Materiały źródłowe

• #1 MRSA: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/11633-methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa

  MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is a type of bacteria that many antibiotics dont work on. MRSA most often causes skin infections, but it can also cause serious illnesses that are hard to treat. […] MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is a type of bacteria thats developed defense mechanisms (resistance) to antibiotics. MRSA infections are hard to treat because very few antibiotics are effective against them. […] Strains of Staphylococcus aureus develop antibiotic resistance for many reasons. Sometimes, it happens naturally in the environment. Other times, it happens when the bacteria develop defense mechanisms to block or destroy antibiotic drugs. In hospitals and other healthcare settings, bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics that are used often.

• #2 Centre for Health Protection – Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) Infection

  https://www.chp.gov.hk/en/healthtopics/content/24/10688.html

  Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a bacterium that can be found in the nasal cavity and on the skin of some healthy people. […] However, methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) is a strain of S. aureus that is resistant to antibiotics including methicillin and other commonly used antibiotics such as oxacillin, penicillin, amoxicillin and cephalosporins. […] Improper use of antibiotics is widely recognised as a contributing factor to antibiotic resistance. […] Anyone can carry or get infected with MRSA, the risk increases with crowded environment and activities with frequent skin to skin contact. […] Most MRSA infections occur in people who have been hospitalised, live in residential care homes or have received antibiotic treatment/ invasive procedures in health care settings such as dialysis centres.

• #3 MRSA: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments, and Your Risk

  https://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/understanding-mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a bacteria that causes infections in different parts of the body. It’s tougher to treat than most strains of Staphylococcus aureus (staph) because it’s resistant to some commonly used antibiotics. […] Garden-variety staph bacteria are common and can live in our bodies. Plenty of healthy people carry staph without being infected by it. In fact, one-third of the population has staph bacteria in their noses. […] But staph can be a problem if it manages to get into the body, often through a cut. Staph is one of the most common causes of skin infections in the U.S. Usually, these are minor and don’t need special treatment. Less often, staph can cause serious problems such as infected wounds or pneumonia. […] About 2% of people (2 in 100) are MRSA carriers, even though most of them aren’t infected.

• #4 MRSA infection – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mrsa/symptoms-causes/syc-20375336

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection is caused by a type of staph bacteria that’s become resistant to many of the antibiotics used to treat ordinary staph infections. […] Different varieties of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, commonly called „staph,” exist. Staph bacteria are normally found on the skin or in the nose of about one-third of the population. The bacteria are generally harmless unless they enter the body through a cut or other wound, and even then they usually cause only minor skin problems in healthy people. […] According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, around 5% of the population chronically carries the type of staph bacteria known as MRSA. […] MRSA is the result of decades of often unnecessary antibiotic use. For years, antibiotics have been prescribed for colds, flu and other viral infections that don’t respond to these drugs. Even when antibiotics are used appropriately, they contribute to the rise of drug-resistant bacteria because they don’t destroy every germ they target. Bacteria live on an evolutionary fast track, so germs that survive treatment with one antibiotic soon learn to resist others.

• #5 MRSA. Methicillin (meticillin) resistant Staphylococcus aureus

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus

  MRSA is the term used for bacteria of the Staphylococcus aureus group that are resistant to the usual antibiotics used in the treatment of infections with such organisms. […] Resistance to methicillin is due to the presence of the mec gene, situated on Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec). This alters the site at which methicillin binds to kill the organism. […] Infections caused by MRSA are the same as other staphylococcal infections because the organism itself is not any more virulent (or infectious) than usual type S aureus. […] Problems arise in the treatment of overt infections with MRSA because antibiotic choice is very limited. […] Most MRSA infections occur in wounds (eg surgical wounds), skin (eg intravenous access sites), or in the bloodstream. […] Mortality from these infections is not significantly different from those seen with usual type S aureus infections.

• #6 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482221/

  Methicillin resistance has occurred in S. aureus by mutation of a penicillin-binding protein, a chromosome-encoded protein. This type of resistance is transferred between S. aureus organisms by bacteriophages. This is one of the only medically relevant examples of chromosome-mediated drug resistance by phage transduction. […] MRSA infection is one of the leading causes of hospital-acquired infections and is commonly associated with significant morbidity, mortality, length of stay, and cost burden. […] MRSA infections can be further divided into hospital-associated (HA-MRSA) infections and community-associated (CA-MRSA) infections. They differ not only in respect to their clinical features and molecular biology but also to their antibiotic susceptibility and treatment.

• #7 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): One Health Perspec | IDR

  https://www.dovepress.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-one-health-perspectiv-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a major human pathogen and a historically emergent zoonotic pathogen with public health and veterinary importance. […] The methicillin resistance could be determined by PCR-based detection of the mecA gene as well as resistance to cefoxitin. […] Certain strains of S. aureus are resistant to methicillin, which has been identified as MRSA. […] The mecA gene mainly encodes for the penicillin-binding protein (PBP-2A) which is responsible for this kind of antimicrobial resistance. […] MRSA are virulent zoonotic biovars of S. aureus, which exhibited specific criteria of being cefoxitin and methicillin-resistant. […] The emergence of multidrug-resistant virulent MRSA strains is a remarkable public health problem. […] MRSA is known as the major cause of hospital-acquired infections (HA-MRSA) and community-acquired infections (CA-MRSA); therefore, MRSA is not only known as a nosocomial bacterium.

• #8 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482221/

  Methicillin resistance has occurred in S. aureus by mutation of a penicillin-binding protein, a chromosome-encoded protein. This type of resistance is transferred between S. aureus organisms by bacteriophages. This is one of the only medically relevant examples of chromosome-mediated drug resistance by phage transduction. […] MRSA infection is one of the leading causes of hospital-acquired infections and is commonly associated with significant morbidity, mortality, length of stay, and cost burden. […] MRSA infections can be further divided into hospital-associated (HA-MRSA) infections and community-associated (CA-MRSA) infections. They differ not only in respect to their clinical features and molecular biology but also to their antibiotic susceptibility and treatment.

• #9 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

  The terms HA-MRSA (healthcare-associated or hospital-acquired MRSA), CA-MRSA (community-associated MRSA), and LA-MRSA (livestock-associated MRSA) reflect this. […] Antibiotic use in livestock increases the risk that MRSA will develop among the livestock and other animals that may reside near them; strains MRSA ST398 and CC398 are transmissible to humans. […] Domestic pets are susceptible to MRSA infection by transmission from their owners; conversely, MRSA-infected pets can also transmit MRSA to humans. […] Acquisition of SCCmec in methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) gives rise to a number of genetically different MRSA lineages. […] Community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) strains emerged in late 1990 to 2000, infecting healthy people who had not been in contact with healthcare facilities.

• #10 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482221/

  Methicillin resistance has occurred in S. aureus by mutation of a penicillin-binding protein, a chromosome-encoded protein. This type of resistance is transferred between S. aureus organisms by bacteriophages. This is one of the only medically relevant examples of chromosome-mediated drug resistance by phage transduction. […] MRSA infection is one of the leading causes of hospital-acquired infections and is commonly associated with significant morbidity, mortality, length of stay, and cost burden. […] MRSA infections can be further divided into hospital-associated (HA-MRSA) infections and community-associated (CA-MRSA) infections. They differ not only in respect to their clinical features and molecular biology but also to their antibiotic susceptibility and treatment.

• #11 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Mrsa: Etiology, At-risk Populations and Treatment (Bacteriology Research Developments): Kolendi, Charles L.: 9781607413981: Amazon.com: Books

  https://www.amazon.com/Methicillin-Resistant-Staphylococcus-Aureus-MRSA-Bacteriology/dp/1607413981

  Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) is a bacterium responsible for difficult-to-treat infections in humans. […] MRSA was identified as a nosocomial pathogen in the 1960’s. […] MRSA acquisition has traditionally been linked to health care settings and specific patient populations. Established risk factors for MRSA infection include older age, recent hospitalisation or surgery, past antimicrobial therapy, residence in a long-term care facility, dialysis, indwelling percutaneous devices and catheters.

• #12 Learning about MRSA: A guide for Patients – MN Dept. of Health

  https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/staph/mrsa/book.html

  Staphylococci or staph bacteria commonly live on the skin and in the nose. Usually, staph bacteria dont cause any harm. […] However, if they get inside the body they can cause an infection. […] When common antibiotics dont kill the staph bacteria, it means the bacteria have become resistant to those antibiotics. […] This type of staph is called MRSA (Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus). […] MRSA was first identified in the 1960s and was mainly found in hospitals and nursing homes. […] In the late 1990s, a new type of MRSA was identified. […] This type of MRSA is becoming more common among children and adults who do not have medical conditions. […] You may increase your chances of getting MRSA if: […] You take antibiotics a lot […] You take antibiotics without a prescription

• #13 MRSA | Georgia Department of Public Health

  https://dph.georgia.gov/epidemiology/acute-disease-epidemiology/mrsa

  Antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus has been a growing problem since penicillin was first introduced in the 1940s. […] Since the late 1990s, MRSA has become a widespread cause of disease in the community, associated with the emergence of a new and virulent strain known as USA-300. […] Community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) can affect otherwise healthy individuals with no exposure to settings where antibiotic resistance is expected, like hospitals. […] CA-MRSA frequently causes skin or soft-tissue infections that contain pus. […] Some CA-MRSA infections are severe, including sepsis, pneumonia, osteomyelitis (bone infection) or endocarditis (heart-valve infection). […] This strain is also becoming established in hospitals. […] Following multiple outbreak investigations, CDC has characterized risk factors („the 5 C’s”) associated with CA-MRSA disease, which include Crowding, Close contact, Compromised skin, Contaminated surfaces and shared personal items, lack of Cleanliness, and in some outbreaks, prior antimicrobial use.

• #14 Learning about MRSA: A guide for Patients – MN Dept. of Health

  https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/staph/mrsa/book.html

  Staphylococci or staph bacteria commonly live on the skin and in the nose. Usually, staph bacteria dont cause any harm. […] However, if they get inside the body they can cause an infection. […] When common antibiotics dont kill the staph bacteria, it means the bacteria have become resistant to those antibiotics. […] This type of staph is called MRSA (Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus). […] MRSA was first identified in the 1960s and was mainly found in hospitals and nursing homes. […] In the late 1990s, a new type of MRSA was identified. […] This type of MRSA is becoming more common among children and adults who do not have medical conditions. […] You may increase your chances of getting MRSA if: […] You take antibiotics a lot […] You take antibiotics without a prescription

• #15 MRSA. Methicillin (meticillin) resistant Staphylococcus aureus

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus

  There is growing concern about MRSA infections. They appear to be increasing in frequency and displaying resistance to a wider range of antibiotics. […] Of particular concern are the VISA strains of MRSA (vancomycin intermediate susceptibility S aureus). These are beginning to develop resistance to vancomycin, which is currently the most effective antibiotic against MRSA.

• #16 MRSA. Methicillin (meticillin) resistant Staphylococcus aureus

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus

  There is growing concern about MRSA infections. They appear to be increasing in frequency and displaying resistance to a wider range of antibiotics. […] Of particular concern are the VISA strains of MRSA (vancomycin intermediate susceptibility S aureus). These are beginning to develop resistance to vancomycin, which is currently the most effective antibiotic against MRSA.

• #17 MRSA infection – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mrsa/symptoms-causes/syc-20375336

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection is caused by a type of staph bacteria that’s become resistant to many of the antibiotics used to treat ordinary staph infections. […] Different varieties of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, commonly called „staph,” exist. Staph bacteria are normally found on the skin or in the nose of about one-third of the population. The bacteria are generally harmless unless they enter the body through a cut or other wound, and even then they usually cause only minor skin problems in healthy people. […] According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, around 5% of the population chronically carries the type of staph bacteria known as MRSA. […] MRSA is the result of decades of often unnecessary antibiotic use. For years, antibiotics have been prescribed for colds, flu and other viral infections that don’t respond to these drugs. Even when antibiotics are used appropriately, they contribute to the rise of drug-resistant bacteria because they don’t destroy every germ they target. Bacteria live on an evolutionary fast track, so germs that survive treatment with one antibiotic soon learn to resist others.

• #18 Learning about MRSA: A guide for Patients – MN Dept. of Health

  https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/staph/mrsa/book.html

  You dont follow your doctors directions when taking antibiotics (for example you stop taking your antibiotics before finishing a prescription or you skip doses) […] You frequently get cuts or scrapes on your skin (Your skin serves as a barrier to infection. When the skin gets damaged staph bacteria can enter and increase your risk for infection.) […] There are two ways you can have MRSA. […] You can have an active infection. An active infection means you have symptoms. This is usually a boil, a sore, or an infected cut that is red, swollen, or pus-filled. […] You can be a carrier. If you are a carrier you do not have symptoms that you can see, but you still have MRSA bacteria living in your nose or on your skin. […] Many people with active infections are treated effectively, and no longer have MRSA.

• #19 Information about MRSA Infection – IUP

  https://www.iup.edu/healthservice/hot-topics/mrsa.html

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection is caused by Staphylococcus aureus bacteria often called staph. […] Leading causes of antibiotic resistance include the following: Unnecessary antibiotic use in humans. Like other superbugs, MRSA is the result of decades of excessive and unnecessary antibiotic use. […] Antibiotics in food and water. Prescription drugs aren’t the only source of antibiotics. […] Germ mutation. Even when antibiotics are used appropriately, they contribute to the rise of drug-resistant bacteria because they don’t destroy every germ they target.

• #20 MRSA infection – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mrsa/symptoms-causes/syc-20375336

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection is caused by a type of staph bacteria that’s become resistant to many of the antibiotics used to treat ordinary staph infections. […] Different varieties of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, commonly called „staph,” exist. Staph bacteria are normally found on the skin or in the nose of about one-third of the population. The bacteria are generally harmless unless they enter the body through a cut or other wound, and even then they usually cause only minor skin problems in healthy people. […] According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, around 5% of the population chronically carries the type of staph bacteria known as MRSA. […] MRSA is the result of decades of often unnecessary antibiotic use. For years, antibiotics have been prescribed for colds, flu and other viral infections that don’t respond to these drugs. Even when antibiotics are used appropriately, they contribute to the rise of drug-resistant bacteria because they don’t destroy every germ they target. Bacteria live on an evolutionary fast track, so germs that survive treatment with one antibiotic soon learn to resist others.

• #21 MRSA Infection: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments, Prevention

  https://resources.healthgrades.com/right-care/infections-and-contagious-diseases/mrsa-infection

  MRSA results from many years of incorrect antibiotic use. Antibiotics work by targeting the replication processes of bacteria. Resistance develops when bacteria can adjust these processes to get around the antibiotic. Bacteria can make these changes quickly and learn with each new antibiotic exposure. […] Some people can use antibiotics incorrectly when taking them for viral infections, such as a cold or flu. Antibiotics can only treat bacterial infections. However, even with legitimate bacterial infections, people can still use them incorrectly. For example, they do not finish the entire course of antibiotics their doctor prescribes. […] In each of these cases, bacteria get exposure to the antibiotic and an opportunity to learn how to grow even in the presence of the drug. Some bacteria survive and pass on the information they gain from the exposure as they replicate.

• #22 Learning about MRSA: A guide for Patients – MN Dept. of Health

  https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/staph/mrsa/book.html

  You dont follow your doctors directions when taking antibiotics (for example you stop taking your antibiotics before finishing a prescription or you skip doses) […] You frequently get cuts or scrapes on your skin (Your skin serves as a barrier to infection. When the skin gets damaged staph bacteria can enter and increase your risk for infection.) […] There are two ways you can have MRSA. […] You can have an active infection. An active infection means you have symptoms. This is usually a boil, a sore, or an infected cut that is red, swollen, or pus-filled. […] You can be a carrier. If you are a carrier you do not have symptoms that you can see, but you still have MRSA bacteria living in your nose or on your skin. […] Many people with active infections are treated effectively, and no longer have MRSA.

• #23 Learning about MRSA: A guide for Patients – MN Dept. of Health

  https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/staph/mrsa/book.html

  You dont follow your doctors directions when taking antibiotics (for example you stop taking your antibiotics before finishing a prescription or you skip doses) […] You frequently get cuts or scrapes on your skin (Your skin serves as a barrier to infection. When the skin gets damaged staph bacteria can enter and increase your risk for infection.) […] There are two ways you can have MRSA. […] You can have an active infection. An active infection means you have symptoms. This is usually a boil, a sore, or an infected cut that is red, swollen, or pus-filled. […] You can be a carrier. If you are a carrier you do not have symptoms that you can see, but you still have MRSA bacteria living in your nose or on your skin. […] Many people with active infections are treated effectively, and no longer have MRSA.

• #24 Learning about MRSA: A guide for Patients – MN Dept. of Health

  https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/staph/mrsa/book.html

  Staphylococci or staph bacteria commonly live on the skin and in the nose. Usually, staph bacteria dont cause any harm. […] However, if they get inside the body they can cause an infection. […] When common antibiotics dont kill the staph bacteria, it means the bacteria have become resistant to those antibiotics. […] This type of staph is called MRSA (Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus). […] MRSA was first identified in the 1960s and was mainly found in hospitals and nursing homes. […] In the late 1990s, a new type of MRSA was identified. […] This type of MRSA is becoming more common among children and adults who do not have medical conditions. […] You may increase your chances of getting MRSA if: […] You take antibiotics a lot […] You take antibiotics without a prescription

• #25 Antibiotic-Resistant Infections, MRSA, and C-Diff – National Center for Health Research

  https://www.center4research.org/antibiotic-resistant-infections-mrsa-c-diff-2/

  There is now concern about the risk of infection in schools. […] A study of MRSA infections in nine metropolitan areas of the United States found that about 80% of MRSA infections occur as a result of health care interventions. […] Another cause for concern is the use of antibiotics in livestock.

• #26 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): One Health Perspec | IDR

  https://www.dovepress.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-one-health-perspectiv-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR

  The widespread improper use of antibiotics in the veterinary sector results in the emergence of MRSA among livestock. […] This suggesting that the infected animal is a permanent reservoir of MRSA, which results in human infections. […] The first isolation of MRSA in farm animals all over the world was reported in the 1970, where MRSA strains were firstly isolated from mastitic dairy cows in Belgium. […] The prevalence of MRSA in subclinical bovine mastitis was 35.9%; out of them 35.7% were MRSA strains. […] The high prevalence of MRSA in raw milk of clinically healthy animals is of a great public health concern since the virulent MRSA strains could be transmitted to the human consumers causing serious illness and food poisoning. […] The emergence of multidrug-resistance (MDR) in MRSA is an important threat that is resulting in the failure in treatment and control.

• #27 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a group of gram-positive bacteria that are genetically distinct from other strains of Staphylococcus aureus. MRSA is responsible for several difficult-to-treat infections in humans. It caused more than 100,000 deaths worldwide attributable to antimicrobial resistance in 2019. […] MRSA is any strain of S. aureus that has developed (through natural selection) or acquired (through horizontal gene transfer) a multiple drug resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. […] MRSA infection is common in hospitals, prisons, and nursing homes, where people with open wounds, invasive devices such as catheters, and weakened immune systems are at greater risk of healthcare-associated infection. […] MRSA began as a hospital-acquired infection but has become community-acquired, as well as livestock-acquired.

• #28 MRSA symptoms: What they are, causes, treatment, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/mrsa-symptoms

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a bacterium that does not respond to several antibiotics. […] Staphylococcus aureus bacteria became resistant to methicillin in the 1950s after the introduction of the methicillin (a member of the penicillin family) antibiotic. […] MRSA is a dangerous pathogen because it is very contagious, difficult to treat, and can cause severe infection in some people. It can cause outbreaks leading to large epidemics. […] Each time the bacteria causes an outbreak, it has the potential to produce mutations that promote its survival. This means that the bacteria become more infectious and more difficult to treat. […] Researchers are trying to determine the mechanisms that lead to MRSA mutations that allow the bacteria to thrive.

• #29 MRSA symptoms: What they are, causes, treatment, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/mrsa-symptoms

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a bacterium that does not respond to several antibiotics. […] Staphylococcus aureus bacteria became resistant to methicillin in the 1950s after the introduction of the methicillin (a member of the penicillin family) antibiotic. […] MRSA is a dangerous pathogen because it is very contagious, difficult to treat, and can cause severe infection in some people. It can cause outbreaks leading to large epidemics. […] Each time the bacteria causes an outbreak, it has the potential to produce mutations that promote its survival. This means that the bacteria become more infectious and more difficult to treat. […] Researchers are trying to determine the mechanisms that lead to MRSA mutations that allow the bacteria to thrive.

• #30 MRSA Infection: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Contagious, Pictures & Superbug

  https://www.medicinenet.com/mrsa_infection/article.htm

  A deadly complication of MRSA is a deep infection, necrotizing fasciitis, which causes rapid spread and destruction of human tissues. Some but not all strains of MRSA are more likely to behave like „flesh-eating bacteria.” It is impossible to predict which MRSA infection will be „flesh-eating.” […] In general, there are two major strains of MRSA, „community-acquired or CA-MRSA and „hospital-acquired” or HA-MRSA. CA-MRSA differs from HA-MRSA in that it is often resistant to fewer antibiotics. […] MRSA bacteria often have a variety of „virulence factors” that are responsible for this. Some of these are „leucocidin” proteins that are toxic to immune cells that fight infections or cause more inflammation and tissue damage; Panton-Valentine leucocidin (PVL) protein is a well-known example that is produced by the USA300 strain of CA-MRSA.

• #31 Antibiotic-Resistant Infections, MRSA, and C-Diff – National Center for Health Research

  https://www.center4research.org/antibiotic-resistant-infections-mrsa-c-diff-2/

  There is growing concern about the presence of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA), a type of bacteria that is resistant to most antibiotics. […] The growing number of antibiotic-resistant bacteria poses a very serious threat to public health. […] Although MRSA is resistant to many antibiotics, a handful of drugs can still be used to treat the infection. […] The inappropriate use of antibiotics (such as using them to treat viral infections like colds) contributes to the growing number of antibiotic-resistant bacteria today. […] Hospital- and Healthcare-acquired MRSA occurs as a result of exposure during medical care, usually after surgery or a procedure involving the insertion of foreign material into the body. […] Community-acquired MRSA is caused by contact with people who are infected with MRSA or objects that infected people have been in contact with.

• #32 MRSA

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/mrsa/

  MRSA usually lives harmlessly on the skin and mainly spreads through touch. […] MRSA will only cause an infection if it spreads inside the body. […] MRSA infections can affect anyone, but you may be more at risk if you: have long stays in hospital (especially if you’re being treated for a serious condition) […] have a break or opening in your skin, for example for a drip into a vein, a cut from surgery, a serious burn or wound, or other damage to your skin […] have a weakened immune system (for example, because of a condition such as HIV or treatment such as chemotherapy).

• #33 MRSA

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/mrsa/

  MRSA usually lives harmlessly on the skin and mainly spreads through touch. […] MRSA will only cause an infection if it spreads inside the body. […] MRSA infections can affect anyone, but you may be more at risk if you: have long stays in hospital (especially if you’re being treated for a serious condition) […] have a break or opening in your skin, for example for a drip into a vein, a cut from surgery, a serious burn or wound, or other damage to your skin […] have a weakened immune system (for example, because of a condition such as HIV or treatment such as chemotherapy).

• #34 MRSA: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-infections-1069436

  While there are many strains of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus, or staph, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is particularly notable because it is resistant to many standard antibiotics and may cause serious infections. […] MRSA is a bacterium that, with exposure to antibiotics over time, has mutated to become a strong, super-resistant bug. That said, while many people are colonized with Staphylococcus aureus (about 33% of the population), only about 2% are colonized with MRSA. […] The truth is that anyone can become a carrier of MRSA and then get infected, although your risk increases if you spend a lot of time in places that are crowded and/or entail shared equipment or supplies. […] Besides environmental factors, there are others that increase your risk of getting a MRSA infection. Some of these include: Prior antibiotic use, Having a weak immune system, Sharing needles or razors, History of injection drug use. […] Within a hospital, there are additional risk factors for becoming infected with hospital-acquired MRSA, such as: Having an open wound, catheter, or breathing tube, Being in the hospital for a long period of time, Residence in a long-term care facility, Recent surgery, Receiving dialysis.

• #35 Causes and Symptoms of HA-MRSA – MN Dept. of Health

  https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/staph/mrsa/hamrsa/basics.html

  HA-MRSA is a type of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. […] Hospitalized patients are at increased risk for MRSA infection for several reasons: […] Many hospitalized patients are taking antibiotics that can decrease the normal flora found on the body, giving MRSA strains an advantage. […] Many patients in hospitals have breaks in their skin (surgical wounds, intravenous lines (IVs), and catheters) that can allow bacteria to enter underlying tissues or the bloodstream. […] There is a possibility for longer lasting or more severe infections with CA-MRSA if the initial antibiotic prescribed is not capable of killing the bacteria.

• #36 MRSA

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/mrsa/

  MRSA are more likely to cause an infection for people who are already very sick. […] Healthy people are not usually at risk of MRSA infections. This includes children and pregnant women. […] The following things can put you at higher risk of MRSA infection: major surgery, having a medical device inserted into your body, such as a catheter or IV line, cancer treatment, treatment in an intensive care unit or transplant ward.

• #37 MRSA

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/mrsa/

  MRSA usually lives harmlessly on the skin and mainly spreads through touch. […] MRSA will only cause an infection if it spreads inside the body. […] MRSA infections can affect anyone, but you may be more at risk if you: have long stays in hospital (especially if you’re being treated for a serious condition) […] have a break or opening in your skin, for example for a drip into a vein, a cut from surgery, a serious burn or wound, or other damage to your skin […] have a weakened immune system (for example, because of a condition such as HIV or treatment such as chemotherapy).

• #38 Causes and Symptoms of HA-MRSA – MN Dept. of Health

  https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/staph/mrsa/hamrsa/basics.html

  HA-MRSA is a type of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. […] Hospitalized patients are at increased risk for MRSA infection for several reasons: […] Many hospitalized patients are taking antibiotics that can decrease the normal flora found on the body, giving MRSA strains an advantage. […] Many patients in hospitals have breaks in their skin (surgical wounds, intravenous lines (IVs), and catheters) that can allow bacteria to enter underlying tissues or the bloodstream. […] There is a possibility for longer lasting or more severe infections with CA-MRSA if the initial antibiotic prescribed is not capable of killing the bacteria.

• #39 MRSA: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-infections-1069436

  While there are many strains of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus, or staph, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is particularly notable because it is resistant to many standard antibiotics and may cause serious infections. […] MRSA is a bacterium that, with exposure to antibiotics over time, has mutated to become a strong, super-resistant bug. That said, while many people are colonized with Staphylococcus aureus (about 33% of the population), only about 2% are colonized with MRSA. […] The truth is that anyone can become a carrier of MRSA and then get infected, although your risk increases if you spend a lot of time in places that are crowded and/or entail shared equipment or supplies. […] Besides environmental factors, there are others that increase your risk of getting a MRSA infection. Some of these include: Prior antibiotic use, Having a weak immune system, Sharing needles or razors, History of injection drug use. […] Within a hospital, there are additional risk factors for becoming infected with hospital-acquired MRSA, such as: Having an open wound, catheter, or breathing tube, Being in the hospital for a long period of time, Residence in a long-term care facility, Recent surgery, Receiving dialysis.

• #40 MRSA

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/mrsa/

  MRSA are more likely to cause an infection for people who are already very sick. […] Healthy people are not usually at risk of MRSA infections. This includes children and pregnant women. […] The following things can put you at higher risk of MRSA infection: major surgery, having a medical device inserted into your body, such as a catheter or IV line, cancer treatment, treatment in an intensive care unit or transplant ward.

• #41 MRSA: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment – Southern Iowa Mental Health Center

  https://simhcottumwa.org/mrsa-what-it-is-causes-symptoms-treatment/

  MRSA is a type of staph infection caused by the bacteria called methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. This bacteria has mutated in such a way that it resists treatment by one of the most widely used classes of antibiotics, known as beta-lactam antibiotics, according to StatPearls. […] You can pick up an MRSA infection either in your community or at a health care facility, such as a hospital. Here’s a look at the main causes of MRSA infection in each of these settings. […] At home, work and school, MRSA may be caused by: Skin-to-skin contact with someone who has an MRSA skin infection, Open wounds that touch an object contaminated with MRSA, Sharing personal items of an infected person, like towels and razors. […] While the CDC reports that hospital-acquired MRSA infection rates declined by 17% a year between 2005 and 2013, staph is still one of the leading causes of infections in health care settings. […] Here are some causes of health care-acquired MRSA infections: Bedsores, open wounds or invasive medical devices that come in contact with MRSA, Touching MSRA-contaminated medical equipment, Transfer of MRSA by hospital staff.

• #42 Staphylococcus aureus Infections – Infections – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/bacterial-infections-gram-positive-bacteria/staphylococcus-aureus-infections

  Because antibiotics are widely used in hospitals, hospital staff members commonly carry resistant strains. […] Strains of bacteria that are resistant to almost all beta-lactam antibiotics are called methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). […] MRSA strains are common when infection is acquired in a health care facility (called hospital-acquired infection). […] Some strains of MRSA cause infections that are acquired outside of a health care facility (called community-acquired infection), including mild abscesses and skin infections. The number of these community-acquired infections is increasing. […] Many strains have developed resistance to the effects of antibiotics. […] If carriers take antibiotics, the antibiotics kill the strains that are not resistant, leaving mainly the resistant strains. […] Whether the bacteria are resistant and which antibiotics they resist often depend on where people got the infection: in a hospital or other health care facility or outside of such a facility (in the community).

• #43 MRSA (Staph) Infection: Pictures, Symptoms, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.healthline.com/health/mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an infection of Staphylococcus (staph) bacteria. […] However, when they begin to multiply uncontrollably, a MRSA infection can occur. […] MRSA infections typically occur when there’s a cut or break in your skin. […] MRSA is very contagious and can be spread through direct contact with a person who has the infection. […] CA-MRSA usually causes skin infections. […] This type of MRSA infection may also develop because of poor hygiene, such as infrequent or improper handwashing. […] HA-MRSA is associated with infections that are contracted in medical facilities, such as hospitals or nursing homes. […] You can also get the infection through contact with contaminated linens or poorly sanitized surgical instruments. […] HA-MRSA can cause severe problems, such as blood infections and pneumonia. […] You’re at an increased risk for CA-MRSA if you share exercise equipment, towels, or razors with other people. […] Symptoms and treatments can vary based on the type of MRSA infection a person has.

• #44 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Basics | MRSA | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/mrsa/about/index.html

  MRSA is a type of bacteria that is resistant to several antibiotics. […] MRSA is a type of staph that can be resistant to several antibiotics. […] MRSA spreads in the community through contact with infected people, wounds, or things that have touched infected skin and are carrying the bacteria. […] A healthcare provider must send a clinical specimen to a laboratory to determine if MRSA is the cause of an infection. […] While MRSA can be resistant to several antibiotics, meaning these drugs cannot cure the infections, there are antibiotics available to treat MRSA infections.

• #45 MRSA Action UK | Symptoms

  http://mrsaactionuk.net/symptoms.html

  MRSA will not normally infect a healthy person. Healthy people can carry MRSA harmlessly on the surface of their skin and never become unwell. […] Although it is possible for people outside hospital to become infected, MRSA infections are more common in settings in which healthcare is delivered because people receiving care often have an entry point for the bacteria to get into their body, such as a surgical wound, a catheter or an intravenous tube. […] If a patient colonised with MRSA bacteria touches their wound or catheter tube, they may infect themselves. […] They tend to be older, sicker and weaker than the general population, which makes them more vulnerable to infection. […] MRSA bacteria are usually spread through skin-to-skin contact with someone who has an MRSA infection or who is colonised by the bacteria.

• #46 MRSA (Staph) Infection: Pictures, Symptoms, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.healthline.com/health/mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an infection of Staphylococcus (staph) bacteria. […] However, when they begin to multiply uncontrollably, a MRSA infection can occur. […] MRSA infections typically occur when there’s a cut or break in your skin. […] MRSA is very contagious and can be spread through direct contact with a person who has the infection. […] CA-MRSA usually causes skin infections. […] This type of MRSA infection may also develop because of poor hygiene, such as infrequent or improper handwashing. […] HA-MRSA is associated with infections that are contracted in medical facilities, such as hospitals or nursing homes. […] You can also get the infection through contact with contaminated linens or poorly sanitized surgical instruments. […] HA-MRSA can cause severe problems, such as blood infections and pneumonia. […] You’re at an increased risk for CA-MRSA if you share exercise equipment, towels, or razors with other people. […] Symptoms and treatments can vary based on the type of MRSA infection a person has.

• #47 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: MRSA (S. aureus) | Gouvernement du Québec

  https://www.quebec.ca/en/health/health-issues/a-z/staphylococcus-aureus-infection-mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, known as MRSA (or Mursa), is a staphylococcus that has become resistant to a number of antibiotics, including methicillin. Given that this antibiotic is not effective for treating MRSA infections, this limits the choice of treatment. MRSA causes the same infections as other staphylococci. […] Taking antibiotics, while necessary for treating infections, disrupts all the bacteria in the body, the good as well as the bad. Because this natural barrier has been weakened, it is much easier for a micro-organism such as MRSA to colonize or infect a person. […] MRSA is mainly spread through direct contact with the contaminated hands of a carrier, an infected person, or healthcare personnel, or with contaminated surfaces and objects. […] Healthcare facilities, especially hospitals, are places conducive to staph infections. In fact, the insertion of I.V. and urinary catheters, along with surgeries, are procedures that enable bacteria to enter the bloodstream and wounds.

• #48 Beware: Under the Wrong Conditions, You Can Die from MRSA

  https://www.healthline.com/health/can-you-die-from-mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a type of drug-resistant staph infection. […] MRSA is very contagious. Its transmitted through contact with a person who has the infection or any object or surface that has MRSA on it. […] MRSA only causes an infection when it finds an opening such as a cut and enters your skin or body. […] People who have MRSA but arent sick are said to be colonized. Theyre called carriers, and they can transmit MRSA to others. […] MRSA can infect the inside of your heart. This can quickly damage your heart valves. […] When MRSA gets into your body, it can cause a serious and life-threatening infection in your bloodstream or an organ. […] Invasive MRSA infections can overwhelm your immune system and can be very hard to treat. Many people die. […] The outlook for invasive MRSA infections depends on the severity. […] Invasive infections are much more serious. They almost always require aggressive treatment with IV antibiotics in the hospital. Even then, you can die from a severe infection.

• #49 MRSA: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments, and Your Risk

  https://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/understanding-mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a bacteria that causes infections in different parts of the body. It’s tougher to treat than most strains of Staphylococcus aureus (staph) because it’s resistant to some commonly used antibiotics. […] Garden-variety staph bacteria are common and can live in our bodies. Plenty of healthy people carry staph without being infected by it. In fact, one-third of the population has staph bacteria in their noses. […] But staph can be a problem if it manages to get into the body, often through a cut. Staph is one of the most common causes of skin infections in the U.S. Usually, these are minor and don’t need special treatment. Less often, staph can cause serious problems such as infected wounds or pneumonia. […] About 2% of people (2 in 100) are MRSA carriers, even though most of them aren’t infected.

• #50 MRSA – Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention | Infections Managed

  https://infectionsmanaged.org/mrsa-causes-symptoms-treatment-prevention/

  It is believed around a third of people carry Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in their nasal cavity, with 2% of people carrying MRSA. […] Research by Douek et al., 2016, found that people with HIV are at an increased risk of contracting CA-MRSA. In fact, a meta study including 32 studies between 1990 and 2013 concluded that individuals with HIV may be 6 18 times more vulnerable to MRSA. […] As mentioned earlier, you may be more susceptible to MRSA infection if your immune system is compromised. Staph aureus latches on to varying types of human tissue and has a unique ability to avoid the bodys natural immune response. […] An MRSA infection is often harder to treat than other staph injections due to a reduced number of affective antibiotics. That being said it is still treatable.

• #51 MRSA Action UK | Symptoms

  http://mrsaactionuk.net/symptoms.html

  The bacteria can also spread through contact with towels, sheets, clothes, dressings or other objects that have been used by someone colonised or infected with MRSA. […] MRSA can survive for long periods on objects or surfaces such as door handles, sinks, floors and cleaning equipment. […] Bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics. However, MRSA bacteria are resistant to meticillin (a type of penicillin antibiotic), and usually to some of the other antibiotics that are normally used to treat S. aureus infections. Therefore MRSA infections are more difficult to treat than other bacterial infections.

• #52 MRSA: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment – Southern Iowa Mental Health Center

  https://simhcottumwa.org/mrsa-what-it-is-causes-symptoms-treatment/

  MRSA is a type of staph infection caused by the bacteria called methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. This bacteria has mutated in such a way that it resists treatment by one of the most widely used classes of antibiotics, known as beta-lactam antibiotics, according to StatPearls. […] You can pick up an MRSA infection either in your community or at a health care facility, such as a hospital. Here’s a look at the main causes of MRSA infection in each of these settings. […] At home, work and school, MRSA may be caused by: Skin-to-skin contact with someone who has an MRSA skin infection, Open wounds that touch an object contaminated with MRSA, Sharing personal items of an infected person, like towels and razors. […] While the CDC reports that hospital-acquired MRSA infection rates declined by 17% a year between 2005 and 2013, staph is still one of the leading causes of infections in health care settings. […] Here are some causes of health care-acquired MRSA infections: Bedsores, open wounds or invasive medical devices that come in contact with MRSA, Touching MSRA-contaminated medical equipment, Transfer of MRSA by hospital staff.

• #53 MRSA (Staph) Infection: Pictures, Symptoms, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.healthline.com/health/mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an infection of Staphylococcus (staph) bacteria. […] However, when they begin to multiply uncontrollably, a MRSA infection can occur. […] MRSA infections typically occur when there’s a cut or break in your skin. […] MRSA is very contagious and can be spread through direct contact with a person who has the infection. […] CA-MRSA usually causes skin infections. […] This type of MRSA infection may also develop because of poor hygiene, such as infrequent or improper handwashing. […] HA-MRSA is associated with infections that are contracted in medical facilities, such as hospitals or nursing homes. […] You can also get the infection through contact with contaminated linens or poorly sanitized surgical instruments. […] HA-MRSA can cause severe problems, such as blood infections and pneumonia. […] You’re at an increased risk for CA-MRSA if you share exercise equipment, towels, or razors with other people. […] Symptoms and treatments can vary based on the type of MRSA infection a person has.

• #54 MRSA Action UK | Symptoms

  http://mrsaactionuk.net/symptoms.html

  The bacteria can also spread through contact with towels, sheets, clothes, dressings or other objects that have been used by someone colonised or infected with MRSA. […] MRSA can survive for long periods on objects or surfaces such as door handles, sinks, floors and cleaning equipment. […] Bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics. However, MRSA bacteria are resistant to meticillin (a type of penicillin antibiotic), and usually to some of the other antibiotics that are normally used to treat S. aureus infections. Therefore MRSA infections are more difficult to treat than other bacterial infections.

• #55 MRSA (Staph) Infection: Pictures, Symptoms, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.healthline.com/health/mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an infection of Staphylococcus (staph) bacteria. […] However, when they begin to multiply uncontrollably, a MRSA infection can occur. […] MRSA infections typically occur when there’s a cut or break in your skin. […] MRSA is very contagious and can be spread through direct contact with a person who has the infection. […] CA-MRSA usually causes skin infections. […] This type of MRSA infection may also develop because of poor hygiene, such as infrequent or improper handwashing. […] HA-MRSA is associated with infections that are contracted in medical facilities, such as hospitals or nursing homes. […] You can also get the infection through contact with contaminated linens or poorly sanitized surgical instruments. […] HA-MRSA can cause severe problems, such as blood infections and pneumonia. […] You’re at an increased risk for CA-MRSA if you share exercise equipment, towels, or razors with other people. […] Symptoms and treatments can vary based on the type of MRSA infection a person has.

• #56 MRSA (Staph) Infection: Pictures, Symptoms, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.healthline.com/health/mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an infection of Staphylococcus (staph) bacteria. […] However, when they begin to multiply uncontrollably, a MRSA infection can occur. […] MRSA infections typically occur when there’s a cut or break in your skin. […] MRSA is very contagious and can be spread through direct contact with a person who has the infection. […] CA-MRSA usually causes skin infections. […] This type of MRSA infection may also develop because of poor hygiene, such as infrequent or improper handwashing. […] HA-MRSA is associated with infections that are contracted in medical facilities, such as hospitals or nursing homes. […] You can also get the infection through contact with contaminated linens or poorly sanitized surgical instruments. […] HA-MRSA can cause severe problems, such as blood infections and pneumonia. […] You’re at an increased risk for CA-MRSA if you share exercise equipment, towels, or razors with other people. […] Symptoms and treatments can vary based on the type of MRSA infection a person has.

• #57 MSSA Bacteremia: What Is it, What Causes it, and How Is it Treated?

  https://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/what-is-mssa-bacteremia

  Staph bacteremia occurs when MSSA enters the bloodstream. If you develop a staph infection, it is probably from staph bacteria that you’ve been carrying around for a while. Staph bacteria can also be spread from person to person. […] MSSA will survive on objects like pillowcases and towels long enough to infect the next person who touches them. It can also survive stomach acid, drying, and extreme temperatures.

• #58 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482221/

  Methicillin resistance has occurred in S. aureus by mutation of a penicillin-binding protein, a chromosome-encoded protein. This type of resistance is transferred between S. aureus organisms by bacteriophages. This is one of the only medically relevant examples of chromosome-mediated drug resistance by phage transduction. […] MRSA infection is one of the leading causes of hospital-acquired infections and is commonly associated with significant morbidity, mortality, length of stay, and cost burden. […] MRSA infections can be further divided into hospital-associated (HA-MRSA) infections and community-associated (CA-MRSA) infections. They differ not only in respect to their clinical features and molecular biology but also to their antibiotic susceptibility and treatment.

• #59 MRSA: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/11633-methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa

  Methicillin is a type of antibiotic related to penicillin. But despite MRSAs name (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus), MRSA strains are usually resistant to many types of antibiotics, including: Other penicillin drugs, like amoxicillin and ampicillin. Cephalosporins, like cefepime. Carbapenems, like meropenem and imipenem. […] HA-MRSA is usually resistant to more types of antibiotics than CA-MRSA.

• #60 MRSA Infection: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Contagious, Pictures & Superbug

  https://www.medicinenet.com/mrsa_infection/article.htm

  Most HA-MRSA infections have been due to the USA100 strain. HA-MRSA is more likely to affect people in health care institutions who may have weaker immune systems due to other illnesses. HA-MRSA is less likely to cause problems for healthy people in the community. […] Complications from MRSA can occur in almost all organ systems; the following is a listing of some that can result in permanent organ damage or death: endocarditis, kidney or lung infections (pneumonia), necrotizing fasciitis, osteomyelitis, and sepsis (blood poisoning). Early diagnosis and treatment usually result in better outcomes and reduction or elimination of further complications.

• #61 MRSA. Methicillin (meticillin) resistant Staphylococcus aureus

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus

  MRSA is the term used for bacteria of the Staphylococcus aureus group that are resistant to the usual antibiotics used in the treatment of infections with such organisms. […] Resistance to methicillin is due to the presence of the mec gene, situated on Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec). This alters the site at which methicillin binds to kill the organism. […] Infections caused by MRSA are the same as other staphylococcal infections because the organism itself is not any more virulent (or infectious) than usual type S aureus. […] Problems arise in the treatment of overt infections with MRSA because antibiotic choice is very limited. […] Most MRSA infections occur in wounds (eg surgical wounds), skin (eg intravenous access sites), or in the bloodstream. […] Mortality from these infections is not significantly different from those seen with usual type S aureus infections.

• #62 MRSA Infection: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Contagious, Pictures & Superbug

  https://www.medicinenet.com/mrsa_infection/article.htm

  Most HA-MRSA infections have been due to the USA100 strain. HA-MRSA is more likely to affect people in health care institutions who may have weaker immune systems due to other illnesses. HA-MRSA is less likely to cause problems for healthy people in the community. […] Complications from MRSA can occur in almost all organ systems; the following is a listing of some that can result in permanent organ damage or death: endocarditis, kidney or lung infections (pneumonia), necrotizing fasciitis, osteomyelitis, and sepsis (blood poisoning). Early diagnosis and treatment usually result in better outcomes and reduction or elimination of further complications.

• #63 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Mrsa: Etiology, At-risk Populations and Treatment (Bacteriology Research Developments): Kolendi, Charles L.: 9781607413981: Amazon.com: Books

  https://www.amazon.com/Methicillin-Resistant-Staphylococcus-Aureus-MRSA-Bacteriology/dp/1607413981

  Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) is a bacterium responsible for difficult-to-treat infections in humans. […] MRSA was identified as a nosocomial pathogen in the 1960’s. […] MRSA acquisition has traditionally been linked to health care settings and specific patient populations. Established risk factors for MRSA infection include older age, recent hospitalisation or surgery, past antimicrobial therapy, residence in a long-term care facility, dialysis, indwelling percutaneous devices and catheters.

• #64 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

  The terms HA-MRSA (healthcare-associated or hospital-acquired MRSA), CA-MRSA (community-associated MRSA), and LA-MRSA (livestock-associated MRSA) reflect this. […] Antibiotic use in livestock increases the risk that MRSA will develop among the livestock and other animals that may reside near them; strains MRSA ST398 and CC398 are transmissible to humans. […] Domestic pets are susceptible to MRSA infection by transmission from their owners; conversely, MRSA-infected pets can also transmit MRSA to humans. […] Acquisition of SCCmec in methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) gives rise to a number of genetically different MRSA lineages. […] Community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) strains emerged in late 1990 to 2000, infecting healthy people who had not been in contact with healthcare facilities.

• #65 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

  Researchers suggest that CA-MRSA did not evolve from HA-MRSA. […] This is further proven by molecular typing of CA-MRSA strains and genome comparison between CA-MRSA and HA-MRSA, which indicate that novel MRSA strains integrated SCCmec into MSSA separately on its own. […] By mid-2000, CA-MRSA was introduced into healthcare systems and distinguishing CA-MRSA from HA-MRSA became a difficult process. […] Community-acquired MRSA is more easily treated and more virulent than hospital-acquired MRSA (HA-MRSA). […] The genetic mechanism for the enhanced virulence in CA-MRSA remains an active area of research.

• #66 MRSA (Staph) Infection: Pictures, Symptoms, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.healthline.com/health/mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an infection of Staphylococcus (staph) bacteria. […] However, when they begin to multiply uncontrollably, a MRSA infection can occur. […] MRSA infections typically occur when there’s a cut or break in your skin. […] MRSA is very contagious and can be spread through direct contact with a person who has the infection. […] CA-MRSA usually causes skin infections. […] This type of MRSA infection may also develop because of poor hygiene, such as infrequent or improper handwashing. […] HA-MRSA is associated with infections that are contracted in medical facilities, such as hospitals or nursing homes. […] You can also get the infection through contact with contaminated linens or poorly sanitized surgical instruments. […] HA-MRSA can cause severe problems, such as blood infections and pneumonia. […] You’re at an increased risk for CA-MRSA if you share exercise equipment, towels, or razors with other people. […] Symptoms and treatments can vary based on the type of MRSA infection a person has.

• #67 MRSA Infection: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Contagious, Pictures & Superbug

  https://www.medicinenet.com/mrsa_infection/article.htm

  A deadly complication of MRSA is a deep infection, necrotizing fasciitis, which causes rapid spread and destruction of human tissues. Some but not all strains of MRSA are more likely to behave like „flesh-eating bacteria.” It is impossible to predict which MRSA infection will be „flesh-eating.” […] In general, there are two major strains of MRSA, „community-acquired or CA-MRSA and „hospital-acquired” or HA-MRSA. CA-MRSA differs from HA-MRSA in that it is often resistant to fewer antibiotics. […] MRSA bacteria often have a variety of „virulence factors” that are responsible for this. Some of these are „leucocidin” proteins that are toxic to immune cells that fight infections or cause more inflammation and tissue damage; Panton-Valentine leucocidin (PVL) protein is a well-known example that is produced by the USA300 strain of CA-MRSA.

• #68 MRSA Infection: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Contagious, Pictures & Superbug

  https://www.medicinenet.com/mrsa_infection/article.htm

  A deadly complication of MRSA is a deep infection, necrotizing fasciitis, which causes rapid spread and destruction of human tissues. Some but not all strains of MRSA are more likely to behave like „flesh-eating bacteria.” It is impossible to predict which MRSA infection will be „flesh-eating.” […] In general, there are two major strains of MRSA, „community-acquired or CA-MRSA and „hospital-acquired” or HA-MRSA. CA-MRSA differs from HA-MRSA in that it is often resistant to fewer antibiotics. […] MRSA bacteria often have a variety of „virulence factors” that are responsible for this. Some of these are „leucocidin” proteins that are toxic to immune cells that fight infections or cause more inflammation and tissue damage; Panton-Valentine leucocidin (PVL) protein is a well-known example that is produced by the USA300 strain of CA-MRSA.

• #69 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

  Researchers suggest that CA-MRSA did not evolve from HA-MRSA. […] This is further proven by molecular typing of CA-MRSA strains and genome comparison between CA-MRSA and HA-MRSA, which indicate that novel MRSA strains integrated SCCmec into MSSA separately on its own. […] By mid-2000, CA-MRSA was introduced into healthcare systems and distinguishing CA-MRSA from HA-MRSA became a difficult process. […] Community-acquired MRSA is more easily treated and more virulent than hospital-acquired MRSA (HA-MRSA). […] The genetic mechanism for the enhanced virulence in CA-MRSA remains an active area of research.

• #70 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

  Researchers suggest that CA-MRSA did not evolve from HA-MRSA. […] This is further proven by molecular typing of CA-MRSA strains and genome comparison between CA-MRSA and HA-MRSA, which indicate that novel MRSA strains integrated SCCmec into MSSA separately on its own. […] By mid-2000, CA-MRSA was introduced into healthcare systems and distinguishing CA-MRSA from HA-MRSA became a difficult process. […] Community-acquired MRSA is more easily treated and more virulent than hospital-acquired MRSA (HA-MRSA). […] The genetic mechanism for the enhanced virulence in CA-MRSA remains an active area of research.

• #71 Livestock-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) as Causes of Human Infection and Colonization in Germany | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0055040

  Pigs, cattle and poultry are colonized with MRSA and the zoonotic transmission of such MRSA to humans via direct animal contact, environmental contaminations or meat are a matter of concern. […] Livestock-associated (LA) MRSA are mostly belonging to clonal complex (CC) 398 as defined by multilocus sequence typing. […] However, MRSA of other clonal lineages including CC5, CC9 and CC97 have also been detected in livestock animals in Germany. […] Our findings indicate that LA-MRSA are a major cause for human infection and stress the need for close surveillance. […] Although LA-MRSA CC398 predominates, the occurrence of putative LA-MRSA from other clonal lineages should be monitored. […] Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has been found to colonize livestock including pigs, cattle and poultry.

• #72 Livestock-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) as Causes of Human Infection and Colonization in Germany | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0055040

  Pigs, cattle and poultry are colonized with MRSA and the zoonotic transmission of such MRSA to humans via direct animal contact, environmental contaminations or meat are a matter of concern. […] Livestock-associated (LA) MRSA are mostly belonging to clonal complex (CC) 398 as defined by multilocus sequence typing. […] However, MRSA of other clonal lineages including CC5, CC9 and CC97 have also been detected in livestock animals in Germany. […] Our findings indicate that LA-MRSA are a major cause for human infection and stress the need for close surveillance. […] Although LA-MRSA CC398 predominates, the occurrence of putative LA-MRSA from other clonal lineages should be monitored. […] Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has been found to colonize livestock including pigs, cattle and poultry.

• #73 Livestock-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) as Causes of Human Infection and Colonization in Germany | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0055040

  Since many of the MRSA clonal lineages identified in livestock were uncommon for MRSA isolates found until then in human hosts, the term livestock-associated MRSA (LA-MRSA) has been introduced to distinguish these MRSA from classical human hospital-acquired (HA-MRSA) or community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA). […] Predominantly, LA-MRSA are associated with clonal complex (CC) 398 as defined by multilocus sequence typing (MLST). […] In addition to MRSA CC398, other LA-MRSA clonal lineages have also been detected. […] Epidemiological investigations have shown that LA-MRSA do not only colonize livestock, but are able to overcome the species barrier resulting in zoonotic transmission to persons with direct livestock exposure. […] The pathogenicity of MRSA CC398 for humans has been documented in a variety of reports describing cases of endocarditis, otomastoiditis, pneumonia or wound infections.

• #74 Livestock-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) as Causes of Human Infection and Colonization in Germany | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0055040

  Since many of the MRSA clonal lineages identified in livestock were uncommon for MRSA isolates found until then in human hosts, the term livestock-associated MRSA (LA-MRSA) has been introduced to distinguish these MRSA from classical human hospital-acquired (HA-MRSA) or community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA). […] Predominantly, LA-MRSA are associated with clonal complex (CC) 398 as defined by multilocus sequence typing (MLST). […] In addition to MRSA CC398, other LA-MRSA clonal lineages have also been detected. […] Epidemiological investigations have shown that LA-MRSA do not only colonize livestock, but are able to overcome the species barrier resulting in zoonotic transmission to persons with direct livestock exposure. […] The pathogenicity of MRSA CC398 for humans has been documented in a variety of reports describing cases of endocarditis, otomastoiditis, pneumonia or wound infections.

• #75 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): One Health Perspec | IDR

  https://www.dovepress.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-one-health-perspectiv-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR

  The widespread improper use of antibiotics in the veterinary sector results in the emergence of MRSA among livestock. […] This suggesting that the infected animal is a permanent reservoir of MRSA, which results in human infections. […] The first isolation of MRSA in farm animals all over the world was reported in the 1970, where MRSA strains were firstly isolated from mastitic dairy cows in Belgium. […] The prevalence of MRSA in subclinical bovine mastitis was 35.9%; out of them 35.7% were MRSA strains. […] The high prevalence of MRSA in raw milk of clinically healthy animals is of a great public health concern since the virulent MRSA strains could be transmitted to the human consumers causing serious illness and food poisoning. […] The emergence of multidrug-resistance (MDR) in MRSA is an important threat that is resulting in the failure in treatment and control.

• #76 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): One Health Perspec | IDR

  https://www.dovepress.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-one-health-perspectiv-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR

  The widespread improper use of antibiotics in the veterinary sector results in the emergence of MRSA among livestock. […] This suggesting that the infected animal is a permanent reservoir of MRSA, which results in human infections. […] The first isolation of MRSA in farm animals all over the world was reported in the 1970, where MRSA strains were firstly isolated from mastitic dairy cows in Belgium. […] The prevalence of MRSA in subclinical bovine mastitis was 35.9%; out of them 35.7% were MRSA strains. […] The high prevalence of MRSA in raw milk of clinically healthy animals is of a great public health concern since the virulent MRSA strains could be transmitted to the human consumers causing serious illness and food poisoning. […] The emergence of multidrug-resistance (MDR) in MRSA is an important threat that is resulting in the failure in treatment and control.

• #77 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a group of gram-positive bacteria that are genetically distinct from other strains of Staphylococcus aureus. MRSA is responsible for several difficult-to-treat infections in humans. It caused more than 100,000 deaths worldwide attributable to antimicrobial resistance in 2019. […] MRSA is any strain of S. aureus that has developed (through natural selection) or acquired (through horizontal gene transfer) a multiple drug resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. […] MRSA infection is common in hospitals, prisons, and nursing homes, where people with open wounds, invasive devices such as catheters, and weakened immune systems are at greater risk of healthcare-associated infection. […] MRSA began as a hospital-acquired infection but has become community-acquired, as well as livestock-acquired.

• #78 Causes and Risk Factors of MRSA

  https://www.health.com/mrsa-causes-7503819

  Since HA MRSA represents a majority of cases, being a patient of or working in a hospital, medical clinic, nursing home, or other such environment is the primary cause. […] Generally speaking, susceptibility to HA MRSA infection is closely related to the health of the immune system. […] A history of recent medical treatment or disease can also increase your risk of CA MRSA. […] CA MRSA can affect those who are otherwise healthy, though poorer health can make you more susceptible. […] Since MRSA typically is a skin infection, there are several additional risks. […] Overall, your chances of infection can rise based on: […] Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a type of bacteria that’s immune to certain types of antibiotics. […] Most cases arise in clinical environments like hospitals and nursing homes. […] However, MRSA can also spread in the community, spreading through close contact with those who are infected. […] Risk factors for this condition include having a weakened immune system due to HIV or cancer treatment, frequent hospitalization, and living in crowded conditions.

• #79 MRSA Infections: Causes, Risks, and Legal Options | 3/10/2025

  https://www.forthepeople.com/blog/mrsa-infections-causes-risks-and-legal-options/

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection is a bacterial infection caused by a staph bacteria commonly found in hospitals, nursing homes, and dialysis centers. […] The infection is resistant to many common antibiotics, making it particularly difficult to treat. […] MRSA spreads through direct contact with an infected wound, personal items contaminated with the bacteria, or surfaces that have not been properly disinfected. […] The primary risk factors for MRSA infections include: Hospitalization: Long hospital stays or surgeries increase the risk of MRSA exposure. […] Overuse of Antibiotics: The excessive use of antibiotics contributes to antibiotic resistance, making MRSA more difficult to treat. […] MRSA is a strain of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria that has developed resistance to methicillin and other antibiotics.

• #80 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Mrsa: Etiology, At-risk Populations and Treatment (Bacteriology Research Developments): Kolendi, Charles L.: 9781607413981: Amazon.com: Books

  https://www.amazon.com/Methicillin-Resistant-Staphylococcus-Aureus-MRSA-Bacteriology/dp/1607413981

  Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) is a bacterium responsible for difficult-to-treat infections in humans. […] MRSA was identified as a nosocomial pathogen in the 1960’s. […] MRSA acquisition has traditionally been linked to health care settings and specific patient populations. Established risk factors for MRSA infection include older age, recent hospitalisation or surgery, past antimicrobial therapy, residence in a long-term care facility, dialysis, indwelling percutaneous devices and catheters.

• #81 MRSA in Nursing Homes – Causes & Diagnosing MRSA

  https://nursinghomesabuse.org/nursing-home-injuries/infections/mrsa/

  MRSA frequently spreads in health care facilities such as nursing homes, and it’s a worsening problem because of the increase of nursing home residents in the past several years. MRSA preys on individuals with weakened immune systems, and nursing home residents are elderly people, many of whom have weak immune systems. […] Many nursing home residents have health conditions such as heart disease, arthritis, diabetes, and high blood pressure. These and other illnesses are risk factors for MRSA in nursing homes. […] Additional risks include the following: Recent antibiotic treatments, Medical devices, such as catheters, in the body, Presence of wounds or bedsores, Recent surgery or procedures such as dialysis. […] Some nursing home patients die from MRSA, but it’s not always a fatal disease. However, a study conducted at the University of Florida concluded that older adults and elderly people who carry MRSA on their skin are twice as likely to die within ten years as people who don’t have the bacteria.

• #82 MRSA in Nursing Homes – Causes & Diagnosing MRSA

  https://nursinghomesabuse.org/nursing-home-injuries/infections/mrsa/

  MRSA frequently spreads in health care facilities such as nursing homes, and it’s a worsening problem because of the increase of nursing home residents in the past several years. MRSA preys on individuals with weakened immune systems, and nursing home residents are elderly people, many of whom have weak immune systems. […] Many nursing home residents have health conditions such as heart disease, arthritis, diabetes, and high blood pressure. These and other illnesses are risk factors for MRSA in nursing homes. […] Additional risks include the following: Recent antibiotic treatments, Medical devices, such as catheters, in the body, Presence of wounds or bedsores, Recent surgery or procedures such as dialysis. […] Some nursing home patients die from MRSA, but it’s not always a fatal disease. However, a study conducted at the University of Florida concluded that older adults and elderly people who carry MRSA on their skin are twice as likely to die within ten years as people who don’t have the bacteria.

• #83 MRSA: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-infections-1069436

  While there are many strains of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus, or staph, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is particularly notable because it is resistant to many standard antibiotics and may cause serious infections. […] MRSA is a bacterium that, with exposure to antibiotics over time, has mutated to become a strong, super-resistant bug. That said, while many people are colonized with Staphylococcus aureus (about 33% of the population), only about 2% are colonized with MRSA. […] The truth is that anyone can become a carrier of MRSA and then get infected, although your risk increases if you spend a lot of time in places that are crowded and/or entail shared equipment or supplies. […] Besides environmental factors, there are others that increase your risk of getting a MRSA infection. Some of these include: Prior antibiotic use, Having a weak immune system, Sharing needles or razors, History of injection drug use. […] Within a hospital, there are additional risk factors for becoming infected with hospital-acquired MRSA, such as: Having an open wound, catheter, or breathing tube, Being in the hospital for a long period of time, Residence in a long-term care facility, Recent surgery, Receiving dialysis.

• #84 MRSA in Nursing Homes – Causes & Diagnosing MRSA

  https://nursinghomesabuse.org/nursing-home-injuries/infections/mrsa/

  MRSA frequently spreads in health care facilities such as nursing homes, and it’s a worsening problem because of the increase of nursing home residents in the past several years. MRSA preys on individuals with weakened immune systems, and nursing home residents are elderly people, many of whom have weak immune systems. […] Many nursing home residents have health conditions such as heart disease, arthritis, diabetes, and high blood pressure. These and other illnesses are risk factors for MRSA in nursing homes. […] Additional risks include the following: Recent antibiotic treatments, Medical devices, such as catheters, in the body, Presence of wounds or bedsores, Recent surgery or procedures such as dialysis. […] Some nursing home patients die from MRSA, but it’s not always a fatal disease. However, a study conducted at the University of Florida concluded that older adults and elderly people who carry MRSA on their skin are twice as likely to die within ten years as people who don’t have the bacteria.

• #85 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Mrsa: Etiology, At-risk Populations and Treatment (Bacteriology Research Developments): Kolendi, Charles L.: 9781607413981: Amazon.com: Books

  https://www.amazon.com/Methicillin-Resistant-Staphylococcus-Aureus-MRSA-Bacteriology/dp/1607413981

  Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) is a bacterium responsible for difficult-to-treat infections in humans. […] MRSA was identified as a nosocomial pathogen in the 1960’s. […] MRSA acquisition has traditionally been linked to health care settings and specific patient populations. Established risk factors for MRSA infection include older age, recent hospitalisation or surgery, past antimicrobial therapy, residence in a long-term care facility, dialysis, indwelling percutaneous devices and catheters.

• #86 MRSA Infection: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Contagious, Pictures & Superbug

  https://www.medicinenet.com/mrsa_infection/article.htm

  Most HA-MRSA infections have been due to the USA100 strain. HA-MRSA is more likely to affect people in health care institutions who may have weaker immune systems due to other illnesses. HA-MRSA is less likely to cause problems for healthy people in the community. […] Complications from MRSA can occur in almost all organ systems; the following is a listing of some that can result in permanent organ damage or death: endocarditis, kidney or lung infections (pneumonia), necrotizing fasciitis, osteomyelitis, and sepsis (blood poisoning). Early diagnosis and treatment usually result in better outcomes and reduction or elimination of further complications.

• #87 MRSA: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-infections-1069436

  While there are many strains of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus, or staph, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is particularly notable because it is resistant to many standard antibiotics and may cause serious infections. […] MRSA is a bacterium that, with exposure to antibiotics over time, has mutated to become a strong, super-resistant bug. That said, while many people are colonized with Staphylococcus aureus (about 33% of the population), only about 2% are colonized with MRSA. […] The truth is that anyone can become a carrier of MRSA and then get infected, although your risk increases if you spend a lot of time in places that are crowded and/or entail shared equipment or supplies. […] Besides environmental factors, there are others that increase your risk of getting a MRSA infection. Some of these include: Prior antibiotic use, Having a weak immune system, Sharing needles or razors, History of injection drug use. […] Within a hospital, there are additional risk factors for becoming infected with hospital-acquired MRSA, such as: Having an open wound, catheter, or breathing tube, Being in the hospital for a long period of time, Residence in a long-term care facility, Recent surgery, Receiving dialysis.

• #88 MRSA (Staph) Infection: Pictures, Symptoms, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.healthline.com/health/mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an infection of Staphylococcus (staph) bacteria. […] However, when they begin to multiply uncontrollably, a MRSA infection can occur. […] MRSA infections typically occur when there’s a cut or break in your skin. […] MRSA is very contagious and can be spread through direct contact with a person who has the infection. […] CA-MRSA usually causes skin infections. […] This type of MRSA infection may also develop because of poor hygiene, such as infrequent or improper handwashing. […] HA-MRSA is associated with infections that are contracted in medical facilities, such as hospitals or nursing homes. […] You can also get the infection through contact with contaminated linens or poorly sanitized surgical instruments. […] HA-MRSA can cause severe problems, such as blood infections and pneumonia. […] You’re at an increased risk for CA-MRSA if you share exercise equipment, towels, or razors with other people. […] Symptoms and treatments can vary based on the type of MRSA infection a person has.

• #89 MRSA | Georgia Department of Public Health

  https://dph.georgia.gov/epidemiology/acute-disease-epidemiology/mrsa

  Antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus has been a growing problem since penicillin was first introduced in the 1940s. […] Since the late 1990s, MRSA has become a widespread cause of disease in the community, associated with the emergence of a new and virulent strain known as USA-300. […] Community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) can affect otherwise healthy individuals with no exposure to settings where antibiotic resistance is expected, like hospitals. […] CA-MRSA frequently causes skin or soft-tissue infections that contain pus. […] Some CA-MRSA infections are severe, including sepsis, pneumonia, osteomyelitis (bone infection) or endocarditis (heart-valve infection). […] This strain is also becoming established in hospitals. […] Following multiple outbreak investigations, CDC has characterized risk factors („the 5 C’s”) associated with CA-MRSA disease, which include Crowding, Close contact, Compromised skin, Contaminated surfaces and shared personal items, lack of Cleanliness, and in some outbreaks, prior antimicrobial use.

• #90 MRSA (Staph) Infection: Pictures, Symptoms, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.healthline.com/health/mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an infection of Staphylococcus (staph) bacteria. […] However, when they begin to multiply uncontrollably, a MRSA infection can occur. […] MRSA infections typically occur when there’s a cut or break in your skin. […] MRSA is very contagious and can be spread through direct contact with a person who has the infection. […] CA-MRSA usually causes skin infections. […] This type of MRSA infection may also develop because of poor hygiene, such as infrequent or improper handwashing. […] HA-MRSA is associated with infections that are contracted in medical facilities, such as hospitals or nursing homes. […] You can also get the infection through contact with contaminated linens or poorly sanitized surgical instruments. […] HA-MRSA can cause severe problems, such as blood infections and pneumonia. […] You’re at an increased risk for CA-MRSA if you share exercise equipment, towels, or razors with other people. […] Symptoms and treatments can vary based on the type of MRSA infection a person has.

• #91 MRSA – Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention | Infections Managed

  https://infectionsmanaged.org/mrsa-causes-symptoms-treatment-prevention/

  MRSA stands for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. It is a specific type of staph infection where the bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, has become immune to many standard antibiotics used to treat normal staph infections. […] MRSA infections frequently occur among patients with weakened immune systems in hospitals. Infections in this setting are often associated with health care procedures that allow bacteria to enter the body, such as a surgical wounds and intravenous tubing. […] MRSA that spreads from person-to-person, outside a health care setting, through contact with someone who is colonised with MRSA. Possible factors that increase the risk of CA-MRSA include; regular skin to skin contact (sports), contaminated surfaces, regular injection of drugs and living in a densely populated environment (prison, military bases etc).

• #92 MRSA: Types, Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment and More

  https://www.health.com/mrsa-overview-7482931

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a type of infection-causing bacterium that is resistant to the antibiotic methicillin (meaning it cannot be treated with methicillin) and sometimes other antibiotics as well. […] A MRSA infection occurs when a methicillin-resistant version of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus enters an open area in your skin, such as from a cut, scrape, or burn. […] Most of the time, someone becomes infected with MRSA when they come in direct physical contact with someone else colonized or infected with MRSA. […] Some people are more likely to develop a MRSA infection. Risk factors can include: Recently taking antibiotics, Having a surgical wound, intravenous line (IV), or central line, Staying in the hospital for long periods of time, Having a weakened immune system, Having direct contact with people colonized with MRSA, Having open areas of skin like sores, burns, scrapes, Being an athlete who plays on a team, Having tattoos or piercings or removing body hair by shaving or waxing, People who use injection drugs, People in daycare centers, People in prison.

• #93 MRSA: Types, Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment and More

  https://www.health.com/mrsa-overview-7482931

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a type of infection-causing bacterium that is resistant to the antibiotic methicillin (meaning it cannot be treated with methicillin) and sometimes other antibiotics as well. […] A MRSA infection occurs when a methicillin-resistant version of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus enters an open area in your skin, such as from a cut, scrape, or burn. […] Most of the time, someone becomes infected with MRSA when they come in direct physical contact with someone else colonized or infected with MRSA. […] Some people are more likely to develop a MRSA infection. Risk factors can include: Recently taking antibiotics, Having a surgical wound, intravenous line (IV), or central line, Staying in the hospital for long periods of time, Having a weakened immune system, Having direct contact with people colonized with MRSA, Having open areas of skin like sores, burns, scrapes, Being an athlete who plays on a team, Having tattoos or piercings or removing body hair by shaving or waxing, People who use injection drugs, People in daycare centers, People in prison.

• #94 Learning about MRSA: A guide for Patients – MN Dept. of Health

  https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/staph/mrsa/book.html

  You dont follow your doctors directions when taking antibiotics (for example you stop taking your antibiotics before finishing a prescription or you skip doses) […] You frequently get cuts or scrapes on your skin (Your skin serves as a barrier to infection. When the skin gets damaged staph bacteria can enter and increase your risk for infection.) […] There are two ways you can have MRSA. […] You can have an active infection. An active infection means you have symptoms. This is usually a boil, a sore, or an infected cut that is red, swollen, or pus-filled. […] You can be a carrier. If you are a carrier you do not have symptoms that you can see, but you still have MRSA bacteria living in your nose or on your skin. […] Many people with active infections are treated effectively, and no longer have MRSA.

• #95 MRSA Infection in Children

  https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/conditions/health-library/mrsa-infection-in-children

  Staphylococcus aureus (staph) is a type of bacteria. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a staph infection that has become resistant to many antibiotics commonly used to treat staph infections. […] MRSA can cause an infection if a child’s skin gets scratched or cut, or their immune system is weak. […] MRSA infections were first seen mostly in hospitals and nursing homes where they are still most commonly seen. But as more people carry MRSA on their skin and in nasal passages, the risk for infection outside of healthcare sites has increased. […] A child is more at risk for MRSA if they have any of these: Close contact with people who have MRSA, A scrape, cut, or other skin injury, A tattoo or piercing, A previous infection with MRSA. […] MRSA infections are more common in groups of people who spend a lot of time close together. This includes children on a sports team. MRSA may be on sports equipment and clothing, and may transfer from skin to skin during play.

• #96 MRSA Infection in Children

  https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/conditions/health-library/mrsa-infection-in-children

  Staphylococcus aureus (staph) is a type of bacteria. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a staph infection that has become resistant to many antibiotics commonly used to treat staph infections. […] MRSA can cause an infection if a child’s skin gets scratched or cut, or their immune system is weak. […] MRSA infections were first seen mostly in hospitals and nursing homes where they are still most commonly seen. But as more people carry MRSA on their skin and in nasal passages, the risk for infection outside of healthcare sites has increased. […] A child is more at risk for MRSA if they have any of these: Close contact with people who have MRSA, A scrape, cut, or other skin injury, A tattoo or piercing, A previous infection with MRSA. […] MRSA infections are more common in groups of people who spend a lot of time close together. This includes children on a sports team. MRSA may be on sports equipment and clothing, and may transfer from skin to skin during play.

• #97 Causes and Risk Factors of MRSA

  https://www.health.com/mrsa-causes-7503819

  Since HA MRSA represents a majority of cases, being a patient of or working in a hospital, medical clinic, nursing home, or other such environment is the primary cause. […] Generally speaking, susceptibility to HA MRSA infection is closely related to the health of the immune system. […] A history of recent medical treatment or disease can also increase your risk of CA MRSA. […] CA MRSA can affect those who are otherwise healthy, though poorer health can make you more susceptible. […] Since MRSA typically is a skin infection, there are several additional risks. […] Overall, your chances of infection can rise based on: […] Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a type of bacteria that’s immune to certain types of antibiotics. […] Most cases arise in clinical environments like hospitals and nursing homes. […] However, MRSA can also spread in the community, spreading through close contact with those who are infected. […] Risk factors for this condition include having a weakened immune system due to HIV or cancer treatment, frequent hospitalization, and living in crowded conditions.

• #98 MRSA – Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention | Infections Managed

  https://infectionsmanaged.org/mrsa-causes-symptoms-treatment-prevention/

  It is believed around a third of people carry Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in their nasal cavity, with 2% of people carrying MRSA. […] Research by Douek et al., 2016, found that people with HIV are at an increased risk of contracting CA-MRSA. In fact, a meta study including 32 studies between 1990 and 2013 concluded that individuals with HIV may be 6 18 times more vulnerable to MRSA. […] As mentioned earlier, you may be more susceptible to MRSA infection if your immune system is compromised. Staph aureus latches on to varying types of human tissue and has a unique ability to avoid the bodys natural immune response. […] An MRSA infection is often harder to treat than other staph injections due to a reduced number of affective antibiotics. That being said it is still treatable.

• #99 MRSA

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/mrsa/

  MRSA usually lives harmlessly on the skin and mainly spreads through touch. […] MRSA will only cause an infection if it spreads inside the body. […] MRSA infections can affect anyone, but you may be more at risk if you: have long stays in hospital (especially if you’re being treated for a serious condition) […] have a break or opening in your skin, for example for a drip into a vein, a cut from surgery, a serious burn or wound, or other damage to your skin […] have a weakened immune system (for example, because of a condition such as HIV or treatment such as chemotherapy).

• #100 MRSA in Nursing Homes – Causes & Diagnosing MRSA

  https://nursinghomesabuse.org/nursing-home-injuries/infections/mrsa/

  MRSA frequently spreads in health care facilities such as nursing homes, and it’s a worsening problem because of the increase of nursing home residents in the past several years. MRSA preys on individuals with weakened immune systems, and nursing home residents are elderly people, many of whom have weak immune systems. […] Many nursing home residents have health conditions such as heart disease, arthritis, diabetes, and high blood pressure. These and other illnesses are risk factors for MRSA in nursing homes. […] Additional risks include the following: Recent antibiotic treatments, Medical devices, such as catheters, in the body, Presence of wounds or bedsores, Recent surgery or procedures such as dialysis. […] Some nursing home patients die from MRSA, but it’s not always a fatal disease. However, a study conducted at the University of Florida concluded that older adults and elderly people who carry MRSA on their skin are twice as likely to die within ten years as people who don’t have the bacteria.

• #101 Causes | Background information | MRSA in primary care | CKS | NICE

  https://cks.nice.org.uk/topics/mrsa-in-primary-care/background-information/causes/

  Clinical infection with meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) can be caused by a person’s own colonizing bacteria or following transmission from an asymptomatic carrier or MRSA-infected person. […] Transmission occurs through direct contact with infected skin or following contact with contaminated objects (such as razors and towels) or environmental surfaces. […] MRSA infection occurs when MRSA enters the tissues (for example, through a cut or wound) and causes harm. […] Healthcare-associated MRSA (HA-MRSA) is usually acquired following direct or indirect contact with healthcare services, and is more likely to occur in older age groups. […] Community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) typically occurs in people who have had no direct or indirect contact with healthcare services, but cross-over in strain types identified in hospitals and the community is becoming more common. […] Advancing age is considered an indirect risk factor for both HA-MRSA and CA-MRSA.

• #102 MRSA – Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention | Infections Managed

  https://infectionsmanaged.org/mrsa-causes-symptoms-treatment-prevention/

  It is believed around a third of people carry Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in their nasal cavity, with 2% of people carrying MRSA. […] Research by Douek et al., 2016, found that people with HIV are at an increased risk of contracting CA-MRSA. In fact, a meta study including 32 studies between 1990 and 2013 concluded that individuals with HIV may be 6 18 times more vulnerable to MRSA. […] As mentioned earlier, you may be more susceptible to MRSA infection if your immune system is compromised. Staph aureus latches on to varying types of human tissue and has a unique ability to avoid the bodys natural immune response. […] An MRSA infection is often harder to treat than other staph injections due to a reduced number of affective antibiotics. That being said it is still treatable.

• #103 MRSA – Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention | Infections Managed

  https://infectionsmanaged.org/mrsa-causes-symptoms-treatment-prevention/

  It is believed around a third of people carry Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in their nasal cavity, with 2% of people carrying MRSA. […] Research by Douek et al., 2016, found that people with HIV are at an increased risk of contracting CA-MRSA. In fact, a meta study including 32 studies between 1990 and 2013 concluded that individuals with HIV may be 6 18 times more vulnerable to MRSA. […] As mentioned earlier, you may be more susceptible to MRSA infection if your immune system is compromised. Staph aureus latches on to varying types of human tissue and has a unique ability to avoid the bodys natural immune response. […] An MRSA infection is often harder to treat than other staph injections due to a reduced number of affective antibiotics. That being said it is still treatable.

• #104 Pathogenesis of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2474459/

  Staphylococcus aureus is a versatile pathogen capable of causing a wide range of human diseases. […] Although methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains are not necessarily more virulent than methicillin-sensitive S. aureus strains, some MRSA strains contain factors or genetic backgrounds that may enhance their virulence or may enable them to cause particular clinical syndromes. […] Certain MRSA strains appear to contain particular factors or genetic backgrounds that enhance their virulence or enable them to cause particular clinical syndromes. […] The basis for the apparent increased virulence of CA-MRSA strains is incompletely understood. […] The genes and mechanisms by which CA-MRSA strains may cause aggressive disease are discussed in the sections that follow. […] Given this evidence and the strong epidemiological association between PVL-containing CA-MRSA strains and necrotizing pneumonia and skin and soft-tissue infections, it is plausible that PVL is partly responsible for the enhanced virulence of CA-MRSA (other leukocidins may also play a role).

• #105 Pathogenesis of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2474459/

  Staphylococcus aureus is a versatile pathogen capable of causing a wide range of human diseases. […] Although methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains are not necessarily more virulent than methicillin-sensitive S. aureus strains, some MRSA strains contain factors or genetic backgrounds that may enhance their virulence or may enable them to cause particular clinical syndromes. […] Certain MRSA strains appear to contain particular factors or genetic backgrounds that enhance their virulence or enable them to cause particular clinical syndromes. […] The basis for the apparent increased virulence of CA-MRSA strains is incompletely understood. […] The genes and mechanisms by which CA-MRSA strains may cause aggressive disease are discussed in the sections that follow. […] Given this evidence and the strong epidemiological association between PVL-containing CA-MRSA strains and necrotizing pneumonia and skin and soft-tissue infections, it is plausible that PVL is partly responsible for the enhanced virulence of CA-MRSA (other leukocidins may also play a role).

• #106 Incidence, prevalence, and management of MRSA bacteremia across patient populations—a review of recent developments in MRSA management and treatment | Critical Care | Full Text

  https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13054-017-1801-3

  The origin of SAB cases—community-acquired, hospital-acquired, or healthcare-associated community onset—has been changing. […] These findings indicate that community-acquired MRSA infections remain a threat. […] Different strains are responsible for hospital- and community-acquired MRSA infections and can be identified using molecular typing methods such as pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) or multilocus sequence typing. […] Methicillin resistance has been linked to clonal variants in the SCCmec gene. […] Overall, the expression of toxin-producing genes is higher in community- than hospital-acquired MRSA strains and community-acquired strains tend to be more virulent. […] In patients with MRSA bacteremia, the presence of staphylococcal enterotoxin- and TSST1-producing genes is associated with a significant increase in the risk of mortality.

• #107 MRSA Infection: Symptoms, Treatment, Causes & Pictures

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/mrsa_infection/article_em.htm

  MRSA is the abbreviation for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. […] Within 1-2 years, Staphylococcus aureus bacteria (S. aureus) started to be isolated that were resistant to methicillin. These S. aureus bacteria were then termed methicillin-resistant or MRSA. […] MRSA bacteria usually show resistance to many antibiotics. […] Adding antibiotic resistance to this long list of pathogenic mechanisms (ways to cause infection) makes MRSA a formidable superbug. […] MRSA bacteria can be transmitted by direct (though skin and body fluids) and indirect contact (from towels, diapers, and toys) to uninfected people. […] Statistics show that CA-MRSA is the predominant MRSA type found in the population. […] The best way to avoid MRSA infection is not making direct contact with skin, clothing, or any items that come in contact with either MRSA patients or MRSA. […] The outcome (prognosis) of MRSA infection varies according to the severity of the infection and the general condition of the person who has the infection. […] MRSA infections can be life-threatening.

• #108 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): One Health Perspec | IDR

  https://www.dovepress.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-one-health-perspectiv-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR

  MRSA always exhibits resistance to multiple antimicrobial agents, including; penicillin, methicillin, oxacillin, cefoxitin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, amoxicillin-sulbactam, quinolones, macrolides, cephalosporins, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol. […] The release of -lactamase enzyme by S. aureus is the main cause of penicillin and penicillin derivatives resistance, while the mecA gene (encodes for Penicillin-binding protein production) is responsible for methicillin resistance. […] The production of MRSA penicillin-binding protein is considered the most important cause of penicillin and methicillin resistance.

• #109 Incidence, prevalence, and management of MRSA bacteremia across patient populations—a review of recent developments in MRSA management and treatment | Critical Care | Full Text

  https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13054-017-1801-3

  The origin of SAB cases—community-acquired, hospital-acquired, or healthcare-associated community onset—has been changing. […] These findings indicate that community-acquired MRSA infections remain a threat. […] Different strains are responsible for hospital- and community-acquired MRSA infections and can be identified using molecular typing methods such as pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) or multilocus sequence typing. […] Methicillin resistance has been linked to clonal variants in the SCCmec gene. […] Overall, the expression of toxin-producing genes is higher in community- than hospital-acquired MRSA strains and community-acquired strains tend to be more virulent. […] In patients with MRSA bacteremia, the presence of staphylococcal enterotoxin- and TSST1-producing genes is associated with a significant increase in the risk of mortality.

• #110 Pathogenesis of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2474459/

  Staphylococcus aureus is a versatile pathogen capable of causing a wide range of human diseases. […] Although methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains are not necessarily more virulent than methicillin-sensitive S. aureus strains, some MRSA strains contain factors or genetic backgrounds that may enhance their virulence or may enable them to cause particular clinical syndromes. […] Certain MRSA strains appear to contain particular factors or genetic backgrounds that enhance their virulence or enable them to cause particular clinical syndromes. […] The basis for the apparent increased virulence of CA-MRSA strains is incompletely understood. […] The genes and mechanisms by which CA-MRSA strains may cause aggressive disease are discussed in the sections that follow. […] Given this evidence and the strong epidemiological association between PVL-containing CA-MRSA strains and necrotizing pneumonia and skin and soft-tissue infections, it is plausible that PVL is partly responsible for the enhanced virulence of CA-MRSA (other leukocidins may also play a role).

• #111 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): One Health Perspec | IDR

  https://www.dovepress.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-one-health-perspectiv-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR

  MRSA always exhibits resistance to multiple antimicrobial agents, including; penicillin, methicillin, oxacillin, cefoxitin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, amoxicillin-sulbactam, quinolones, macrolides, cephalosporins, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol. […] The release of -lactamase enzyme by S. aureus is the main cause of penicillin and penicillin derivatives resistance, while the mecA gene (encodes for Penicillin-binding protein production) is responsible for methicillin resistance. […] The production of MRSA penicillin-binding protein is considered the most important cause of penicillin and methicillin resistance.

• #112 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): One Health Perspec | IDR

  https://www.dovepress.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-one-health-perspectiv-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR

  MRSA always exhibits resistance to multiple antimicrobial agents, including; penicillin, methicillin, oxacillin, cefoxitin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, amoxicillin-sulbactam, quinolones, macrolides, cephalosporins, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol. […] The release of -lactamase enzyme by S. aureus is the main cause of penicillin and penicillin derivatives resistance, while the mecA gene (encodes for Penicillin-binding protein production) is responsible for methicillin resistance. […] The production of MRSA penicillin-binding protein is considered the most important cause of penicillin and methicillin resistance.

• #113 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): One Health Perspec | IDR

  https://www.dovepress.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-one-health-perspectiv-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR

  MRSA always exhibits resistance to multiple antimicrobial agents, including; penicillin, methicillin, oxacillin, cefoxitin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, amoxicillin-sulbactam, quinolones, macrolides, cephalosporins, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol. […] The release of -lactamase enzyme by S. aureus is the main cause of penicillin and penicillin derivatives resistance, while the mecA gene (encodes for Penicillin-binding protein production) is responsible for methicillin resistance. […] The production of MRSA penicillin-binding protein is considered the most important cause of penicillin and methicillin resistance.

• #114 MRSA. Methicillin (meticillin) resistant Staphylococcus aureus

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus

  MRSA is the term used for bacteria of the Staphylococcus aureus group that are resistant to the usual antibiotics used in the treatment of infections with such organisms. […] Resistance to methicillin is due to the presence of the mec gene, situated on Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec). This alters the site at which methicillin binds to kill the organism. […] Infections caused by MRSA are the same as other staphylococcal infections because the organism itself is not any more virulent (or infectious) than usual type S aureus. […] Problems arise in the treatment of overt infections with MRSA because antibiotic choice is very limited. […] Most MRSA infections occur in wounds (eg surgical wounds), skin (eg intravenous access sites), or in the bloodstream. […] Mortality from these infections is not significantly different from those seen with usual type S aureus infections.

• #115 MRSA Infection: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments, Prevention

  https://resources.healthgrades.com/right-care/infections-and-contagious-diseases/mrsa-infection

  MRSA results from many years of incorrect antibiotic use. Antibiotics work by targeting the replication processes of bacteria. Resistance develops when bacteria can adjust these processes to get around the antibiotic. Bacteria can make these changes quickly and learn with each new antibiotic exposure. […] Some people can use antibiotics incorrectly when taking them for viral infections, such as a cold or flu. Antibiotics can only treat bacterial infections. However, even with legitimate bacterial infections, people can still use them incorrectly. For example, they do not finish the entire course of antibiotics their doctor prescribes. […] In each of these cases, bacteria get exposure to the antibiotic and an opportunity to learn how to grow even in the presence of the drug. Some bacteria survive and pass on the information they gain from the exposure as they replicate.

• #116 MRSA Infection: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments, Prevention

  https://resources.healthgrades.com/right-care/infections-and-contagious-diseases/mrsa-infection

  MRSA results from many years of incorrect antibiotic use. Antibiotics work by targeting the replication processes of bacteria. Resistance develops when bacteria can adjust these processes to get around the antibiotic. Bacteria can make these changes quickly and learn with each new antibiotic exposure. […] Some people can use antibiotics incorrectly when taking them for viral infections, such as a cold or flu. Antibiotics can only treat bacterial infections. However, even with legitimate bacterial infections, people can still use them incorrectly. For example, they do not finish the entire course of antibiotics their doctor prescribes. […] In each of these cases, bacteria get exposure to the antibiotic and an opportunity to learn how to grow even in the presence of the drug. Some bacteria survive and pass on the information they gain from the exposure as they replicate.

• #117 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an overview of basic and clinical research | Nature Reviews Microbiology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-018-0147-4

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of the most successful modern pathogens. […] The same organism that lives as a commensal and is transmitted in both health-care and community settings is also a leading cause of bacteraemia, endocarditis, skin and soft tissue infections, bone and joint infections and hospital-acquired infections. […] Genetically diverse, the epidemiology of MRSA is primarily characterized by the serial emergence of epidemic strains. […] Although its incidence has recently declined in some regions, MRSA still poses a formidable clinical threat, with persistently high morbidity and mortality. […] Successful treatment remains challenging and requires the evaluation of both novel antimicrobials and adjunctive aspects of care, such as infectious disease consultation, echocardiography and source control. […] In this Review, we provide an overview of basic and clinical MRSA research and summarize the expansive body of literature on the epidemiology, transmission, genetic diversity, evolution, surveillance and treatment of MRSA.

• #118 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

  The terms HA-MRSA (healthcare-associated or hospital-acquired MRSA), CA-MRSA (community-associated MRSA), and LA-MRSA (livestock-associated MRSA) reflect this. […] Antibiotic use in livestock increases the risk that MRSA will develop among the livestock and other animals that may reside near them; strains MRSA ST398 and CC398 are transmissible to humans. […] Domestic pets are susceptible to MRSA infection by transmission from their owners; conversely, MRSA-infected pets can also transmit MRSA to humans. […] Acquisition of SCCmec in methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) gives rise to a number of genetically different MRSA lineages. […] Community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) strains emerged in late 1990 to 2000, infecting healthy people who had not been in contact with healthcare facilities.

• #119 Incidence, prevalence, and management of MRSA bacteremia across patient populations—a review of recent developments in MRSA management and treatment | Critical Care | Full Text

  https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13054-017-1801-3

  The origin of SAB cases—community-acquired, hospital-acquired, or healthcare-associated community onset—has been changing. […] These findings indicate that community-acquired MRSA infections remain a threat. […] Different strains are responsible for hospital- and community-acquired MRSA infections and can be identified using molecular typing methods such as pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) or multilocus sequence typing. […] Methicillin resistance has been linked to clonal variants in the SCCmec gene. […] Overall, the expression of toxin-producing genes is higher in community- than hospital-acquired MRSA strains and community-acquired strains tend to be more virulent. […] In patients with MRSA bacteremia, the presence of staphylococcal enterotoxin- and TSST1-producing genes is associated with a significant increase in the risk of mortality.

• #120 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a group of gram-positive bacteria that are genetically distinct from other strains of Staphylococcus aureus. MRSA is responsible for several difficult-to-treat infections in humans. It caused more than 100,000 deaths worldwide attributable to antimicrobial resistance in 2019. […] MRSA is any strain of S. aureus that has developed (through natural selection) or acquired (through horizontal gene transfer) a multiple drug resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. […] MRSA infection is common in hospitals, prisons, and nursing homes, where people with open wounds, invasive devices such as catheters, and weakened immune systems are at greater risk of healthcare-associated infection. […] MRSA began as a hospital-acquired infection but has become community-acquired, as well as livestock-acquired.

• #121 MRSA. Methicillin (meticillin) resistant Staphylococcus aureus

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus

  There is growing concern about MRSA infections. They appear to be increasing in frequency and displaying resistance to a wider range of antibiotics. […] Of particular concern are the VISA strains of MRSA (vancomycin intermediate susceptibility S aureus). These are beginning to develop resistance to vancomycin, which is currently the most effective antibiotic against MRSA.

• #122 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an overview of basic and clinical research | Nature Reviews Microbiology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-018-0147-4

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of the most successful modern pathogens. […] The same organism that lives as a commensal and is transmitted in both health-care and community settings is also a leading cause of bacteraemia, endocarditis, skin and soft tissue infections, bone and joint infections and hospital-acquired infections. […] Genetically diverse, the epidemiology of MRSA is primarily characterized by the serial emergence of epidemic strains. […] Although its incidence has recently declined in some regions, MRSA still poses a formidable clinical threat, with persistently high morbidity and mortality. […] Successful treatment remains challenging and requires the evaluation of both novel antimicrobials and adjunctive aspects of care, such as infectious disease consultation, echocardiography and source control. […] In this Review, we provide an overview of basic and clinical MRSA research and summarize the expansive body of literature on the epidemiology, transmission, genetic diversity, evolution, surveillance and treatment of MRSA.

• #123 MRSA Treatment, MRSA Symptoms, MRSA Causes – Dr. Axe

  https://draxe.com/health/mrsa-treatment/

  MRSA has been shown to be resistant to at least several types of antibiotics, however. […] MRSA is the most widespread type of staph that is antibiotic-resistant and causes serious infections in thousands of patients each year. […] This is exactly why preventing MRSA from spreading globally is now an urgent matter.

• #124 MRSA infection – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mrsa/symptoms-causes/syc-20375336

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection is caused by a type of staph bacteria that’s become resistant to many of the antibiotics used to treat ordinary staph infections. […] Different varieties of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, commonly called „staph,” exist. Staph bacteria are normally found on the skin or in the nose of about one-third of the population. The bacteria are generally harmless unless they enter the body through a cut or other wound, and even then they usually cause only minor skin problems in healthy people. […] According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, around 5% of the population chronically carries the type of staph bacteria known as MRSA. […] MRSA is the result of decades of often unnecessary antibiotic use. For years, antibiotics have been prescribed for colds, flu and other viral infections that don’t respond to these drugs. Even when antibiotics are used appropriately, they contribute to the rise of drug-resistant bacteria because they don’t destroy every germ they target. Bacteria live on an evolutionary fast track, so germs that survive treatment with one antibiotic soon learn to resist others.

• #125 MRSA: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments, and Your Risk

  https://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/understanding-mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a bacteria that causes infections in different parts of the body. It’s tougher to treat than most strains of Staphylococcus aureus (staph) because it’s resistant to some commonly used antibiotics. […] Garden-variety staph bacteria are common and can live in our bodies. Plenty of healthy people carry staph without being infected by it. In fact, one-third of the population has staph bacteria in their noses. […] But staph can be a problem if it manages to get into the body, often through a cut. Staph is one of the most common causes of skin infections in the U.S. Usually, these are minor and don’t need special treatment. Less often, staph can cause serious problems such as infected wounds or pneumonia. […] About 2% of people (2 in 100) are MRSA carriers, even though most of them aren’t infected.

• #126 MRSA infection – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mrsa/symptoms-causes/syc-20375336

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection is caused by a type of staph bacteria that’s become resistant to many of the antibiotics used to treat ordinary staph infections. […] Different varieties of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, commonly called „staph,” exist. Staph bacteria are normally found on the skin or in the nose of about one-third of the population. The bacteria are generally harmless unless they enter the body through a cut or other wound, and even then they usually cause only minor skin problems in healthy people. […] According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, around 5% of the population chronically carries the type of staph bacteria known as MRSA. […] MRSA is the result of decades of often unnecessary antibiotic use. For years, antibiotics have been prescribed for colds, flu and other viral infections that don’t respond to these drugs. Even when antibiotics are used appropriately, they contribute to the rise of drug-resistant bacteria because they don’t destroy every germ they target. Bacteria live on an evolutionary fast track, so germs that survive treatment with one antibiotic soon learn to resist others.

• #127 MRSA: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments, and Your Risk

  https://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/understanding-mrsa

  Staph can usually be treated with antibiotics. But over the decades, some strains of staph, such as MRSA, have become resistant to antibiotics that once destroyed them. MRSA was discovered in 1961. It’s now resistant to penicillins such as amoxicillin, methicillin, oxacillin, penicillin, and other common antibiotics known as cephalosporins. […] The overuse and misuse of antibiotics have caused MRSA and other bacteria to become resistant to antibiotics. […] While some antibiotics still work against MRSA, this type of bacteria is constantly adapting. Researchers developing new antibiotics are having a tough time keeping up. […] MRSA is a bacteria that has become resistant to some common antibiotics. It can cause infection that can spread from one person to another.

• #128 Beware: Under the Wrong Conditions, You Can Die from MRSA

  https://www.healthline.com/health/can-you-die-from-mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a type of drug-resistant staph infection. […] MRSA is very contagious. Its transmitted through contact with a person who has the infection or any object or surface that has MRSA on it. […] MRSA only causes an infection when it finds an opening such as a cut and enters your skin or body. […] People who have MRSA but arent sick are said to be colonized. Theyre called carriers, and they can transmit MRSA to others. […] MRSA can infect the inside of your heart. This can quickly damage your heart valves. […] When MRSA gets into your body, it can cause a serious and life-threatening infection in your bloodstream or an organ. […] Invasive MRSA infections can overwhelm your immune system and can be very hard to treat. Many people die. […] The outlook for invasive MRSA infections depends on the severity. […] Invasive infections are much more serious. They almost always require aggressive treatment with IV antibiotics in the hospital. Even then, you can die from a severe infection.

• #129

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/infections/Pages/MRSA.aspx

  Because healthcare providers prescribed antibiotics too often, Staph aureus was able to change again around the year 2000 and become resistant to methicillin. The name given to this new germ MRSA. […] Even if active infections go away, you can still have MRSA bacteria on your skin and in your nose. This means you are now a carrier of MRSA. You may not get sick or have any more skin infections, but you can spread MRSA to others. It is not fully understood why some people are carriers of MRSA, yet don’t get infections.

• #130 MRSA Infection in Children – Stanford Medicine Children’s Health

  https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default?id=mrsa-infection-in-children-160-49

  MRSA is staph that cant be killed with common staph antibiotics, such as cephalexin. […] About a third of people in the U.S. carry the MRSA bacteria. […] MRSA can cause an infection if a child’s skin gets scratched or cut, or his or her immune system is weak. […] MRSA infections were first seen mostly in hospitals and nursing homes. […] As more people carry MRSA on their skin and in nasal passages, the risk for infection outside healthcare places is higher. […] A child is more at risk for MRSA if he or she has any of these: Close contact with people who have MRSA, A scrape, cut, or other skin injury, A previous infection with MRSA. […] MRSA infections are more common in groups of people that spend a lot of time close together. […] If MRSA gets through your child’s skin through a cut or other wound, he or she may get an active MRSA infection. […] MRSA is usually limited to the skin. It can be life-threatening if it spreads to the lungs, the bloodstream, or other organs. […] MRSA infection can be harder to treat than other staph infections.

• #131 MRSA: Types, Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment and More

  https://www.health.com/mrsa-overview-7482931

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a type of infection-causing bacterium that is resistant to the antibiotic methicillin (meaning it cannot be treated with methicillin) and sometimes other antibiotics as well. […] A MRSA infection occurs when a methicillin-resistant version of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus enters an open area in your skin, such as from a cut, scrape, or burn. […] Most of the time, someone becomes infected with MRSA when they come in direct physical contact with someone else colonized or infected with MRSA. […] Some people are more likely to develop a MRSA infection. Risk factors can include: Recently taking antibiotics, Having a surgical wound, intravenous line (IV), or central line, Staying in the hospital for long periods of time, Having a weakened immune system, Having direct contact with people colonized with MRSA, Having open areas of skin like sores, burns, scrapes, Being an athlete who plays on a team, Having tattoos or piercings or removing body hair by shaving or waxing, People who use injection drugs, People in daycare centers, People in prison.

• #132 MRSA (Staph) Infection: Pictures, Symptoms, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.healthline.com/health/mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an infection of Staphylococcus (staph) bacteria. […] However, when they begin to multiply uncontrollably, a MRSA infection can occur. […] MRSA infections typically occur when there’s a cut or break in your skin. […] MRSA is very contagious and can be spread through direct contact with a person who has the infection. […] CA-MRSA usually causes skin infections. […] This type of MRSA infection may also develop because of poor hygiene, such as infrequent or improper handwashing. […] HA-MRSA is associated with infections that are contracted in medical facilities, such as hospitals or nursing homes. […] You can also get the infection through contact with contaminated linens or poorly sanitized surgical instruments. […] HA-MRSA can cause severe problems, such as blood infections and pneumonia. […] You’re at an increased risk for CA-MRSA if you share exercise equipment, towels, or razors with other people. […] Symptoms and treatments can vary based on the type of MRSA infection a person has.

• #133 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: MRSA (S. aureus) | Gouvernement du Québec

  https://www.quebec.ca/en/health/health-issues/a-z/staphylococcus-aureus-infection-mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, known as MRSA (or Mursa), is a staphylococcus that has become resistant to a number of antibiotics, including methicillin. Given that this antibiotic is not effective for treating MRSA infections, this limits the choice of treatment. MRSA causes the same infections as other staphylococci. […] Taking antibiotics, while necessary for treating infections, disrupts all the bacteria in the body, the good as well as the bad. Because this natural barrier has been weakened, it is much easier for a micro-organism such as MRSA to colonize or infect a person. […] MRSA is mainly spread through direct contact with the contaminated hands of a carrier, an infected person, or healthcare personnel, or with contaminated surfaces and objects. […] Healthcare facilities, especially hospitals, are places conducive to staph infections. In fact, the insertion of I.V. and urinary catheters, along with surgeries, are procedures that enable bacteria to enter the bloodstream and wounds.

• #134 MRSA Infection in Children – Stanford Medicine Children’s Health

  https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default?id=mrsa-infection-in-children-160-49

  MRSA is staph that cant be killed with common staph antibiotics, such as cephalexin. […] About a third of people in the U.S. carry the MRSA bacteria. […] MRSA can cause an infection if a child’s skin gets scratched or cut, or his or her immune system is weak. […] MRSA infections were first seen mostly in hospitals and nursing homes. […] As more people carry MRSA on their skin and in nasal passages, the risk for infection outside healthcare places is higher. […] A child is more at risk for MRSA if he or she has any of these: Close contact with people who have MRSA, A scrape, cut, or other skin injury, A previous infection with MRSA. […] MRSA infections are more common in groups of people that spend a lot of time close together. […] If MRSA gets through your child’s skin through a cut or other wound, he or she may get an active MRSA infection. […] MRSA is usually limited to the skin. It can be life-threatening if it spreads to the lungs, the bloodstream, or other organs. […] MRSA infection can be harder to treat than other staph infections.

• #135

• #136 MRSA Infection in Children

  https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/conditions/health-library/mrsa-infection-in-children

  If not treated, a MRSA skin infection may: Damage nearby tissue, Infect other people through physical contact or contact with contaminated items, Turn into an infection that spreads through the body. This may cause blood poisoning, pneumonia, flesh-eating disease, life-threatening shock, and death. […] MRSA is staph bacteria that can’t be killed with common antibiotics. […] MRSA is usually limited to the skin. It can be life-threatening if it spreads to the lungs, the bloodstream, or other organs. MRSA infection can be harder to treat than other staph infections. But other oral or IV antibiotics can successfully treat the infection. […] MRSA infections are more common in groups of people who spend a lot of time close together, such as children on a sports team. MRSA may be on sports equipment and clothing. It may transfer from skin to skin during play.

• #137 MRSA Infection in Children

  https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/conditions/health-library/mrsa-infection-in-children

  If not treated, a MRSA skin infection may: Damage nearby tissue, Infect other people through physical contact or contact with contaminated items, Turn into an infection that spreads through the body. This may cause blood poisoning, pneumonia, flesh-eating disease, life-threatening shock, and death. […] MRSA is staph bacteria that can’t be killed with common antibiotics. […] MRSA is usually limited to the skin. It can be life-threatening if it spreads to the lungs, the bloodstream, or other organs. MRSA infection can be harder to treat than other staph infections. But other oral or IV antibiotics can successfully treat the infection. […] MRSA infections are more common in groups of people who spend a lot of time close together, such as children on a sports team. MRSA may be on sports equipment and clothing. It may transfer from skin to skin during play.

• #138 MRSA Infection in Children

  https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/conditions/health-library/mrsa-infection-in-children

  If not treated, a MRSA skin infection may: Damage nearby tissue, Infect other people through physical contact or contact with contaminated items, Turn into an infection that spreads through the body. This may cause blood poisoning, pneumonia, flesh-eating disease, life-threatening shock, and death. […] MRSA is staph bacteria that can’t be killed with common antibiotics. […] MRSA is usually limited to the skin. It can be life-threatening if it spreads to the lungs, the bloodstream, or other organs. MRSA infection can be harder to treat than other staph infections. But other oral or IV antibiotics can successfully treat the infection. […] MRSA infections are more common in groups of people who spend a lot of time close together, such as children on a sports team. MRSA may be on sports equipment and clothing. It may transfer from skin to skin during play.

• #139 MRSA Infection in Children

  https://www.nationwidechildrens.org/conditions/health-library/mrsa-infection-in-children

  If not treated, a MRSA skin infection may: Damage nearby tissue, Infect other people through physical contact or contact with contaminated items, Turn into an infection that spreads through the body. This may cause blood poisoning, pneumonia, flesh-eating disease, life-threatening shock, and death. […] MRSA is staph bacteria that can’t be killed with common antibiotics. […] MRSA is usually limited to the skin. It can be life-threatening if it spreads to the lungs, the bloodstream, or other organs. MRSA infection can be harder to treat than other staph infections. But other oral or IV antibiotics can successfully treat the infection. […] MRSA infections are more common in groups of people who spend a lot of time close together, such as children on a sports team. MRSA may be on sports equipment and clothing. It may transfer from skin to skin during play.

• #140 MRSA Infection: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Contagious, Pictures & Superbug

  https://www.medicinenet.com/mrsa_infection/article.htm

  A deadly complication of MRSA is a deep infection, necrotizing fasciitis, which causes rapid spread and destruction of human tissues. Some but not all strains of MRSA are more likely to behave like „flesh-eating bacteria.” It is impossible to predict which MRSA infection will be „flesh-eating.” […] In general, there are two major strains of MRSA, „community-acquired or CA-MRSA and „hospital-acquired” or HA-MRSA. CA-MRSA differs from HA-MRSA in that it is often resistant to fewer antibiotics. […] MRSA bacteria often have a variety of „virulence factors” that are responsible for this. Some of these are „leucocidin” proteins that are toxic to immune cells that fight infections or cause more inflammation and tissue damage; Panton-Valentine leucocidin (PVL) protein is a well-known example that is produced by the USA300 strain of CA-MRSA.

• #141 Beware: Under the Wrong Conditions, You Can Die from MRSA

  https://www.healthline.com/health/can-you-die-from-mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a type of drug-resistant staph infection. […] MRSA is very contagious. Its transmitted through contact with a person who has the infection or any object or surface that has MRSA on it. […] MRSA only causes an infection when it finds an opening such as a cut and enters your skin or body. […] People who have MRSA but arent sick are said to be colonized. Theyre called carriers, and they can transmit MRSA to others. […] MRSA can infect the inside of your heart. This can quickly damage your heart valves. […] When MRSA gets into your body, it can cause a serious and life-threatening infection in your bloodstream or an organ. […] Invasive MRSA infections can overwhelm your immune system and can be very hard to treat. Many people die. […] The outlook for invasive MRSA infections depends on the severity. […] Invasive infections are much more serious. They almost always require aggressive treatment with IV antibiotics in the hospital. Even then, you can die from a severe infection.

• #142 MRSA Infection: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Contagious, Pictures & Superbug

  https://www.medicinenet.com/mrsa_infection/article.htm

  Most HA-MRSA infections have been due to the USA100 strain. HA-MRSA is more likely to affect people in health care institutions who may have weaker immune systems due to other illnesses. HA-MRSA is less likely to cause problems for healthy people in the community. […] Complications from MRSA can occur in almost all organ systems; the following is a listing of some that can result in permanent organ damage or death: endocarditis, kidney or lung infections (pneumonia), necrotizing fasciitis, osteomyelitis, and sepsis (blood poisoning). Early diagnosis and treatment usually result in better outcomes and reduction or elimination of further complications.

• #143 Beware: Under the Wrong Conditions, You Can Die from MRSA

  https://www.healthline.com/health/can-you-die-from-mrsa

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a type of drug-resistant staph infection. […] MRSA is very contagious. Its transmitted through contact with a person who has the infection or any object or surface that has MRSA on it. […] MRSA only causes an infection when it finds an opening such as a cut and enters your skin or body. […] People who have MRSA but arent sick are said to be colonized. Theyre called carriers, and they can transmit MRSA to others. […] MRSA can infect the inside of your heart. This can quickly damage your heart valves. […] When MRSA gets into your body, it can cause a serious and life-threatening infection in your bloodstream or an organ. […] Invasive MRSA infections can overwhelm your immune system and can be very hard to treat. Many people die. […] The outlook for invasive MRSA infections depends on the severity. […] Invasive infections are much more serious. They almost always require aggressive treatment with IV antibiotics in the hospital. Even then, you can die from a severe infection.

• #144 MRSA in the Elderly: Symptoms, Causes, and Prevention

  https://www.aplaceformom.com/caregiver-resources/articles/mrsa-in-the-elderly

  MRSA infections, called methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections, don’t respond to traditional treatments for bacterial infections, such as penicillin. […] The combination of frequent use of antibiotics and a weakened immune system make the elderly particularly susceptible to MRSA infections. […] Many older people contract the disease in hospitals or long-term care facilities through open wounds or skin-to-skin contact with health care providers’ hands that have been contaminated by other patients with MRSA infections. […] MRSAs deadliness depends on the severity of the infection, but its mortality rates are between 15% and 42%. MRSA infections can be fatal in young people but have higher death rates in elderly patients. […] Preventing MRSA infections is a priority across health care, including long-term care facilities. […] Although MRSA in the elderly is a growing problem, health officials stress that these kinds of preventive measures taken by health care providers, caregivers, and MRSA patients make a significant difference in warding off infections and lessening their severity.

• #145 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a group of gram-positive bacteria that are genetically distinct from other strains of Staphylococcus aureus. MRSA is responsible for several difficult-to-treat infections in humans. It caused more than 100,000 deaths worldwide attributable to antimicrobial resistance in 2019. […] MRSA is any strain of S. aureus that has developed (through natural selection) or acquired (through horizontal gene transfer) a multiple drug resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. […] MRSA infection is common in hospitals, prisons, and nursing homes, where people with open wounds, invasive devices such as catheters, and weakened immune systems are at greater risk of healthcare-associated infection. […] MRSA began as a hospital-acquired infection but has become community-acquired, as well as livestock-acquired.

• #146 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a group of gram-positive bacteria that are genetically distinct from other strains of Staphylococcus aureus. MRSA is responsible for several difficult-to-treat infections in humans. It caused more than 100,000 deaths worldwide attributable to antimicrobial resistance in 2019. […] MRSA is any strain of S. aureus that has developed (through natural selection) or acquired (through horizontal gene transfer) a multiple drug resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. […] MRSA infection is common in hospitals, prisons, and nursing homes, where people with open wounds, invasive devices such as catheters, and weakened immune systems are at greater risk of healthcare-associated infection. […] MRSA began as a hospital-acquired infection but has become community-acquired, as well as livestock-acquired.

• #147 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482221/

  Methicillin resistance has occurred in S. aureus by mutation of a penicillin-binding protein, a chromosome-encoded protein. This type of resistance is transferred between S. aureus organisms by bacteriophages. This is one of the only medically relevant examples of chromosome-mediated drug resistance by phage transduction. […] MRSA infection is one of the leading causes of hospital-acquired infections and is commonly associated with significant morbidity, mortality, length of stay, and cost burden. […] MRSA infections can be further divided into hospital-associated (HA-MRSA) infections and community-associated (CA-MRSA) infections. They differ not only in respect to their clinical features and molecular biology but also to their antibiotic susceptibility and treatment.

• #148 Incidence, prevalence, and management of MRSA bacteremia across patient populations—a review of recent developments in MRSA management and treatment | Critical Care | Full Text

  https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13054-017-1801-3

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection is still a major global healthcare problem. Of concern is S. aureus bacteremia, which exhibits high rates of morbidity and mortality and can cause metastatic or complicated infections such as infective endocarditis or sepsis. MRSA is responsible for most global S. aureus bacteremia cases, and compared with methicillin-sensitive S. aureus, MRSA infection is associated with poorer clinical outcomes. S. aureus virulence is affected by the unique combination of toxin and immune-modulatory gene products, which may differ by geographic location and healthcare- or community-associated acquisition. […] Although methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) bacteremia incidence has decreased over the past decade, MRSA remains associated with poorer clinical outcomes compared with methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA).

• #149 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an overview of basic and clinical research | Nature Reviews Microbiology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-018-0147-4

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of the most successful modern pathogens. […] The same organism that lives as a commensal and is transmitted in both health-care and community settings is also a leading cause of bacteraemia, endocarditis, skin and soft tissue infections, bone and joint infections and hospital-acquired infections. […] Genetically diverse, the epidemiology of MRSA is primarily characterized by the serial emergence of epidemic strains. […] Although its incidence has recently declined in some regions, MRSA still poses a formidable clinical threat, with persistently high morbidity and mortality. […] Successful treatment remains challenging and requires the evaluation of both novel antimicrobials and adjunctive aspects of care, such as infectious disease consultation, echocardiography and source control. […] In this Review, we provide an overview of basic and clinical MRSA research and summarize the expansive body of literature on the epidemiology, transmission, genetic diversity, evolution, surveillance and treatment of MRSA.

• #150 MRSA: The not-so-famous superbug – Harvard Health

  https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/mrsa-the-not-so-famous-superbug-2016091210191

  Last year Daniel Fells, a tight end for the New York Giants, was hospitalized with a bad infection in his foot known as MRSA, which stands for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. It is a drug-resistant form of staph. […] Although it rarely gets headlines, MRSA is perhaps the most well-known superbug a type of bacteria that is resistant to most, if not all, antibiotics. […] MRSA proves to be especially adept at evading the grasp of antibiotics, becoming a truly dangerous superbug. […] Over time, MRSA has become resistant to numerous antibiotics, making it increasingly dangerous and difficult to treat. […] According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, about one in three people carry the staph bacteria in their nose, and two out of 100 people carry MRSA. […] Although MRSA infection used to be primarily a „hospital problem,” it’s clear that MRSA is becoming a problem in the general population, usually in the form of skin infections.

• #151 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Mrsa: Etiology, At-risk Populations and Treatment (Bacteriology Research Developments): Kolendi, Charles L.: 9781607413981: Amazon.com: Books

  https://www.amazon.com/Methicillin-Resistant-Staphylococcus-Aureus-MRSA-Bacteriology/dp/1607413981

  Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) is a bacterium responsible for difficult-to-treat infections in humans. […] MRSA was identified as a nosocomial pathogen in the 1960’s. […] MRSA acquisition has traditionally been linked to health care settings and specific patient populations. Established risk factors for MRSA infection include older age, recent hospitalisation or surgery, past antimicrobial therapy, residence in a long-term care facility, dialysis, indwelling percutaneous devices and catheters.

• #152 MRSA in Nursing Homes – Causes & Diagnosing MRSA

  https://nursinghomesabuse.org/nursing-home-injuries/infections/mrsa/

  MRSA frequently spreads in health care facilities such as nursing homes, and it’s a worsening problem because of the increase of nursing home residents in the past several years. MRSA preys on individuals with weakened immune systems, and nursing home residents are elderly people, many of whom have weak immune systems. […] Many nursing home residents have health conditions such as heart disease, arthritis, diabetes, and high blood pressure. These and other illnesses are risk factors for MRSA in nursing homes. […] Additional risks include the following: Recent antibiotic treatments, Medical devices, such as catheters, in the body, Presence of wounds or bedsores, Recent surgery or procedures such as dialysis. […] Some nursing home patients die from MRSA, but it’s not always a fatal disease. However, a study conducted at the University of Florida concluded that older adults and elderly people who carry MRSA on their skin are twice as likely to die within ten years as people who don’t have the bacteria.

• #153 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Mrsa: Etiology, At-risk Populations and Treatment (Bacteriology Research Developments): Kolendi, Charles L.: 9781607413981: Amazon.com: Books

  https://www.amazon.com/Methicillin-Resistant-Staphylococcus-Aureus-MRSA-Bacteriology/dp/1607413981

  Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) is a bacterium responsible for difficult-to-treat infections in humans. […] MRSA was identified as a nosocomial pathogen in the 1960’s. […] MRSA acquisition has traditionally been linked to health care settings and specific patient populations. Established risk factors for MRSA infection include older age, recent hospitalisation or surgery, past antimicrobial therapy, residence in a long-term care facility, dialysis, indwelling percutaneous devices and catheters.

• #154 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus Mrsa: Etiology, At-risk Populations and Treatment (Bacteriology Research Developments): Kolendi, Charles L.: 9781607413981: Amazon.com: Books

  https://www.amazon.com/Methicillin-Resistant-Staphylococcus-Aureus-MRSA-Bacteriology/dp/1607413981

  Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) is a bacterium responsible for difficult-to-treat infections in humans. […] MRSA was identified as a nosocomial pathogen in the 1960’s. […] MRSA acquisition has traditionally been linked to health care settings and specific patient populations. Established risk factors for MRSA infection include older age, recent hospitalisation or surgery, past antimicrobial therapy, residence in a long-term care facility, dialysis, indwelling percutaneous devices and catheters.

• #155 MRSA

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/mrsa/

  MRSA usually lives harmlessly on the skin and mainly spreads through touch. […] MRSA will only cause an infection if it spreads inside the body. […] MRSA infections can affect anyone, but you may be more at risk if you: have long stays in hospital (especially if you’re being treated for a serious condition) […] have a break or opening in your skin, for example for a drip into a vein, a cut from surgery, a serious burn or wound, or other damage to your skin […] have a weakened immune system (for example, because of a condition such as HIV or treatment such as chemotherapy).

• #156 Community-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (CA-MRSA) – Fact Sheet

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/staphylococcus_aureus/methicillin_resistant/community_associated/fact_sheet.htm

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a strain of S. aureus that is resistant to methicillin, an antibiotic in the same class as penicillin, and is traditionally seen in people who have been recently hospitalized or who have been treated at a health care facility (such as treatment at a dialysis center). […] Community-associated MRSA infections (CA-MRSA) are MRSA infections in healthy people who have not been hospitalized or had a medical procedure (such as dialysis or surgery) within the past year. […] Anyone can get CA-MRSA, however outbreaks have been seen among athletes, prisoners, military recruits, daycare attendees, injection drug users and other groups of people who live in crowded settings and/or routinely share contaminated items. […] CA-MRSA is spread in the same way as an MRSA infection, mainly through person-to-person contact or contact with a contaminated item such as a towel, clothing or athletic equipment. […] Bacteria that exist normally on the skin cause CA-MRSA and so it is possible to infect a pre-existing cut not protected by a dressing or other bandage.

• #157 Community-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (CA-MRSA) – Fact Sheet

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/staphylococcus_aureus/methicillin_resistant/community_associated/fact_sheet.htm

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a strain of S. aureus that is resistant to methicillin, an antibiotic in the same class as penicillin, and is traditionally seen in people who have been recently hospitalized or who have been treated at a health care facility (such as treatment at a dialysis center). […] Community-associated MRSA infections (CA-MRSA) are MRSA infections in healthy people who have not been hospitalized or had a medical procedure (such as dialysis or surgery) within the past year. […] Anyone can get CA-MRSA, however outbreaks have been seen among athletes, prisoners, military recruits, daycare attendees, injection drug users and other groups of people who live in crowded settings and/or routinely share contaminated items. […] CA-MRSA is spread in the same way as an MRSA infection, mainly through person-to-person contact or contact with a contaminated item such as a towel, clothing or athletic equipment. […] Bacteria that exist normally on the skin cause CA-MRSA and so it is possible to infect a pre-existing cut not protected by a dressing or other bandage.

• #158 Community-Acquired MRSA | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/c/community-acquired-mrsa.html

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a type of bacteria. Unlike other Staph bacteria, it cant be killed by the antibiotic methicillin and other similar medicines. […] MRSA first developed when many strains of bacteria were exposed to standard antibiotics. It caused the surviving strains to become resistant to the antibiotics. […] Community-acquired MRSA is more likely to cause serious problems in young children and older adults. Thats also true for people with a weak immune system. […] Some things that make it more likely for you to get community-acquired MRSA are: Skin injury, Skin tattoos, body piercings. or injecting illegal drugs, Previous infection with MRSA, Close contact with others who have MRSA colonization or infection, Sharing equipment or supplies that are not cleaned or laundered between users. […] A MRSA infection is caused by a certain type of staph bacteria. It cannot be treated with methicillin and other similar antibiotics. Community-acquired MRSA is a MRSA infection that you get outside of a healthcare setting.

• #159 MRSA Infection: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Contagious, Pictures & Superbug

  https://www.medicinenet.com/mrsa_infection/article.htm

  Most HA-MRSA infections have been due to the USA100 strain. HA-MRSA is more likely to affect people in health care institutions who may have weaker immune systems due to other illnesses. HA-MRSA is less likely to cause problems for healthy people in the community. […] Complications from MRSA can occur in almost all organ systems; the following is a listing of some that can result in permanent organ damage or death: endocarditis, kidney or lung infections (pneumonia), necrotizing fasciitis, osteomyelitis, and sepsis (blood poisoning). Early diagnosis and treatment usually result in better outcomes and reduction or elimination of further complications.

• #160 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a group of gram-positive bacteria that are genetically distinct from other strains of Staphylococcus aureus. MRSA is responsible for several difficult-to-treat infections in humans. It caused more than 100,000 deaths worldwide attributable to antimicrobial resistance in 2019. […] MRSA is any strain of S. aureus that has developed (through natural selection) or acquired (through horizontal gene transfer) a multiple drug resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. […] MRSA infection is common in hospitals, prisons, and nursing homes, where people with open wounds, invasive devices such as catheters, and weakened immune systems are at greater risk of healthcare-associated infection. […] MRSA began as a hospital-acquired infection but has become community-acquired, as well as livestock-acquired.

• #161 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a group of gram-positive bacteria that are genetically distinct from other strains of Staphylococcus aureus. MRSA is responsible for several difficult-to-treat infections in humans. It caused more than 100,000 deaths worldwide attributable to antimicrobial resistance in 2019. […] MRSA is any strain of S. aureus that has developed (through natural selection) or acquired (through horizontal gene transfer) a multiple drug resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. […] MRSA infection is common in hospitals, prisons, and nursing homes, where people with open wounds, invasive devices such as catheters, and weakened immune systems are at greater risk of healthcare-associated infection. […] MRSA began as a hospital-acquired infection but has become community-acquired, as well as livestock-acquired.

• #162 MRSA in Nursing Homes – Causes & Diagnosing MRSA

  https://nursinghomesabuse.org/nursing-home-injuries/infections/mrsa/

  MRSA represents a significant danger to nursing home residents, but many people outside the medical field haven’t heard of it. MRSA stands for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. The disease is an antibiotic-resistant staph infection. […] According to the Centers for Disease Control & Prevention (CDC), healthcare facilities like nursing homes are particularly vulnerable to the disease because nursing home residents frequently receive inpatient medical care or surgery and have weakened immune systems due to age. […] Further CDC data indicates that around 120,000 MRSA infections occur each year and that approximately 20,000 deaths result from those infections. Many of those infections occur in health care settings like nursing homes. […] Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections occur when a nursing home resident comes into contact with the bacteria. The disease typically spreads by touch between human beings or when someone comes into contact with an item contaminated with the bacteria.

• #163 MRSA | Georgia Department of Public Health

  https://dph.georgia.gov/epidemiology/acute-disease-epidemiology/mrsa

  Antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus has been a growing problem since penicillin was first introduced in the 1940s. […] Since the late 1990s, MRSA has become a widespread cause of disease in the community, associated with the emergence of a new and virulent strain known as USA-300. […] Community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) can affect otherwise healthy individuals with no exposure to settings where antibiotic resistance is expected, like hospitals. […] CA-MRSA frequently causes skin or soft-tissue infections that contain pus. […] Some CA-MRSA infections are severe, including sepsis, pneumonia, osteomyelitis (bone infection) or endocarditis (heart-valve infection). […] This strain is also becoming established in hospitals. […] Following multiple outbreak investigations, CDC has characterized risk factors („the 5 C’s”) associated with CA-MRSA disease, which include Crowding, Close contact, Compromised skin, Contaminated surfaces and shared personal items, lack of Cleanliness, and in some outbreaks, prior antimicrobial use.

• #164 MRSA | Georgia Department of Public Health

  https://dph.georgia.gov/epidemiology/acute-disease-epidemiology/mrsa

  Antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus has been a growing problem since penicillin was first introduced in the 1940s. […] Since the late 1990s, MRSA has become a widespread cause of disease in the community, associated with the emergence of a new and virulent strain known as USA-300. […] Community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) can affect otherwise healthy individuals with no exposure to settings where antibiotic resistance is expected, like hospitals. […] CA-MRSA frequently causes skin or soft-tissue infections that contain pus. […] Some CA-MRSA infections are severe, including sepsis, pneumonia, osteomyelitis (bone infection) or endocarditis (heart-valve infection). […] This strain is also becoming established in hospitals. […] Following multiple outbreak investigations, CDC has characterized risk factors („the 5 C’s”) associated with CA-MRSA disease, which include Crowding, Close contact, Compromised skin, Contaminated surfaces and shared personal items, lack of Cleanliness, and in some outbreaks, prior antimicrobial use.

• #165 Livestock-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) as Causes of Human Infection and Colonization in Germany | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0055040

  Since many of the MRSA clonal lineages identified in livestock were uncommon for MRSA isolates found until then in human hosts, the term livestock-associated MRSA (LA-MRSA) has been introduced to distinguish these MRSA from classical human hospital-acquired (HA-MRSA) or community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA). […] Predominantly, LA-MRSA are associated with clonal complex (CC) 398 as defined by multilocus sequence typing (MLST). […] In addition to MRSA CC398, other LA-MRSA clonal lineages have also been detected. […] Epidemiological investigations have shown that LA-MRSA do not only colonize livestock, but are able to overcome the species barrier resulting in zoonotic transmission to persons with direct livestock exposure. […] The pathogenicity of MRSA CC398 for humans has been documented in a variety of reports describing cases of endocarditis, otomastoiditis, pneumonia or wound infections.

• #166 Antibiotic-Resistant Infections, MRSA, and C-Diff – National Center for Health Research

  https://www.center4research.org/antibiotic-resistant-infections-mrsa-c-diff-2/

  There is growing concern about the presence of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA), a type of bacteria that is resistant to most antibiotics. […] The growing number of antibiotic-resistant bacteria poses a very serious threat to public health. […] Although MRSA is resistant to many antibiotics, a handful of drugs can still be used to treat the infection. […] The inappropriate use of antibiotics (such as using them to treat viral infections like colds) contributes to the growing number of antibiotic-resistant bacteria today. […] Hospital- and Healthcare-acquired MRSA occurs as a result of exposure during medical care, usually after surgery or a procedure involving the insertion of foreign material into the body. […] Community-acquired MRSA is caused by contact with people who are infected with MRSA or objects that infected people have been in contact with.

• #167 MRSA | Georgia Department of Public Health

  https://dph.georgia.gov/epidemiology/acute-disease-epidemiology/mrsa

  Antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus has been a growing problem since penicillin was first introduced in the 1940s. […] Since the late 1990s, MRSA has become a widespread cause of disease in the community, associated with the emergence of a new and virulent strain known as USA-300. […] Community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) can affect otherwise healthy individuals with no exposure to settings where antibiotic resistance is expected, like hospitals. […] CA-MRSA frequently causes skin or soft-tissue infections that contain pus. […] Some CA-MRSA infections are severe, including sepsis, pneumonia, osteomyelitis (bone infection) or endocarditis (heart-valve infection). […] This strain is also becoming established in hospitals. […] Following multiple outbreak investigations, CDC has characterized risk factors („the 5 C’s”) associated with CA-MRSA disease, which include Crowding, Close contact, Compromised skin, Contaminated surfaces and shared personal items, lack of Cleanliness, and in some outbreaks, prior antimicrobial use.

• #168 MRSA. Methicillin (meticillin) resistant Staphylococcus aureus

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus

  MRSA is the term used for bacteria of the Staphylococcus aureus group that are resistant to the usual antibiotics used in the treatment of infections with such organisms. […] Resistance to methicillin is due to the presence of the mec gene, situated on Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec). This alters the site at which methicillin binds to kill the organism. […] Infections caused by MRSA are the same as other staphylococcal infections because the organism itself is not any more virulent (or infectious) than usual type S aureus. […] Problems arise in the treatment of overt infections with MRSA because antibiotic choice is very limited. […] Most MRSA infections occur in wounds (eg surgical wounds), skin (eg intravenous access sites), or in the bloodstream. […] Mortality from these infections is not significantly different from those seen with usual type S aureus infections.

• #169 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): One Health Perspec | IDR

  https://www.dovepress.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-one-health-perspectiv-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a major human pathogen and a historically emergent zoonotic pathogen with public health and veterinary importance. […] The methicillin resistance could be determined by PCR-based detection of the mecA gene as well as resistance to cefoxitin. […] Certain strains of S. aureus are resistant to methicillin, which has been identified as MRSA. […] The mecA gene mainly encodes for the penicillin-binding protein (PBP-2A) which is responsible for this kind of antimicrobial resistance. […] MRSA are virulent zoonotic biovars of S. aureus, which exhibited specific criteria of being cefoxitin and methicillin-resistant. […] The emergence of multidrug-resistant virulent MRSA strains is a remarkable public health problem. […] MRSA is known as the major cause of hospital-acquired infections (HA-MRSA) and community-acquired infections (CA-MRSA); therefore, MRSA is not only known as a nosocomial bacterium.

• #170 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482221/

  Methicillin resistance has occurred in S. aureus by mutation of a penicillin-binding protein, a chromosome-encoded protein. This type of resistance is transferred between S. aureus organisms by bacteriophages. This is one of the only medically relevant examples of chromosome-mediated drug resistance by phage transduction. […] MRSA infection is one of the leading causes of hospital-acquired infections and is commonly associated with significant morbidity, mortality, length of stay, and cost burden. […] MRSA infections can be further divided into hospital-associated (HA-MRSA) infections and community-associated (CA-MRSA) infections. They differ not only in respect to their clinical features and molecular biology but also to their antibiotic susceptibility and treatment.

• #171 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus

  Researchers suggest that CA-MRSA did not evolve from HA-MRSA. […] This is further proven by molecular typing of CA-MRSA strains and genome comparison between CA-MRSA and HA-MRSA, which indicate that novel MRSA strains integrated SCCmec into MSSA separately on its own. […] By mid-2000, CA-MRSA was introduced into healthcare systems and distinguishing CA-MRSA from HA-MRSA became a difficult process. […] Community-acquired MRSA is more easily treated and more virulent than hospital-acquired MRSA (HA-MRSA). […] The genetic mechanism for the enhanced virulence in CA-MRSA remains an active area of research.

• #172 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an overview of basic and clinical research | Nature Reviews Microbiology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-018-0147-4

  Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of the most successful modern pathogens. […] The same organism that lives as a commensal and is transmitted in both health-care and community settings is also a leading cause of bacteraemia, endocarditis, skin and soft tissue infections, bone and joint infections and hospital-acquired infections. […] Genetically diverse, the epidemiology of MRSA is primarily characterized by the serial emergence of epidemic strains. […] Although its incidence has recently declined in some regions, MRSA still poses a formidable clinical threat, with persistently high morbidity and mortality. […] Successful treatment remains challenging and requires the evaluation of both novel antimicrobials and adjunctive aspects of care, such as infectious disease consultation, echocardiography and source control. […] In this Review, we provide an overview of basic and clinical MRSA research and summarize the expansive body of literature on the epidemiology, transmission, genetic diversity, evolution, surveillance and treatment of MRSA.

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