateral right atrium. […] Electrophysiologic studies and mapping of the right and left atrium are necessary to determine the specific location and mechanism of the arrhythmia to guide the ablation.
  • #25 Atrial flutter: common and main atypical forms
    https://www.escardio.org/Journals/E-Journal-of-Cardiology-Practice/Volume-11/Atrial-flutter-common-and-main-atypical-forms
    Typical atrial flutter is an organised atrial tachycardia. It can also be defined as a macroreentrant tachycardia confined to the right atrium. This arrhythmia has a 200-260 ms cycle length, although it may fluctuate depending on patient’s previous treatment or ablation, congenital heart disease, etc. Ventricular rate response will be limited by the atrioventricular (AV) node conductions, usually presenting a 2:1 or 3:1 response, during atrial flutter. Typical atrial flutter originates in a well-known circuit around the tricuspid annulus limited by anatomical barriers such as both the superior and inferior cava veins, the coronary sinus and crista terminalis. The wave front may rotate around this circuit counterclockwise (most frequently) or clockwise, resulting in the counterclockwise common atrial flutter or the clockwise atrial flutter, respectively. This condition produces continuous electrical activity around the atrial circuit and consequently in the electrocardiogram (f waves). The electrocardiogram shows a saw tooth’s pattern in inferior leads, with a slow downward slope followed by a fast upward slope explained by electrical forces going through the cavotricuspid isthmus and the septum, and then approaching the inferior leads through the lateral wall. Some conditions may make the ECG diagnosis difficult: Scarred atria with low areas of voltage could mimic isoelectric baseline despite atrial continuous electrical activity. Concomitant circuits could also change the typical atrial appearance. Both high and irregular ventricular rate responses may make the diagnosis difficult. Electrophysiological studies (EPs) are indicated: In AFL-I recurrences despite medical treatment (Class I indication) After the first episode of AFL-I (Class IIa indication), especially in those presenting with poor hemodynamic tolerance or tachymiocardiopathy. The ablation procedure’s main target is to achieve bidirectional block through the cavotricuspid isthmus (CTI). However, at 5 year follow-up almost 70% of these patients might develop atrial fibrillation or atypical atrial flutter, which is probably related to the baseline characteristics, structural heart disease and uncontrolled risk factors. The definition of atypical atrial flutter includes a broad spectrum of other macroreentrant tachycardias in which the wave front does not travel around the tricuspid annulus. Atypical right atrial flutter other than reverse typical atrial flutter, includes the following: lower loop reentry, fosa ovalis flutter, superior vena cava flutter and upper loop reentry. Lower loop reentry atrial flutter uses a circuit that includes the CTI, as common atrial flutter, but it shortens the circuit through a gap in the crista terminalis. Upper loop reentry was also described using a circuit through a gap in the crista terminalis and then in the posterior right atrium wall. An infrequent form of right atrial atypical flutter is confined within the superior vena cava and from it the atria are passively activated. A second group could be called incisional flutters which includes those where the circuit uses previous surgery related scars, frequently seen in patients with history of surgical correction of congenital heart diseases. Finally, atypical flutter may originated in the left atrium. In this case, the leading wave front is confined to the left atrium. The most frequent left atrial flutters are perimitral, peripulmonary veins, septal, roof and posterior wall macroreentrys. Eletrophysiological studies are indicated in AFL-II recurrences despite optimised medical treatment. The acute ablation success is inferior to common atrial flutter ablation, probably due to multifactorial issues such as worse clinical baseline characteristics, multiple concomitants atypical atrial flutters, and the instability of the clinical flutter during the procedure. Although atypical atrial flutter is characterised by a wavefront not travelling around the tricuspid annulus, it can take on many forms. Similarly, in typical atrial flutter, cycle arrhythmia, scarred atria, concomitant circuits, high and irregular ventricular rate responses can render diagnosis difficult. Better knowledge of the underlying mechanisms will probably help to increase accurate diagnoses of common atrial flutter as well as the main atypical forms by cardiologists and emergency department physicians.
  • #26 Atrial flutter: common and main atypical forms
    https://www.escardio.org/Journals/E-Journal-of-Cardiology-Practice/Volume-11/Atrial-flutter-common-and-main-atypical-forms
    Typical atrial flutter is an organised atrial tachycardia. It can also be defined as a macroreentrant tachycardia confined to the right atrium. This arrhythmia has a 200-260 ms cycle length, although it may fluctuate depending on patient’s previous treatment or ablation, congenital heart disease, etc. Ventricular rate response will be limited by the atrioventricular (AV) node conductions, usually presenting a 2:1 or 3:1 response, during atrial flutter. Typical atrial flutter originates in a well-known circuit around the tricuspid annulus limited by anatomical barriers such as both the superior and inferior cava veins, the coronary sinus and crista terminalis. The wave front may rotate around this circuit counterclockwise (most frequently) or clockwise, resulting in the counterclockwise common atrial flutter or the clockwise atrial flutter, respectively. This condition produces continuous electrical activity around the atrial circuit and consequently in the electrocardiogram (f waves). The electrocardiogram shows a saw tooth’s pattern in inferior leads, with a slow downward slope followed by a fast upward slope explained by electrical forces going through the cavotricuspid isthmus and the septum, and then approaching the inferior leads through the lateral wall. Some conditions may make the ECG diagnosis difficult: Scarred atria with low areas of voltage could mimic isoelectric baseline despite atrial continuous electrical activity. Concomitant circuits could also change the typical atrial appearance. Both high and irregular ventricular rate responses may make the diagnosis difficult. Electrophysiological studies (EPs) are indicated: In AFL-I recurrences despite medical treatment (Class I indication) After the first episode of AFL-I (Class IIa indication), especially in those presenting with poor hemodynamic tolerance or tachymiocardiopathy. The ablation procedure’s main target is to achieve bidirectional block through the cavotricuspid isthmus (CTI). However, at 5 year follow-up almost 70% of these patients might develop atrial fibrillation or atypical atrial flutter, which is probably related to the baseline characteristics, structural heart disease and uncontrolled risk factors. The definition of atypical atrial flutter includes a broad spectrum of other macroreentrant tachycardias in which the wave front does not travel around the tricuspid annulus. Atypical right atrial flutter other than reverse typical atrial flutter, includes the following: lower loop reentry, fosa ovalis flutter, superior vena cava flutter and upper loop reentry. Lower loop reentry atrial flutter uses a circuit that includes the CTI, as common atrial flutter, but it shortens the circuit through a gap in the crista terminalis. Upper loop reentry was also described using a circuit through a gap in the crista terminalis and then in the posterior right atrium wall. An infrequent form of right atrial atypical flutter is confined within the superior vena cava and from it the atria are passively activated. A second group could be called incisional flutters which includes those where the circuit uses previous surgery related scars, frequently seen in patients with history of surgical correction of congenital heart diseases. Finally, atypical flutter may originated in the left atrium. In this case, the leading wave front is confined to the left atrium. The most frequent left atrial flutters are perimitral, peripulmonary veins, septal, roof and posterior wall macroreentrys. Eletrophysiological studies are indicated in AFL-II recurrences despite optimised medical treatment. The acute ablation success is inferior to common atrial flutter ablation, probably due to multifactorial issues such as worse clinical baseline characteristics, multiple concomitants atypical atrial flutters, and the instability of the clinical flutter during the procedure. Although atypical atrial flutter is characterised by a wavefront not travelling around the tricuspid annulus, it can take on many forms. Similarly, in typical atrial flutter, cycle arrhythmia, scarred atria, concomitant circuits, high and irregular ventricular rate responses can render diagnosis difficult. Better knowledge of the underlying mechanisms will probably help to increase accurate diagnoses of common atrial flutter as well as the main atypical forms by cardiologists and emergency department physicians.
  • #27 Localized Re-Entry Is a Frequent Mechanism of De Novo Atypical Flutter.
    https://vivo.weill.cornell.edu/display/pubid38069971
    BACKGROUND: Limited data exist about the origins and mechanisms of atypical atrial flutter that occurs in the absence of prior ablation or surgery. […] The mechanisms of 85 atypical flutters were identified in 62 patients and localized to the left atrium (LA) in 58 and right atrium (RA) in 27. […] In the LA, mechanisms were classified as macro-re-entry in 29 (50%) and localized re-entry in 29 (50%), whereas in the RA, mechanisms were macro-re-entry in 8 (30%) and localized re-entry in 19 (70%) (proportion of localized re-entry in the LA vs. RA, P = 0.08). […] Atypical atrial flutters in patients without prior surgery or complex ablation are often due to localized re-entry (approximately 50% in the LA and a higher frequency in the RA). […] Other atrial tachycardias commonly occur during long-term follow-up following ablation, suggesting progressive atrial myopathy in these patients.
  • #28 Atrial Flutter with Alternating Cycle Lengths: Mechanism and Mapping
    https://www.innovationsincrm.com/cardiac-rhythm-management/2012/april/260-alternating-cycle-lengths-mechanism
    Atrial tachycardias with varying cycle lengths are more commonly associated with focal mechanisms of tachycardia due to automaticity or localized re-entry, although perimitral annular flutter with two cycle lengths has been described. […] In this case the varying cycle lengths of the atrial flutter appeared to be due to alternating conduction times through a single gap located on the roof of the left atrium near the right superior pulmonary vein. […] This is supported by the observation of split potentials on either side of the gap, the presence of constant and progressive fusion with pacing, and the termination of tachycardia within 10 s with a single lesion. […] The varying cycle length was dependent on conduction changes in a small area of atrial tissue and the critical isthmus was identified by locating the site characterized with the earliest change in atrial electrogram cycle length.
  • #29 Pathogenesis of atrial flutter – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9727671/
    It is now known that most cases of atrial flutter are due to reentrant excitation in the right atrium. In the usual reentrant circuit, the reentrant excitation wavefront travels up the interatrial septum and down the right atrial free wall. The boundaries of this reentrant circuit include on one side the tricuspid valve ring and on the other side an area of block, which is probably functional, in the region between the venae cavae. The latter area of block forms during the transitional atrial fibrillation rhythm of variable duration that almost always precedes the initiation of atrial flutter. An isthmus of conduction is also present in the reentrant circuit, and is bounded by the tricuspid ring and the inferior vena cava, the Eustachian ridge, and the coronary sinus. It is probable that an abnormal atrial tissue substrate is usually required. Reentrant circuits around a surgical incision in the atria or around the pulmonary veins (in whole or in part) may be also responsible for atrial flutter.
  • #30 Atrial Flutter: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/757549-overview
    In humans, the most common form of atrial flutter (typical) involves a single reentrant circuit with circus activation in the right atrium around the tricuspid valve annulus (most often in a counterclockwise direction), with an area of slow conduction located between the tricuspid valve annulus and the coronary sinus ostium (subeustachian isthmus). […] Animal models have been used to demonstrate that an anatomic block (surgically created) or a functional block of conduction between the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, similar to the crista terminalis in the human right atrium, is key to initiating and maintaining the arrhythmia. […] The crista terminalis acts as another anatomic conduction barrier, similar to the line of conduction block between the two venae cavae required in the animal model.
  • #31 Atrial Flutter | Thoracic Key
    https://thoracickey.com/atrial-flutter/
    Atrial Flutter Patrick Tchou Introduction The term atrial flutter has traditionally referred to an atrial tachycardia with monomorphic P waves, sometimes referred to as flutter waves, without an isoelectric baseline, having rates in the range of 240 to 300 beats per minute. […] However, with increasing understanding of the mechanisms of atrial reentrant rhythms, the modern use of the term atrial flutter refers to a regular reentrant tachycardia within the atria having a definable reentrant circuit by our current mapping techniques, also called a macro reentrant atrial tachycardia. The mechanisms of this arrhythmia in the human heart have only relatively recently been elucidated with the development of activation mapping systems capable of displaying the reentrant activation wavefront. Mechanism of Atrial Flutter: The Reentrant Circuit For a reentrant tachycardia to exist, it must have a reentrant pathway within the myocardium that is formed by conducting tissue around a barrier. Two types of barriers are thought to be involved in demarcating the reentrant circuit of atrial flutter, anatomic barriers and functional barriers. Anatomic barriers can be structures such as the atrioventricular valves, the venous openings into the atria, or scars from surgical incisions or other degenerative/inflammatory conditions affecting the myocardium.
  • #32 Atrial Flutter: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/757549-overview
    In humans, the most common form of atrial flutter (typical) involves a single reentrant circuit with circus activation in the right atrium around the tricuspid valve annulus (most often in a counterclockwise direction), with an area of slow conduction located between the tricuspid valve annulus and the coronary sinus ostium (subeustachian isthmus). […] Animal models have been used to demonstrate that an anatomic block (surgically created) or a functional block of conduction between the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, similar to the crista terminalis in the human right atrium, is key to initiating and maintaining the arrhythmia. […] The crista terminalis acts as another anatomic conduction barrier, similar to the line of conduction block between the two venae cavae required in the animal model.
  • #33 Atrial Flutter | Thoracic Key
    https://thoracickey.com/atrial-flutter/
    Functional barriers, on the other hand, consist of conducting myocardium, which under the proper circumstances, such as rapid rates or premature beats, will develop conduction block that forms the barrier around which the reentrant wavefront circulates. […] The most common form of atrial flutter is the so-called typical form of atrial flutter. The reentrant circuit involves cranial-caudal conduction over the crista terminalis, continuing across the cavotricuspid isthmus, breaking out onto the interatrial septum and posterior atrial wall, conducting up to the roof of the right atrium anterior to the superior vena cava opening, and then entering the superior end of the crista again. […] Although only one reentrant path is necessary for a tachycardia to exist, often there are two paths forming a figure-of-eight reentry.
  • #34 Atrial Flutter: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/757549-overview
    In humans, the most common form of atrial flutter (typical) involves a single reentrant circuit with circus activation in the right atrium around the tricuspid valve annulus (most often in a counterclockwise direction), with an area of slow conduction located between the tricuspid valve annulus and the coronary sinus ostium (subeustachian isthmus). […] Animal models have been used to demonstrate that an anatomic block (surgically created) or a functional block of conduction between the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, similar to the crista terminalis in the human right atrium, is key to initiating and maintaining the arrhythmia. […] The crista terminalis acts as another anatomic conduction barrier, similar to the line of conduction block between the two venae cavae required in the animal model.
  • #35 Atrial Flutter: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/757549-overview
    In humans, the most common form of atrial flutter (typical) involves a single reentrant circuit with circus activation in the right atrium around the tricuspid valve annulus (most often in a counterclockwise direction), with an area of slow conduction located between the tricuspid valve annulus and the coronary sinus ostium (subeustachian isthmus). […] Animal models have been used to demonstrate that an anatomic block (surgically created) or a functional block of conduction between the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, similar to the crista terminalis in the human right atrium, is key to initiating and maintaining the arrhythmia. […] The crista terminalis acts as another anatomic conduction barrier, similar to the line of conduction block between the two venae cavae required in the animal model.
  • #36 Atrial Flutter, Typical and Atypical: A Review | AER Journal
    https://www.aerjournal.com/articles/atrial-flutter-typical-and-atypical-review?language_content_entity=en
    About 80 % of flutter patients are male, otherwise flutter occurs in clinical contexts very much like those observed in AF (in old age, hypertension, diabetes, chronic obstructive lung disease, excessive alcohol consumption or during endurance sports practice). In many cases flutter episodes alternate with fibrillation episodes. Of those initially presenting with flutter as the only arrhythmia, 50 % develop fibrillation during long-term follow-up. This figure is not far from the proportion of patients developing fibrillation in the long term after CTI ablation for the treatment of typical flutter. […] The thickness of the terminal crest and its capacity to block transverse conduction are increased in cases of flutter compared to AF. EP studies have shown areas of low-voltage electrograms and slow conduction in the RA particularly at the CTI to be a sign of arrhythmogenic myocardial remodelling. LA dilatation and abnormalities in its reservoir function have been described as predictors of the incidence of atrial flutter or fibrillation.
  • #37 Atrial Flutter: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151210-overview
    Atrial flutter is a cardiac arrhythmia characterized by atrial rates of 240-400 beats/min, usually with some degree of atrioventricular (AV) node conduction block. […] Typical (or classic) atrial flutter involves a single reentrant circuit with circus activation in the right atrium around the tricuspid valve annulus. The electrical wavefront most often propagates in a counterclockwise direction. […] In humans, the most common form of atrial flutter (typical) involves a single reentrant circuit with circus activation in the right atrium around the tricuspid valve annulus (most often in a counterclockwise direction), with an area of slow conduction located between the tricuspid valve annulus and the coronary sinus ostium (subeustachian isthmus). […] Animal models have been used to demonstrate that an anatomic block (surgically created) or a functional block of conduction between the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, similar to the crista terminalis in the human right atrium, is key to initiating and maintaining the arrhythmia.
  • #38 Atrial Flutter – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK540985/
    Atrial flutter is a macro-reentrant tachycardia and, depending on the site of origin, can be a typical or atypical atrial flutter. […] The etiology behind atrial flutter is the presence of a re-entry mechanism for the initiation of the tachycardia. […] Typical atrial flutter is the most common type of atrial flutter and is a macroreentrant atrial tachycardia that uses the CTI as an essential part of the circuit. […] The mechanism of slow conduction is not well understood but might be related to anisotropic fiber orientation. […] The arrhythmia mechanism is a macro-reentry activation of the right atrium from the interatrial septum and along the crista terminalis with passive activation of the left atrium via the coronary sinus muscular connection. […] Atypical atrial flutter or other macroreentrant atrial tachycardia has a circuit configuration different from the typical right atrial flutter circuit.
  • #39 Clinical Approach to Atrial Tachycardia and Atrial Flutter From an Understanding of the Mechanisms. Electrophysiology Based on Anatomy – Revista Española de Cardiología (English Edition)
    https://www.revespcardiol.org/en-clinical-approach-atrial-tachycardia-atrial-articulo-S1885585712000138
    The terminal ramifications of the crista terminalis insert into the tricuspid ring in the CTI with an irregular alignment of the fibers, which moderately slows conduction at this level due to local anisotropy. […] In patients who have episodes of AF and atrial fibrillation, the risk of embolism is the same as in patients with atrial fibrillation alone, whereas patient with AF alone have a lower risk. […] The effectiveness and few complications of CTI catheter ablation make it the treatment of choice for typical AF, especially if it is recurrent. […] The induction of FAT can be difficult and sometimes the pressure of the catheter itself can interrupt it, rendering radiofrequency application impossible during tachycardia. […] The long-term prognosis of ablation of MLAT remains uncertain and a high incidence of atrial fibrillation at follow-up in the mid-term has been described.
  • #40 Clinical Approach to Atrial Tachycardia and Atrial Flutter From an Understanding of the Mechanisms. Electrophysiology Based on Anatomy – Revista Española de Cardiología (English Edition)
    https://www.revespcardiol.org/en-clinical-approach-atrial-tachycardia-atrial-articulo-S1885585712000138
    The terminal ramifications of the crista terminalis insert into the tricuspid ring in the CTI with an irregular alignment of the fibers, which moderately slows conduction at this level due to local anisotropy. […] In patients who have episodes of AF and atrial fibrillation, the risk of embolism is the same as in patients with atrial fibrillation alone, whereas patient with AF alone have a lower risk. […] The effectiveness and few complications of CTI catheter ablation make it the treatment of choice for typical AF, especially if it is recurrent. […] The induction of FAT can be difficult and sometimes the pressure of the catheter itself can interrupt it, rendering radiofrequency application impossible during tachycardia. […] The long-term prognosis of ablation of MLAT remains uncertain and a high incidence of atrial fibrillation at follow-up in the mid-term has been described.
  • #41 Atrial Flutter, Typical and Atypical: A Review | AER Journal
    https://www.aerjournal.com/articles/atrial-flutter-typical-and-atypical-review?language_content_entity=en
    About 80 % of flutter patients are male, otherwise flutter occurs in clinical contexts very much like those observed in AF (in old age, hypertension, diabetes, chronic obstructive lung disease, excessive alcohol consumption or during endurance sports practice). In many cases flutter episodes alternate with fibrillation episodes. Of those initially presenting with flutter as the only arrhythmia, 50 % develop fibrillation during long-term follow-up. This figure is not far from the proportion of patients developing fibrillation in the long term after CTI ablation for the treatment of typical flutter. […] The thickness of the terminal crest and its capacity to block transverse conduction are increased in cases of flutter compared to AF. EP studies have shown areas of low-voltage electrograms and slow conduction in the RA particularly at the CTI to be a sign of arrhythmogenic myocardial remodelling. LA dilatation and abnormalities in its reservoir function have been described as predictors of the incidence of atrial flutter or fibrillation.
  • #42 Atrial flutter – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrial_flutter
    Atrial flutter is caused by a re-entrant rhythm. This usually occurs along the cavo-tricuspid isthmus of the right atrium though atrial flutter can originate in the left atrium as well. Typically initiated by a premature electrical impulse arising in the atria, atrial flutter is propagated due to differences in refractory periods of atrial tissue. This creates electrical activity that moves in a localized self-perpetuating loop, which usually lasts about 200 milliseconds for the complete circuit. For each cycle around the loop, an electric impulse results and propagates through the atria. […] The impact and symptoms of atrial flutter depend on the heart rate of the affected person. Heart rate is a measure of ventricular rather than atrial activity. Impulses from the atria are conducted to the ventricles through the atrio-ventricular node (AV node). In a person with atrial flutter, a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) will demonstrate the atrial chambers of the heart contracting at a rate of 280-300 beats per minute whereas the ventricular chambers of the heart typically beat at a rate of 140-150 beats per minute.
  • #43 Pathogenesis of atrial flutter – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9727671/
    It is now known that most cases of atrial flutter are due to reentrant excitation in the right atrium. In the usual reentrant circuit, the reentrant excitation wavefront travels up the interatrial septum and down the right atrial free wall. The boundaries of this reentrant circuit include on one side the tricuspid valve ring and on the other side an area of block, which is probably functional, in the region between the venae cavae. The latter area of block forms during the transitional atrial fibrillation rhythm of variable duration that almost always precedes the initiation of atrial flutter. An isthmus of conduction is also present in the reentrant circuit, and is bounded by the tricuspid ring and the inferior vena cava, the Eustachian ridge, and the coronary sinus. It is probable that an abnormal atrial tissue substrate is usually required. Reentrant circuits around a surgical incision in the atria or around the pulmonary veins (in whole or in part) may be also responsible for atrial flutter.
  • #44 Pathogenesis of atrial flutter – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9727671/
    It is now known that most cases of atrial flutter are due to reentrant excitation in the right atrium. In the usual reentrant circuit, the reentrant excitation wavefront travels up the interatrial septum and down the right atrial free wall. The boundaries of this reentrant circuit include on one side the tricuspid valve ring and on the other side an area of block, which is probably functional, in the region between the venae cavae. The latter area of block forms during the transitional atrial fibrillation rhythm of variable duration that almost always precedes the initiation of atrial flutter. An isthmus of conduction is also present in the reentrant circuit, and is bounded by the tricuspid ring and the inferior vena cava, the Eustachian ridge, and the coronary sinus. It is probable that an abnormal atrial tissue substrate is usually required. Reentrant circuits around a surgical incision in the atria or around the pulmonary veins (in whole or in part) may be also responsible for atrial flutter.
  • #45 Atrial Flutter – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK540985/
    Electrophysiologic studies and intracardiac mapping are the only means to determine the exact mechanism or area generating the atrial flutter. […] When prior surgery or intervention occurs, the presence of a scar can often become arrhythmogenic, and the center of the circuit and the onset of the arrhythmia mostly occur after several years of the procedure, likely secondary to remodeling. […] In patients without cardiac intervention, the atrial flutter circuit can be low voltage areas like the lateral right atrium. […] Electrophysiologic studies and mapping of the right and left atrium are necessary to determine the specific location and mechanism of the arrhythmia to guide the ablation.
  • #46 Atrial Flutter | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/17963
    The reason behind the circuit’s existence might relate to the nature of the anatomical structures circumscribing the circuit. […] Atypical atrial flutter or other macroreentrant atrial tachycardia has a circuit configuration different from the typical right atrial flutter circuit. […] Electrophysiologic studies and intracardiac mapping are the only means to determine the exact mechanism or area generating the atrial flutter. […] When prior surgery or intervention occurs, the presence of a scar can often become arrhythmogenic, and the center of the circuit and the onset of the arrhythmia mostly occur after several years of the procedure, likely secondary to remodeling. […] In patients without cardiac intervention, the atrial flutter circuit can be low voltage areas like the lateral right atrium. […] Electrophysiologic studies and mapping of the right and left atrium are necessary to determine the specific location and mechanism of the arrhythmia to guide the ablation.
  • #47 Atrial Flutter | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/17963
    The reason behind the circuit’s existence might relate to the nature of the anatomical structures circumscribing the circuit. […] Atypical atrial flutter or other macroreentrant atrial tachycardia has a circuit configuration different from the typical right atrial flutter circuit. […] Electrophysiologic studies and intracardiac mapping are the only means to determine the exact mechanism or area generating the atrial flutter. […] When prior surgery or intervention occurs, the presence of a scar can often become arrhythmogenic, and the center of the circuit and the onset of the arrhythmia mostly occur after several years of the procedure, likely secondary to remodeling. […] In patients without cardiac intervention, the atrial flutter circuit can be low voltage areas like the lateral right atrium. […] Electrophysiologic studies and mapping of the right and left atrium are necessary to determine the specific location and mechanism of the arrhythmia to guide the ablation.
  • #48 Atrial Flutter: Diagnosis and Management strategies | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/59994
    Atrial flutter (AFL) is a regular, macro reentrant arrhythmia traditionally defined as a supraventricular tachycardia with an atrial rate of 240-320 beats per minute (bpm). […] Pathophysiology of atrial flutter and atrial fibrillation (AF) is closely related to the similar risk of stroke and they coexist clinically. Atrial flutter is classified to cavotricuspid isthmus (CTI) dependent (or typical) and non-isthmus dependent (atypical). […] With regard to the mechanism of flutter (reentry), this atrial tachyarrhythmia is very amenable to Radiofrequency Ablation (RFA). […] Atypical flutter, or non-CTI-dependent macroreentrant atrial tachycardia, is attributed to those flutters that do not use the CTI originating in the right (RA) or left atrium (LA). […] The CTI is bounded anteriorly by the tricuspid annulus and posteriorly by the ostium of the IVC and the eustachian ridge.
  • #49 Atrial Flutter, Typical and Atypical: A Review | AER Journal
    https://www.aerjournal.com/articles/atrial-flutter-typical-and-atypical-review?language_content_entity=en
    About 80 % of flutter patients are male, otherwise flutter occurs in clinical contexts very much like those observed in AF (in old age, hypertension, diabetes, chronic obstructive lung disease, excessive alcohol consumption or during endurance sports practice). In many cases flutter episodes alternate with fibrillation episodes. Of those initially presenting with flutter as the only arrhythmia, 50 % develop fibrillation during long-term follow-up. This figure is not far from the proportion of patients developing fibrillation in the long term after CTI ablation for the treatment of typical flutter. […] The thickness of the terminal crest and its capacity to block transverse conduction are increased in cases of flutter compared to AF. EP studies have shown areas of low-voltage electrograms and slow conduction in the RA particularly at the CTI to be a sign of arrhythmogenic myocardial remodelling. LA dilatation and abnormalities in its reservoir function have been described as predictors of the incidence of atrial flutter or fibrillation.
  • #50 Atrial Flutter: an Update – Revista Española de Cardiología (English Edition)
    https://www.revespcardiol.org/en-atrial-flutter-an-update-articulo-13092250
    The background and diseases associated with flutter are similar to those of atrial fibrillation, including hypertension, coronary disease, valvulopathy, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, myocardiopathy, and 15%-20% of apparently healthy hearts, but with 80% of individuals male. […] Electrophysiological studies of flutter have demonstrated conduction delays similar to ones detected in fibrillation, which would tend to confirm the presence of a common electrophysiological substratum. […] The clinical presentation of flutter is frequently associated with atrial fibrillation. […] Flutter can appear in patients who initially only presented fibrillation, when being treated with antiarrhythmic agents. […] The role of the crista terminalis is of great interest as a functional line of block because it highlights the importance of the myocardial structure in the conduction of the cardiac impulse.
  • #51 Atrial Flutter: an Update – Revista Española de Cardiología (English Edition)
    https://www.revespcardiol.org/en-atrial-flutter-an-update-articulo-13092250
    The background and diseases associated with flutter are similar to those of atrial fibrillation, including hypertension, coronary disease, valvulopathy, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, myocardiopathy, and 15%-20% of apparently healthy hearts, but with 80% of individuals male. […] Electrophysiological studies of flutter have demonstrated conduction delays similar to ones detected in fibrillation, which would tend to confirm the presence of a common electrophysiological substratum. […] The clinical presentation of flutter is frequently associated with atrial fibrillation. […] Flutter can appear in patients who initially only presented fibrillation, when being treated with antiarrhythmic agents. […] The role of the crista terminalis is of great interest as a functional line of block because it highlights the importance of the myocardial structure in the conduction of the cardiac impulse.
  • #52 Atrial Flutter, Typical and Atypical: A Review | AER Journal
    https://www.aerjournal.com/articles/atrial-flutter-typical-and-atypical-review?language_content_entity=en
    Progression to AF after successful CTI ablation for typical flutter underlines the presence of an atrial arrhythmogenic substrate that can evolve in many cases, even in the absence of flutter recurrence. The diagnosis of flutter should thus be complemented with a clinical profile of AF risk factors that could guide upstream therapy. Recent reports have shown that physical fitness programmes and vigorous treatment of obesity, metabolic syndrome and sleep apnoea can result in a significant reduction in AF recurrence in patients whether or not they undergo AF ablation, and this may be applicable to flutter given the very similar risk factor profiles.
  • #53 Atrial Flutter: an Update – Revista Española de Cardiología (English Edition)
    https://www.revespcardiol.org/en-atrial-flutter-an-update-articulo-13092250
    Anisotropy can be increased by antiarrhythmic agents, which would help explain why the patients treated with such agents for atrial fibrillation can develop flutter. […] The incidence of systemic embolism during flutter is around one-third that of fibrillation. […] The incidence of recurrence of flutter after cardioversion could be lower than in fibrillation which means that, in the event that the arrhythmia is well-tolerated, a conservative strategy can be followed of clinical observation after the first episode has been cardioverted. […] Typical atrial flutter is the most frequent arrhythmia in patients who have undergone surgical atriotomy and CTI ablation, and is indicated in these cases, although typical atrial flutter has not been documented previously.
  • #54 Atrial Flutter: an Update – Revista Española de Cardiología (English Edition)
    https://www.revespcardiol.org/en-atrial-flutter-an-update-articulo-13092250
    The background and diseases associated with flutter are similar to those of atrial fibrillation, including hypertension, coronary disease, valvulopathy, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, myocardiopathy, and 15%-20% of apparently healthy hearts, but with 80% of individuals male. […] Electrophysiological studies of flutter have demonstrated conduction delays similar to ones detected in fibrillation, which would tend to confirm the presence of a common electrophysiological substratum. […] The clinical presentation of flutter is frequently associated with atrial fibrillation. […] Flutter can appear in patients who initially only presented fibrillation, when being treated with antiarrhythmic agents. […] The role of the crista terminalis is of great interest as a functional line of block because it highlights the importance of the myocardial structure in the conduction of the cardiac impulse.
  • #55 Atrial Flutter, Typical and Atypical: A Review | AER Journal
    https://www.aerjournal.com/articles/atrial-flutter-typical-and-atypical-review?language_content_entity=en
    Progression to AF after successful CTI ablation for typical flutter underlines the presence of an atrial arrhythmogenic substrate that can evolve in many cases, even in the absence of flutter recurrence. The diagnosis of flutter should thus be complemented with a clinical profile of AF risk factors that could guide upstream therapy. Recent reports have shown that physical fitness programmes and vigorous treatment of obesity, metabolic syndrome and sleep apnoea can result in a significant reduction in AF recurrence in patients whether or not they undergo AF ablation, and this may be applicable to flutter given the very similar risk factor profiles.
  • #56 Atrial flutter – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrial_flutter
    Atrial flutter is caused by a re-entrant rhythm. This usually occurs along the cavo-tricuspid isthmus of the right atrium though atrial flutter can originate in the left atrium as well. Typically initiated by a premature electrical impulse arising in the atria, atrial flutter is propagated due to differences in refractory periods of atrial tissue. This creates electrical activity that moves in a localized self-perpetuating loop, which usually lasts about 200 milliseconds for the complete circuit. For each cycle around the loop, an electric impulse results and propagates through the atria. […] The impact and symptoms of atrial flutter depend on the heart rate of the affected person. Heart rate is a measure of ventricular rather than atrial activity. Impulses from the atria are conducted to the ventricles through the atrio-ventricular node (AV node). In a person with atrial flutter, a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) will demonstrate the atrial chambers of the heart contracting at a rate of 280-300 beats per minute whereas the ventricular chambers of the heart typically beat at a rate of 140-150 beats per minute.
  • #57 Atrial flutter – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrial_flutter
    Due primarily to its longer refractory period, the AV node exerts a protective effect on heart rate by blocking atrial impulses in excess of about 180 beats/minute, for the example of a resting heart rate. (This block is dependent on the age of the patient and can be calculated roughly by subtracting patient age from 220). If the flutter rate is 300 beats per minute, only half of these impulses will be conducted, giving a ventricular rate of 150 beats per minute, or a 2:1 heart block. The addition of rate-controlling drugs or conduction system disease can increase this block substantially.
  • #58 Atrial Flutter • LITFL • ECG Library Diagnosis
    https://litfl.com/atrial-flutter-ecg-library/
    Atrial flutter is a form of supraventricular tachycardia caused by a re-entry circuit within the right atrium. The length of the re-entry circuit corresponds to the size of the right atrium, resulting in a fairly predictable atrial rate of around 300 bpm (range 200-400) […] The most common AV ratio is 2:1, resulting in a ventricular rate of ~150 bpm. Higher-degree blocks can occur usually due to medications or underlying heart disease resulting in lower rates of ventricular conduction, e.g. 3:1 or 4:1 block. Atrial flutter with 1:1 conduction can occur due to sympathetic stimulation, or in the presence of an accessory pathway. The administration of AV-nodal blocking agents to a patient with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome can precipitate this. Atrial flutter with 1:1 conduction is associated with severe haemodynamic instability and progression to ventricular fibrillation.
  • #59 Atrial Flutter • LITFL • ECG Library Diagnosis
    https://litfl.com/atrial-flutter-ecg-library/
    Atrial flutter is a form of supraventricular tachycardia caused by a re-entry circuit within the right atrium. The length of the re-entry circuit corresponds to the size of the right atrium, resulting in a fairly predictable atrial rate of around 300 bpm (range 200-400) […] The most common AV ratio is 2:1, resulting in a ventricular rate of ~150 bpm. Higher-degree blocks can occur usually due to medications or underlying heart disease resulting in lower rates of ventricular conduction, e.g. 3:1 or 4:1 block. Atrial flutter with 1:1 conduction can occur due to sympathetic stimulation, or in the presence of an accessory pathway. The administration of AV-nodal blocking agents to a patient with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome can precipitate this. Atrial flutter with 1:1 conduction is associated with severe haemodynamic instability and progression to ventricular fibrillation.
  • #60 Atrial Flutter • LITFL • ECG Library Diagnosis
    https://litfl.com/atrial-flutter-ecg-library/
    Atrial flutter is a form of supraventricular tachycardia caused by a re-entry circuit within the right atrium. The length of the re-entry circuit corresponds to the size of the right atrium, resulting in a fairly predictable atrial rate of around 300 bpm (range 200-400) […] The most common AV ratio is 2:1, resulting in a ventricular rate of ~150 bpm. Higher-degree blocks can occur usually due to medications or underlying heart disease resulting in lower rates of ventricular conduction, e.g. 3:1 or 4:1 block. Atrial flutter with 1:1 conduction can occur due to sympathetic stimulation, or in the presence of an accessory pathway. The administration of AV-nodal blocking agents to a patient with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome can precipitate this. Atrial flutter with 1:1 conduction is associated with severe haemodynamic instability and progression to ventricular fibrillation.
  • #61 Atrial Fibrillation and Atrial Flutter – Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/heart-and-blood-vessel-disorders/abnormal-heart-rhythms/atrial-fibrillation-and-atrial-flutter
    Heart valve disorders and high blood pressure cause the atria to enlarge, making atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter more likely. […] In atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter, the atria do not empty completely into the ventricles with each beat. Over time, some blood inside the atria may stagnate, and blood clots may form. […] When atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter causes the heart to beat too rapidly, the ventricles do not have enough time to fill completely with blood. Because they do not fill completely, the amount of blood pumped by the heart decreases. […] For people who have atrial flutter, ablation may be used to interrupt the flutter circuit in the atrium and permanently re-establish normal rhythm. This procedure is successful in about 90% of people.
  • #62 Atrial Flutter: an Update – Revista Española de Cardiología (English Edition)
    https://www.revespcardiol.org/en-atrial-flutter-an-update-articulo-13092250
    Anisotropy can be increased by antiarrhythmic agents, which would help explain why the patients treated with such agents for atrial fibrillation can develop flutter. […] The incidence of systemic embolism during flutter is around one-third that of fibrillation. […] The incidence of recurrence of flutter after cardioversion could be lower than in fibrillation which means that, in the event that the arrhythmia is well-tolerated, a conservative strategy can be followed of clinical observation after the first episode has been cardioverted. […] Typical atrial flutter is the most frequent arrhythmia in patients who have undergone surgical atriotomy and CTI ablation, and is indicated in these cases, although typical atrial flutter has not been documented previously.
  • #63 Atrial Fibrillation and Atrial Flutter – Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/heart-and-blood-vessel-disorders/abnormal-heart-rhythms/atrial-fibrillation-and-atrial-flutter
    Heart valve disorders and high blood pressure cause the atria to enlarge, making atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter more likely. […] In atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter, the atria do not empty completely into the ventricles with each beat. Over time, some blood inside the atria may stagnate, and blood clots may form. […] When atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter causes the heart to beat too rapidly, the ventricles do not have enough time to fill completely with blood. Because they do not fill completely, the amount of blood pumped by the heart decreases. […] For people who have atrial flutter, ablation may be used to interrupt the flutter circuit in the atrium and permanently re-establish normal rhythm. This procedure is successful in about 90% of people.