Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) to Gram-dodatnie bakterie oporne na antybiotyki beta-laktamowe, głównie dzięki nabyciu genu mecA kodującego białko PBP2a o niskim powinowactwie do tych leków. Gen ten znajduje się na mobilnym elemencie genetycznym SCCmec, którego różne typy determinują profil oporności na antybiotyki, w tym aminoglikozydy, makrolidy i tetracykliny. MRSA wykazuje heterogenną oporność na meticylinę, gdzie subpopulacje bakterii o wysokiej oporności są selekcjonowane pod wpływem antybiotyków. Oprócz PBP2a, mechanizmy oporności obejmują produkcję β-laktamazy BlaZ, alternatywny mechanizm podziału komórkowego umożliwiający replikację w obecności antybiotyków oraz tworzenie biofilmu, który utrudnia penetrację leków i sprzyja przetrwaniu bakterii. MRSA posiada także liczne czynniki wirulencji, takie jak toksyny (TSST-1, enterotoksyna B, leukocydyna PVL) oraz białka powierzchniowe MSCRAMMs, które ułatwiają adhezję i inwazję tkanek gospodarza, a także mechanizmy unikania odpowiedzi immunologicznej, np. produkcję antyfagocytarnej kapsułki i przekształcanie neutrofilowych pułapek zewnątrzkomórkowych (NETs) w toksyczną dla makrofagów 2-deoksyadenozynę.

Mechanizm oporności MRSA

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) to grupa bakterii Gram-dodatnich, które są genetycznie odmienne od innych szczepów Staphylococcus aureus. MRSA odpowiada za wiele trudnych do leczenia infekcji i stanowi jedno z największych zagrożeń w opiece zdrowotnej na całym świecie. W 2019 roku infekcje MRSA były odpowiedzialne za ponad 100 000 zgonów związanych z opornością na antybiotyki.1 Pojawienie się szczepów MRSA od lat 60. XX wieku, ich rozprzestrzenianie się na całym świecie i stawanie się główną przyczyną zakażeń bakteryjnych zarówno w środowisku szpitalnym, jak i pozaszpitalnym, wymaga głębokiego zrozumienia mechanizmów patogenezy tych bakterii.2

Podstawowy mechanizm oporności na beta-laktamy

Głównym mechanizmem oporności MRSA na antybiotyki jest nabycie genu mecA, który koduje białko wiążące penicylinę 2a (PBP2a) o znacznie niższym powinowactwie do antybiotyków beta-laktamowych.34 Białko to pozwala na kontynuację biosyntezy ściany komórkowej, która jest celem działania antybiotyków beta-laktamowych, nawet w obecności wysokich stężeń tych antybiotyków.5 Gen mecA znajduje się na mobilnym elemencie genetycznym nazywanym Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec), którego ekspresja jest kontrolowana przez ścieżkę transdukcji sygnału proteolitycznego składającą się z białka czujnikowego (MecR1) i represora (MecI).6

W normalnych warunkach, antybiotyki beta-laktamowe wiążą się z białkami wiążącymi penicylinę (PBP) znajdującymi się w błonie komórkowej bakterii, które pełnią kluczową funkcję w syntezie ściany komórkowej.7 Wiązanie antybiotyku z PBP uniemożliwia im pełnienie swojej podstawowej roli i prowadzi do śmierci komórki bakteryjnej. Jednak w przypadku MRSA, PBP2a ma znacznie zmniejszone powinowactwo do większości antybiotyków beta-laktamowych i może kontynuować niezbędne sieciowanie łańcuchów peptydoglikanu w obecności tych antybiotyków.8

Szczegółowe mechanizmy oporności

MRSA wykazuje złożony wzorzec oporności na antybiotyki beta-laktamowe, określany jako oporność heterogenna. W populacji MRSA większość bakterii wykazuje stosunkowo niską oporność na meticylinę, ale pewna subpopulacja komórek wykazuje bardzo wysoką oporność.9 Ekspozycja takiej heterogennej populacji komórek MRSA na antybiotyki beta-laktamowe selekcjonuje komórki o wyższej oporności, co ostatecznie prowadzi do powstania homogennej populacji MRSA, która jest całkowicie odporna na wysokie stężenia beta-laktamów.10

Oprócz podstawowego mechanizmu oporności poprzez PBP2a, MRSA wykorzystuje również inne strategie, w tym:

  • Produkcję β-laktamazy (BlaZ), która hydrolizuje wiązanie amidowe w czteroczłonowym pierścieniu β-laktamowym w dwuetapowym cyklu reakcji acylacji-deacylacji, chroniąc PBP przed inaktywacją11
  • Wykorzystanie alternatywnego mechanizmu podziału komórkowego, który pozwala na replikację nawet w obecności antybiotyków – jest to niedawno odkryty mechanizm niezbędny dla oporności MRSA12
  • Aktywację odpowiedzi na stres ścisły (stringent stress response), która jest konieczna do ekspresji wysokiego poziomu oporności13
  • Tworzenie biofilmu, który utrudnia penetrację antybiotyków i umożliwia przetrwanie bakterii w środowisku z antybiotykami14

Rola SCCmec w oporności MRSA

Element SCCmec jest charakterystyczny dla MRSA i zawiera powtórzenia bezpośrednie z sekwencją miejsca integracji (ISS) rozpoznawaną przez rekombinazy kasety chromosomowej (ccr).15 Różne genotypy SCCmec nadają różne cechy mikrobiologiczne, takie jak różne wskaźniki oporności na antybiotyki.16 Te różnice można wyjaśnić różnicami w dostosowaniu związanymi z noszeniem dużego lub małego plazmidu SCCmec.17

Oporność na wszystkie środki terapeutyczne, β-laktamy, w szczepach MRSA była związana z przenoszalnym materiałem genomowym w genomie bakteryjnym zwanym SCCmec.18 W różnych typach SCCmec, geny mecA i mecC wraz z innymi genami oporności nadają oporność na inne klasy antybiotyków, takie jak aminoglikozydy, makrolidy, linkozamidy, streptograminy B i tetracykliny.19

Mechanizmy patogenezy MRSA

Staphylococcus aureus jest wszechstronnym patogenem zdolnym do wywoływania szerokiego zakresu chorób u ludzi. Arsenał czynników wirulencji S. aureus jest rozległy, przy czym zarówno produkty strukturalne, jak i wydzielane odgrywają rolę w patogenezie infekcji.20 Niektóre szczepy MRSA zawierają czynniki lub tło genetyczne, które mogą zwiększać ich wirulencję lub umożliwiać im wywoływanie określonych zespołów klinicznych.21

Adhezja i kolonizacja

Przy ustanawianiu infekcji, S. aureus posiada liczne białka powierzchniowe, zwane mikrobialnymi składnikami powierzchniowymi rozpoznającymi adhezyjne cząsteczki macierzy (MSCRAMMs), które pośredniczą w przyleganiu do tkanek gospodarza.22 Różne szczepy S. aureus mogą mieć różne konstelacje MSCRAMMs i w ten sposób mogą być predysponowane do wywoływania określonych rodzajów infekcji.23

Po przyleganiu do tkanek gospodarza lub materiałów protetycznych, S. aureus jest w stanie rosnąć i utrzymywać się na różne sposoby. Może tworzyć biofilmy (śluz) na powierzchniach gospodarza i sztucznych materiałach, umożliwiając mu przetrwanie poprzez unikanie obrony gospodarza i działania przeciwdrobnoustrojowego.24 Zdolność do tworzenia i przebywania w biofilmach jest jednym z powodów, dla których zakażenia urządzeń protetycznych mogą być tak trudne do zwalczenia bez usunięcia urządzenia.25

Unikanie odpowiedzi immunologicznej

S. aureus posiada wiele cech, które pomagają mu unikać układu odpornościowego gospodarza podczas infekcji. Jego główną obroną jest produkcja antyfagocytarnej mikrokapsułki.26 Podczas infekcji S. aureus produkuje liczne enzymy, takie jak proteazy, lipazy i elastazy, które umożliwiają mu inwazję i niszczenie tkanek gospodarza oraz przerzutowanie do innych miejsc.27

Odkryto również, że MRSA przekształca neutrofilowe pułapki zewnątrzkomórkowe (NETs) w 2-deoksyadenozyna (dAdo), cząsteczkę toksyczną dla makrofagów. To skutecznie przekształca NETs w broń przeciwko układowi odpornościowemu.28 Ten mechanizm wyjaśnia, dlaczego miejsca zakażenia S. aureus często charakteryzują się brakiem makrofagów.29

Produkcja toksyn i czynników wirulencji

MRSA i S. aureus produkują kilka toksyn zaangażowanych w antagonizowanie układu odpornościowego gospodarza i pośredniczenie w chorobie:30

  • Toksyna zespołu szoku toksycznego 1 (TSST-1) – superantygen wiążący MHC II i receptory komórek T, aktywujący do 20% obwodowych komórek T31
  • Enterotoksyna gronkowcowa B – inny superantygen działający podobnie jak TSST-1, wykazujący niezwykłą odporność na ciepło i kwasy32
  • Leukocydyna Panton-Valentine (PVL) – toksyna tworząca pory w błonach leukocytów, powodująca ich pękanie; związana z tworzeniem ropni i ciężkim martwiczym zapaleniem płuc33
  • α-toksyna – atakująca leukocyty i płytki krwi34
  • Moduliny rozpuszczalne w fenolu (PSMs) – produkowane przez większość gronkowców i odgrywające rolę w wirulencji35

Ekspresja wielu czynników wirulencji gronkowcowych odgrywa kluczową rolę w patogenezie. Regulator genu akcesoryjnego (agr) jest systemem quorum sensing, który odgrywa decydującą rolę w regulacji wirulencji gronkowcowej.36

Różnice między CA-MRSA i HA-MRSA

MRSA można podzielić na MRSA związany z opieką zdrowotną (HA-MRSA) i MRSA związany ze społecznością (CA-MRSA), dwie genotypowo odmienne grupy bakterii, które obierają za cel różne, ale nakładające się populacje i powodują różne choroby.37

Co ciekawe, gdy HA-MRSA zostanie usunięty ze środowiska opieki zdrowotnej, rzadko powoduje choroby u osób bez predysponujących warunków. Sugerowano zatem, że HA-MRSA reprezentuje mniej odporne szczepy S. aureus, które mogłyby przetrwać tylko w środowiskach, gdzie konkurencja bakteryjna jest ograniczona przez presję antybiotykową.38

Szczepy CA-MRSA były odpowiedzialne za dramatyczny wzrost częstości występowania infekcji, szczególnie skóry i tkanek miękkich, oraz były przyczyną wielu niezwykle ciężkich infekcji, takich jak martwicze zapalenie płuc, martwicze zapalenie powięzi i zapalenie mięśni.39 Zmiana objawów klinicznych S. aureus skłoniła do spekulacji, że infekcje CA-MRSA odzwierciedlają infekcję bardziej zjadliwymi szczepami.40

Genetyczne adaptacje i ewolucja MRSA

Naukowcy odkryli, że MRSA przeszedł powtarzające się mutacje w genie sarZ, regulatorze transkrypcyjnym odpowiedzialnym za regulację ekspresji genów wirulencji, prowadząc do zwiększonej ciężkości zakażeń krwi w modelach mysich.41 Mutacje w sarZ spowodowały zwiększoną ekspresję i produkcję białka powierzchniowego ClfB, które okazało się kluczowe dla patogenezy izolatów USA300 z zakażeń krwi.42

Innym elementem zwiększającym wirulencję CA-MRSA jest element kataboliczny argininy mobilnej typu I (ACME), który posiada wiele właściwości czyniących go równie atrakcyjnym kandydatem do wyjaśnienia sukcesu szczepów USA300.43 ACME jest czynnikiem wirulencji obecnym w wielu szczepach MRSA, ale nie rozpowszechnionym w MSSA.44

Rozwój oporności na antybiotyki w gronkowcach jest ułatwiony przez mobilne elementy genetyczne (MGEs). Na przykład, S. aureus uzyskał oporność na wankomycynę i meticylinę poprzez nabycie operonu VanA od enterokoków i kasety chromosomowej zawierającej mecA.45

Nowe mechanizmy oporności i perspektywy leczenia

Niedawno odkryte mechanizmy oporności

Badacze z Uniwersytetu w Sheffield odkryli, że MRSA wykorzystuje podwójny mechanizm obronny przeciwko antybiotykom. Oprócz już znanego mechanizmu opartego na PBP2a, MRSA wyewoluował alternatywny mechanizm podziału komórkowego, który pozwala mu na replikację nawet w obecności antybiotyków.46 Ten nowo odkryty mechanizm jest niezbędny dla oporności MRSA i stanowi drugą linię obrony patogenu.47

Innym istotnym odkryciem jest rola receptora BlaR1 w bakteriach MRSA, który wykrywa antybiotyki beta-laktamowe w swoim otoczeniu bakteryjnym i oddziałuje z represorem beta-laktamowym Blal, aby pośredniczyć w oporności.48 Naukowcy ujawnili strukturę i szczegóły molekularne działania BlaR1 na poziomie atomowym, co może prowadzić do opracowania nowych leków hamujących tę interakcję.49

Badania wykazały również, że zwiększona ekspresja PBP4 może uzupełniać oporność związaną z mecA w S. aureus i prowadzić do zwiększonej oporności na beta-laktamy.50 Jednakże szczepy mające zwiększoną ekspresję PBP4 są mniej wirulentne w porównaniu z dzikimi szczepami, co sugeruje, że oporność na beta-laktamy zapośredniczona przez PBP4 prawdopodobnie odbywa się kosztem wirulencji.51

Tworzenie biofilmu jako mechanizm oporności

Tworzenie biofilmu, szczególnie na implantach medycznych, takich jak cewniki, jest innym ważnym mechanizmem wirulencji dla MRSA.52 Biofilm S. aureus jest osadzony w warstwie śluzu glikokaliksowego i może składać się z kwasów tejchojowych, białek gospodarza, pozakomórkowego DNA (eDNA) i czasami antygenu międzykomórkowego polisacharydowego (PIA).53

Biofilmy S. aureus wykazują również wysoką oporność na odpowiedź immunologiczną gospodarza.54 Badania nad rozwojem biofilmu wykazały związek ze zmianami w ekspresji genów.55 Mechanizm oporności związany z biofilmem jest bardzo złożony i wynika głównie z tego, że komponenty w biofilmach zmniejszają przepuszczalność antybiotyków, bakterie w biofilmach zmniejszają tempo wzrostu, aby uniknąć stymulacji antybiotykami, a w biofilmach występują pewne specyficzne geny oporności.56

Nowe strategie terapeutyczne

Rosnąca oporność MRSA wymaga nowych podejść terapeutycznych. Badania wskazują na kilka obiecujących kierunków:

  • Inhibitory ukierunkowane na nowo odkryty alternatywny mechanizm podziału komórkowego MRSA57
  • Leki celujące w interakcję między BlaR1 a Blal, aby zachować działanie antybiotyków beta-laktamowych58
  • Wykorzystanie toksyny lizostafiny, która może celować w ścianę komórkową superbakterii MRSA i powodować ich zniszczenie59
  • Terapeutyczne środki ukierunkowane na konkretne mechanizmy wirulencji MRSA, które będą miały przewagę nad antybiotykami o szerokim spektrum działania, ponieważ nie będą wpływać na korzystne bakterie60
  • β-defensyna 3, która może hamować wzrost bakterii poprzez regulację odpowiedzi zapalnej i immunologicznej w infekcji biofilmu opornego na leki wywołanej przez MRSA61
  • Opracowanie szczepionek przeciwko MRSA, które mogłyby stać się skutecznym środkiem zapobiegawczym62

Wyniki badań nad fitozwiązkami przeciwko MRSA

Badania wykazały skuteczność niektórych związków roślinnych przeciwko MRSA. Na przykład cynnamaldehyd hamuje tworzenie biofilmu MRSA w sposób zależny od stężenia, prawdopodobnie poprzez mechanizm zmniejszania żywotności bakterii.63 Inny potencjalny mechanizm, poprzez który cynnamaldehyd wywołuje efekt letalny, to hamowanie aktywności ATPazy.64

Ekstrakty z Rheum palmatum, A. lappa i P. suffructicosa wykazują różnorodne działania przeciwko MRSA, takie jak zakłócanie ściany komórkowej i błony, zakłócanie nukleoidów i indukowanie zmian morfologicznych przypominających pseudowielokomórkowe struktury w MRSA.65 Antybakteryjny wpływ ekstraktów roślinnych obserwowano wewnątrz komórek bakteryjnych, co potwierdzono kondensacją nukleoidu w cytoplazmie.66

Podsumowanie i przyszłe kierunki badań

Patogeny MRSA stanowią poważne zagrożenie zarówno w środowiskach medycznych, jak i społecznych, gdzie szybko się rozprzestrzeniają.67 Główna oporność S. aureus na meticylinę wynika z ekspresji białka wiążącego penicylinę 2a (PBP2a), które czyni go niewrażliwym na działanie antybiotyków β-laktamowych, w tym meticyliny.68

Złożoność mechanizmów oporności i wirulencji MRSA wymaga dalszych badań. Stały rozwój MRSA, charakteryzujący się pojawianiem się nowych szczepów epidemicznych, powoduje ciągłe zmiany klonów epidemicznych.69 Ponieważ mechanizm oporności MRSA jest bardzo złożony, ważne jest wyjaśnienie tych mechanizmów na poziomie molekularnym w celu leczenia chorób zakaźnych.70

Przyszłe badania powinny skupić się na:

  • Określeniu, jak MRSA jest w stanie rosnąć i dzielić się w obecności antybiotyków przy użyciu nowo odkrytego mechanizmu71
  • Badaniu dodatkowych linii MRSA i adaptacji w infekcjach wrażliwymi na meticylinę S. aureus (MSSA)72
  • Opracowaniu inhibitorów, które mogą celować w nową strategię przetrwania MRSA73
  • Lepszym zrozumieniu czynników przyczyniających się do wirulencji MRSA, co może ostatecznie pomóc w odkryciu nowych podejść do leczenia74

Zrozumienie dynamiki kolonizacji, dróg transmisji, czynników ryzyka progresji do infekcji i warunków sprzyjających pojawieniu się oporności umożliwi optymalizację strategii skutecznej kontroli MRSA.75 Analizowanie mechanizmu oporności MRSA może pomóc w badaniu nowych leków przeciwzakaźnych i złagodzić ewolucję MRSA.76

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  1. 10.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus
    Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a group of gram-positive bacteria that are genetically distinct from other strains of Staphylococcus aureus. MRSA is responsible for several difficult-to-treat infections in humans. It caused more than 100,000 deaths worldwide attributable to antimicrobial resistance in 2019. […] MRSA is any strain of S. aureus that has developed (through natural selection) or acquired (through horizontal gene transfer) a multiple drug resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. […] A defining characteristic of MRSA is its ability to thrive in the presence of penicillin-like antibiotics, which normally prevent bacterial growth by inhibiting the synthesis of cell wall material. This is due to a resistance gene, mecA, which stops -lactam antibiotics from inactivating the enzymes (transpeptidases) critical for cell wall synthesis.
  • #2 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201833
    Since the 1960s, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has emerged, disseminated globally and become a leading cause of bacterial infections in both health-care and community settings. […] Different MRSA clones have resulted from the independent acquisition of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec), which contains genes encoding proteins that render the bacterium resistant to most -lactam antibiotics (such as methicillin), by several S. aureus clones. […] The success of MRSA is a consequence of the extensive arsenal of virulence factors produced by S. aureus combined with -lactam resistance and, for most clones, resistance to other antibiotic classes. […] An understanding of colonization dynamics, routes of transmission, risk factors for progression to infection and conditions that promote the emergence of resistance will enable optimization of strategies to effectively control MRSA.
  • #3 Mechanisms of Methicillin Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26034890/
    Staphylococcus aureus is a major human and veterinary pathogen worldwide. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) poses a significant and enduring problem to the treatment of infection by such strains. Resistance is usually conferred by the acquisition of a nonnative gene encoding a penicillin-binding protein (PBP2a), with significantly lower affinity for -lactams. […] This resistance allows cell-wall biosynthesis, the target of -lactams, to continue even in the presence of typically inhibitory concentrations of antibiotic. PBP2a is encoded by the mecA gene, which is carried on a distinct mobile genetic element (SCCmec), the expression of which is controlled through a proteolytic signal transduction pathway comprising a sensor protein (MecR1) and a repressor (MecI). Many of the molecular and biochemical mechanisms underlying methicillin resistance in S. aureus have been elucidated, including regulatory events and the structure of key proteins. Here we review recent advances in this area.
  • #4 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) | BCM
    https://www.bcm.edu/departments/molecular-virology-and-microbiology/emerging-infections-and-biodefense/specific-agents/mrsa
    When this ability is threatened, as when they are exposed to antibiotics, microbes adapt and evolve to overcome the block to their reproduction. […] The consequences of antimicrobial resistance pose a significant concern to scientists and medical professionals. […] Scientists would further like to understand the genetic changes in MRSA that allow the bacterium to cause serious illness in otherwise healthy individuals. […] Beta-lactam antibiotics are the most widely used class of drugs for the treatment of bacterial infections. […] The beta-lactam ring portion of the antibiotic targets the penicillin-binding proteins (PBP), found in the bacterial cell membrane, which function in the synthesis of the cell wall. […] Binding of the antibiotic to the PBPs prevents the PBPs from performing their essential role and results in the death of the bacterial cell.
  • #5 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus
    Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a group of gram-positive bacteria that are genetically distinct from other strains of Staphylococcus aureus. MRSA is responsible for several difficult-to-treat infections in humans. It caused more than 100,000 deaths worldwide attributable to antimicrobial resistance in 2019. […] MRSA is any strain of S. aureus that has developed (through natural selection) or acquired (through horizontal gene transfer) a multiple drug resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. […] A defining characteristic of MRSA is its ability to thrive in the presence of penicillin-like antibiotics, which normally prevent bacterial growth by inhibiting the synthesis of cell wall material. This is due to a resistance gene, mecA, which stops -lactam antibiotics from inactivating the enzymes (transpeptidases) critical for cell wall synthesis.
  • #6 Mechanisms of Methicillin Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26034890/
    Staphylococcus aureus is a major human and veterinary pathogen worldwide. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) poses a significant and enduring problem to the treatment of infection by such strains. Resistance is usually conferred by the acquisition of a nonnative gene encoding a penicillin-binding protein (PBP2a), with significantly lower affinity for -lactams. […] This resistance allows cell-wall biosynthesis, the target of -lactams, to continue even in the presence of typically inhibitory concentrations of antibiotic. PBP2a is encoded by the mecA gene, which is carried on a distinct mobile genetic element (SCCmec), the expression of which is controlled through a proteolytic signal transduction pathway comprising a sensor protein (MecR1) and a repressor (MecI). Many of the molecular and biochemical mechanisms underlying methicillin resistance in S. aureus have been elucidated, including regulatory events and the structure of key proteins. Here we review recent advances in this area.
  • #7 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) | BCM
    https://www.bcm.edu/departments/molecular-virology-and-microbiology/emerging-infections-and-biodefense/specific-agents/mrsa
    When this ability is threatened, as when they are exposed to antibiotics, microbes adapt and evolve to overcome the block to their reproduction. […] The consequences of antimicrobial resistance pose a significant concern to scientists and medical professionals. […] Scientists would further like to understand the genetic changes in MRSA that allow the bacterium to cause serious illness in otherwise healthy individuals. […] Beta-lactam antibiotics are the most widely used class of drugs for the treatment of bacterial infections. […] The beta-lactam ring portion of the antibiotic targets the penicillin-binding proteins (PBP), found in the bacterial cell membrane, which function in the synthesis of the cell wall. […] Binding of the antibiotic to the PBPs prevents the PBPs from performing their essential role and results in the death of the bacterial cell.
  • #8 Molecular Determinants of β-Lactam Resistance in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): An Updated Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6382/12/9/1362
    PBP2a has a low affinity for most β-lactams except for new-generation cephalosporins and, consequently, performs essential cross-linking of peptidoglycan strands in the presence of β-lactams. […] MRSA strains show a unique pattern of β-lactam resistance called heterogeneous resistance. […] The exposure of such a heterogeneous population of MRSA cells to β-lactam antibiotics selects for cells with higher methicillin resistance, eventually resulting in a homogeneous MRSA population that is entirely resistant to high concentrations of β-lactams. […] The SCCmec element is characterized by the presence of direct repeats containing integration site sequence (ISS) recognized by cassette chromosome recombinases (ccr). […] In S. aureus, there are two primary mechanisms of β-lactam resistance: (i) inactivation of antibiotic and (ii) target bypass.
  • #9 The Mechanism of Heterogeneous Beta-Lactam Resistance in MRSA: Key Role of the Stringent Stress Response | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0082814
    All methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains carry an acquired genetic determinant mecA or mecC – which encode for a low affinity penicillin binding protein PBP2A or PBP2A that can continue the catalysis of peptidoglycan transpeptidation in the presence of high concentrations of beta-lactam antibiotics which would inhibit the native PBPs normally involved with the synthesis of staphylococcal cell wall peptidoglycan. […] In contrast to this common genetic and biochemical mechanism carried by all MRSA strains, the level of beta-lactam antibiotic resistance shows a very wide strain to strain variation, the mechanism of which has remained poorly understood. […] The overwhelming majority of MRSA strains produce a unique heterogeneous phenotype in which the great majority of the bacteria exhibit very poor resistance often close to the MIC value of susceptible S. aureus strains.
  • #10 Molecular Determinants of β-Lactam Resistance in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): An Updated Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6382/12/9/1362
    PBP2a has a low affinity for most β-lactams except for new-generation cephalosporins and, consequently, performs essential cross-linking of peptidoglycan strands in the presence of β-lactams. […] MRSA strains show a unique pattern of β-lactam resistance called heterogeneous resistance. […] The exposure of such a heterogeneous population of MRSA cells to β-lactam antibiotics selects for cells with higher methicillin resistance, eventually resulting in a homogeneous MRSA population that is entirely resistant to high concentrations of β-lactams. […] The SCCmec element is characterized by the presence of direct repeats containing integration site sequence (ISS) recognized by cassette chromosome recombinases (ccr). […] In S. aureus, there are two primary mechanisms of β-lactam resistance: (i) inactivation of antibiotic and (ii) target bypass.
  • #11 Molecular Determinants of β-Lactam Resistance in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): An Updated Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6382/12/9/1362
    The primary mechanism for β-lactam resistance in S. aureus is the production of a β-lactamase (BlaZ), which hydrolyzes the amide bond of the four-membered β-lactam ring in a two-step acylation–deacylation reaction cycle, protecting PBPs from inactivation. […] S. aureus normally possesses four endogenous PBPs, PBP1, PBP2, PBP3, and PBP4, with an additional, acquired PBP2a found in MRSA. […] PBP2a has low affinity for β-lactams and effectively compensates for the inhibition of TPase activity of PBP2 by β-lactam antibiotics, allowing it to perform essential cross-linking of peptidoglycan chains. […] The resistance of MRSA to β-lactam antibiotics is mainly mediated by acquired mecA-encoded PBP2a, which takes over the essential TPase activities of endogenous PBPs when they are inhibited by β-lactams.
  • #12 MRSA’s double defense against antibiotics | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/10/241031151846.htm
    Scientists have discovered the mechanism which allows the superbug Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) to become highly resistant to antibiotics, paving the way for new approaches to control infectious disease. […] The new research, led by the University of Sheffield, reveals MRSA has a double defence mechanism against antibiotics — this new insight offers hope in treating the life-threatening superbug and other infectious diseases. […] The new study shows MRSA has also evolved an alternative division mechanism that allows it to replicate in the presence of antibiotics. This previously unknown mechanism is essential for MRSA resistance. […] By understanding the details of this process, researchers are working towards developing inhibitors that can target MRSA’s novel survival strategy.
  • #13 The Mechanism of Heterogeneous Beta-Lactam Resistance in MRSA: Key Role of the Stringent Stress Response | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0082814
    We were also able to demonstrate that representatives of major heteroresistant MRSA clones frequently recovered from the clinical environment were able to express high and homogeneous resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics if the stringent stress response was induced in the bacteria. […] According to our model, expression of high-level resistance requires the triggering of the relA system to invoke a stringent stress response in highly resistant MRSA. […] The activation of the stringent response is known to slow-down growth and suppress production of most classes of proteins in all bacterial species examined. […] Interestingly, while the highly resistant subpopulations in MRSA clones are known to grow slower and bacteria in which high-level resistance is induced by mupirocin also slow-down their growth, the transcription of the foreign-borne mecA determinant and the production of the resistance protein PBP2A were both greatly increased under the same conditions, leading to the expression of high and homogeneous antibiotic resistance.
  • #14 Pathogenesis of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2474459/
    Once S. aureus adheres to host tissues or prosthetic materials, it is able to grow and persist in various ways. […] S. aureus can form biofilms (slime) on host and prosthetic surfaces, enabling it to persist by evading host defenses and antimicrobials. […] The ability to form and reside in biofilms is one reason why prosthetic-device infections, for example, can be so difficult to eradicate without removal of the device. […] S. aureus has many other characteristics that help it evade the host immune system during an infection. […] Its main defense is production of an antiphagocytic microcapsule. […] During infection, S. aureus produces numerous enzymes, such as proteases, lipases, and elastases, that enable it to invade and destroy host tissues and metastasize to other sites. […] Regulation of expression of staphylococcal virulence factors plays a central role in pathogenesis.
  • #15 Molecular Determinants of β-Lactam Resistance in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): An Updated Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6382/12/9/1362
    PBP2a has a low affinity for most β-lactams except for new-generation cephalosporins and, consequently, performs essential cross-linking of peptidoglycan strands in the presence of β-lactams. […] MRSA strains show a unique pattern of β-lactam resistance called heterogeneous resistance. […] The exposure of such a heterogeneous population of MRSA cells to β-lactam antibiotics selects for cells with higher methicillin resistance, eventually resulting in a homogeneous MRSA population that is entirely resistant to high concentrations of β-lactams. […] The SCCmec element is characterized by the presence of direct repeats containing integration site sequence (ISS) recognized by cassette chromosome recombinases (ccr). […] In S. aureus, there are two primary mechanisms of β-lactam resistance: (i) inactivation of antibiotic and (ii) target bypass.
  • #16 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus
    Staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) is a genomic island of unknown origin containing the antibiotic resistance gene mecA. […] Different SCCmec genotypes confer different microbiological characteristics, such as different antimicrobial resistance rates. […] These distinctions were thoroughly investigated by Collins et al. in 2001, and can be explained by the fitness differences associated with the carriage of a large or small SCCmec plasmid. […] MRSA is able to thrive in hospital settings with increased antibiotic resistance but decreased virulence HA-MRSA targets immunocompromised, hospitalized hosts, thus a decrease in virulence is not maladaptive. […] mecA is a biomarker gene responsible for resistance to methicillin and other -lactam antibiotics. […] mecA encodes penicillin-binding protein 2a (PBP2a), which differs from other penicillin-binding proteins as its active site does not bind methicillin or other -lactam antibiotics. […] The arginine catabolic mobile element (ACME) is a virulence factor present in many MRSA strains but not prevalent in MSSA.
  • #17 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus
    Staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) is a genomic island of unknown origin containing the antibiotic resistance gene mecA. […] Different SCCmec genotypes confer different microbiological characteristics, such as different antimicrobial resistance rates. […] These distinctions were thoroughly investigated by Collins et al. in 2001, and can be explained by the fitness differences associated with the carriage of a large or small SCCmec plasmid. […] MRSA is able to thrive in hospital settings with increased antibiotic resistance but decreased virulence HA-MRSA targets immunocompromised, hospitalized hosts, thus a decrease in virulence is not maladaptive. […] mecA is a biomarker gene responsible for resistance to methicillin and other -lactam antibiotics. […] mecA encodes penicillin-binding protein 2a (PBP2a), which differs from other penicillin-binding proteins as its active site does not bind methicillin or other -lactam antibiotics. […] The arginine catabolic mobile element (ACME) is a virulence factor present in many MRSA strains but not prevalent in MSSA.
  • #18 Prominent Classes of Antibiotics and their Mechanism of Resistance against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology
    https://microbiologyjournal.org/prominent-classes-of-antibiotics-and-their-mechanism-of-resistance-against-methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus/
    Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a prominent pathogenic, antibiotic-resistant microorganism that contains a variety of virulent characteristics having the capacity to develop tolerance to several major classes of antibiotics. […] The ongoing creation of clones enhances this potential, transforming S. aureus into an Anti-Infective. […] Resistance against all therapeutics, -lactams, MRS-CN in MRSA strains was linked to transferable genomic material in the bacterial genome called SCCmec (Staphylococcal Chromosomal Cassette mec). […] Here, methicillin resistance is controlled by the mec gene which further involves a high rate of genetic mobility and fast evolution. […] In different types of SCCmec, the mecA and mecC with other resistant genes render resistance against other classes of antibiotics such as aminoglycosides, macrolides, lincosamides, streptogramins B, and tetracycline.
  • #19 Prominent Classes of Antibiotics and their Mechanism of Resistance against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology
    https://microbiologyjournal.org/prominent-classes-of-antibiotics-and-their-mechanism-of-resistance-against-methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus/
    Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a prominent pathogenic, antibiotic-resistant microorganism that contains a variety of virulent characteristics having the capacity to develop tolerance to several major classes of antibiotics. […] The ongoing creation of clones enhances this potential, transforming S. aureus into an Anti-Infective. […] Resistance against all therapeutics, -lactams, MRS-CN in MRSA strains was linked to transferable genomic material in the bacterial genome called SCCmec (Staphylococcal Chromosomal Cassette mec). […] Here, methicillin resistance is controlled by the mec gene which further involves a high rate of genetic mobility and fast evolution. […] In different types of SCCmec, the mecA and mecC with other resistant genes render resistance against other classes of antibiotics such as aminoglycosides, macrolides, lincosamides, streptogramins B, and tetracycline.
  • #20 Pathogenesis of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2474459/
    Staphylococcus aureus is a versatile pathogen capable of causing a wide range of human diseases. […] Some MRSA strains contain factors or genetic backgrounds that may enhance their virulence or may enable them to cause particular clinical syndromes. […] Certain MRSA strains appear to contain particular factors or genetic backgrounds that enhance their virulence or enable them to cause particular clinical syndromes. […] The armamentarium of virulence factors of S. aureus is extensive, with both structural and secreted products playing a role in the pathogenesis of infection. […] In establishing an infection, S. aureus has numerous surface proteins, called microbial surface components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules (MSCRAMMs), that mediate adherence to host tissues. […] Different S. aureus strains may have different constellations of MSCRAMMs and so may be predisposed to causing certain kinds of infections.
  • #21 Pathogenesis of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2474459/
    Staphylococcus aureus is a versatile pathogen capable of causing a wide range of human diseases. […] Some MRSA strains contain factors or genetic backgrounds that may enhance their virulence or may enable them to cause particular clinical syndromes. […] Certain MRSA strains appear to contain particular factors or genetic backgrounds that enhance their virulence or enable them to cause particular clinical syndromes. […] The armamentarium of virulence factors of S. aureus is extensive, with both structural and secreted products playing a role in the pathogenesis of infection. […] In establishing an infection, S. aureus has numerous surface proteins, called microbial surface components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules (MSCRAMMs), that mediate adherence to host tissues. […] Different S. aureus strains may have different constellations of MSCRAMMs and so may be predisposed to causing certain kinds of infections.
  • #22 Pathogenesis of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2474459/
    Staphylococcus aureus is a versatile pathogen capable of causing a wide range of human diseases. […] Some MRSA strains contain factors or genetic backgrounds that may enhance their virulence or may enable them to cause particular clinical syndromes. […] Certain MRSA strains appear to contain particular factors or genetic backgrounds that enhance their virulence or enable them to cause particular clinical syndromes. […] The armamentarium of virulence factors of S. aureus is extensive, with both structural and secreted products playing a role in the pathogenesis of infection. […] In establishing an infection, S. aureus has numerous surface proteins, called microbial surface components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules (MSCRAMMs), that mediate adherence to host tissues. […] Different S. aureus strains may have different constellations of MSCRAMMs and so may be predisposed to causing certain kinds of infections.
  • #23 Pathogenesis of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2474459/
    Staphylococcus aureus is a versatile pathogen capable of causing a wide range of human diseases. […] Some MRSA strains contain factors or genetic backgrounds that may enhance their virulence or may enable them to cause particular clinical syndromes. […] Certain MRSA strains appear to contain particular factors or genetic backgrounds that enhance their virulence or enable them to cause particular clinical syndromes. […] The armamentarium of virulence factors of S. aureus is extensive, with both structural and secreted products playing a role in the pathogenesis of infection. […] In establishing an infection, S. aureus has numerous surface proteins, called microbial surface components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules (MSCRAMMs), that mediate adherence to host tissues. […] Different S. aureus strains may have different constellations of MSCRAMMs and so may be predisposed to causing certain kinds of infections.
  • #24 Pathogenesis of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2474459/
    Once S. aureus adheres to host tissues or prosthetic materials, it is able to grow and persist in various ways. […] S. aureus can form biofilms (slime) on host and prosthetic surfaces, enabling it to persist by evading host defenses and antimicrobials. […] The ability to form and reside in biofilms is one reason why prosthetic-device infections, for example, can be so difficult to eradicate without removal of the device. […] S. aureus has many other characteristics that help it evade the host immune system during an infection. […] Its main defense is production of an antiphagocytic microcapsule. […] During infection, S. aureus produces numerous enzymes, such as proteases, lipases, and elastases, that enable it to invade and destroy host tissues and metastasize to other sites. […] Regulation of expression of staphylococcal virulence factors plays a central role in pathogenesis.
  • #25 Pathogenesis of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2474459/
    Once S. aureus adheres to host tissues or prosthetic materials, it is able to grow and persist in various ways. […] S. aureus can form biofilms (slime) on host and prosthetic surfaces, enabling it to persist by evading host defenses and antimicrobials. […] The ability to form and reside in biofilms is one reason why prosthetic-device infections, for example, can be so difficult to eradicate without removal of the device. […] S. aureus has many other characteristics that help it evade the host immune system during an infection. […] Its main defense is production of an antiphagocytic microcapsule. […] During infection, S. aureus produces numerous enzymes, such as proteases, lipases, and elastases, that enable it to invade and destroy host tissues and metastasize to other sites. […] Regulation of expression of staphylococcal virulence factors plays a central role in pathogenesis.
  • #26 Pathogenesis of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2474459/
    Once S. aureus adheres to host tissues or prosthetic materials, it is able to grow and persist in various ways. […] S. aureus can form biofilms (slime) on host and prosthetic surfaces, enabling it to persist by evading host defenses and antimicrobials. […] The ability to form and reside in biofilms is one reason why prosthetic-device infections, for example, can be so difficult to eradicate without removal of the device. […] S. aureus has many other characteristics that help it evade the host immune system during an infection. […] Its main defense is production of an antiphagocytic microcapsule. […] During infection, S. aureus produces numerous enzymes, such as proteases, lipases, and elastases, that enable it to invade and destroy host tissues and metastasize to other sites. […] Regulation of expression of staphylococcal virulence factors plays a central role in pathogenesis.
  • #27 Pathogenesis of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2474459/
    Once S. aureus adheres to host tissues or prosthetic materials, it is able to grow and persist in various ways. […] S. aureus can form biofilms (slime) on host and prosthetic surfaces, enabling it to persist by evading host defenses and antimicrobials. […] The ability to form and reside in biofilms is one reason why prosthetic-device infections, for example, can be so difficult to eradicate without removal of the device. […] S. aureus has many other characteristics that help it evade the host immune system during an infection. […] Its main defense is production of an antiphagocytic microcapsule. […] During infection, S. aureus produces numerous enzymes, such as proteases, lipases, and elastases, that enable it to invade and destroy host tissues and metastasize to other sites. […] Regulation of expression of staphylococcal virulence factors plays a central role in pathogenesis.
  • #28 Staphylococcus aureus bacteria turns immune system against itself | University of Chicago News
    https://news.uchicago.edu/story/staphylococcus-aureus-bacteria-turns-immune-system-against-itself
    They discovered that S. aureus were converting NETs into 2-deoxyadenosine (dAdo), a molecule that is toxic to macrophages. This effectively turned NETs into a weapon against the immune system. […] Our work describes for the first time the mechanism that these bacteria use to exclude macrophages from infected sites, Schneewind said. Coupled with previously known mechanisms that suppress the adaptive immune response, the success of these organisms is almost guaranteed. […] Antibiotic-resistant strains, such as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), are difficult to treat and have plagued healthcare systems around the world.
  • #29 Staphylococcus aureus bacteria turns immune system against itself – UChicago Medicine
    https://www.uchicagomedicine.org/forefront/news/2013/november/staphylococcus-aureus-bacteria-turns-immune-system-against-itself
    Around 20 percent of all humans are persistently colonized with Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, a leading cause of skin infections and one of the major sources of hospital-acquired infections, including the antibiotic-resistant strain MRSA. […] University of Chicago scientists have recently discovered one of the keys to the immense success of S. aureus — the ability to hijack a primary human immune defense mechanism and use it to destroy white blood cells. […] „These bacteria have endowed themselves with weapons to not only anticipate every immune defense, but turn these immune defenses against the host as well,” said Olaf Schneewind, MD, PhD, professor and chair of the Department of Microbiology at the University of Chicago and senior author of the paper. […] However, S. aureus infection sites are often marked by an absence of macrophages, indicating the bacteria somehow defend themselves against the immune system.
  • #30 Immune Responses to Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections and Advances in the Development of Vaccines and Immunotherapies
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/10/1106
    An important research topic in the context of vaccines and immunotherapeutics for SA and MRSA is the humoral, cell-mediated, and innate immune responses associated with infection and positive or negative outcomes. […] After infection with SA and MRSA, the activated immune response is quite complex. […] MRSA and SA produce several toxins involved in antagonizing the host immune system and mediating disease. […] Toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 (TSST-1) is a superantigen produced by SA that binds MHC II and T cell receptors and activates up to 20% of the peripheral T cells. […] Staphylococcal enterotoxin B is another superantigen that acts via the same mechanism as TSST-1 and has a remarkable ability to resist both heat and acid. […] Staphylococcal pore-forming toxins have cell killing effects via the disruption of the cell membrane. […] The presence of polysaccharide capsules in MRSA and SA clinical isolates may also be an important virulence factor in invasive staphylococcal infections caused by encapsulated strains.
  • #31 Immune Responses to Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections and Advances in the Development of Vaccines and Immunotherapies
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/10/1106
    An important research topic in the context of vaccines and immunotherapeutics for SA and MRSA is the humoral, cell-mediated, and innate immune responses associated with infection and positive or negative outcomes. […] After infection with SA and MRSA, the activated immune response is quite complex. […] MRSA and SA produce several toxins involved in antagonizing the host immune system and mediating disease. […] Toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 (TSST-1) is a superantigen produced by SA that binds MHC II and T cell receptors and activates up to 20% of the peripheral T cells. […] Staphylococcal enterotoxin B is another superantigen that acts via the same mechanism as TSST-1 and has a remarkable ability to resist both heat and acid. […] Staphylococcal pore-forming toxins have cell killing effects via the disruption of the cell membrane. […] The presence of polysaccharide capsules in MRSA and SA clinical isolates may also be an important virulence factor in invasive staphylococcal infections caused by encapsulated strains.
  • #32 Immune Responses to Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infections and Advances in the Development of Vaccines and Immunotherapies
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/10/1106
    An important research topic in the context of vaccines and immunotherapeutics for SA and MRSA is the humoral, cell-mediated, and innate immune responses associated with infection and positive or negative outcomes. […] After infection with SA and MRSA, the activated immune response is quite complex. […] MRSA and SA produce several toxins involved in antagonizing the host immune system and mediating disease. […] Toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 (TSST-1) is a superantigen produced by SA that binds MHC II and T cell receptors and activates up to 20% of the peripheral T cells. […] Staphylococcal enterotoxin B is another superantigen that acts via the same mechanism as TSST-1 and has a remarkable ability to resist both heat and acid. […] Staphylococcal pore-forming toxins have cell killing effects via the disruption of the cell membrane. […] The presence of polysaccharide capsules in MRSA and SA clinical isolates may also be an important virulence factor in invasive staphylococcal infections caused by encapsulated strains.
  • #33 Virulence mechanisms of MRSA | Microbiology Society
    https://microbiologysociety.org/blog/virulence-mechanisms-of-mrsa.html
    The emergence of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains as potentially lethal pathogens is a continuing cause for public health concern worldwide. An understanding of the various virulence mechanisms used by these antibiotic-resistant bacterial pathogens is crucial to help prevent and treat the infections they cause. […] MRSA possesses a number of weapons with which to cause infection so-called virulence factors. One protein in particular is being widely studied; Panton Valentine Leukocidin (PVL) is a toxin which forms pores in leukocyte membranes, causing them to burst. PVL is associated with abscess formation and severe necrotizing pneumonia. […] The controversy over the role of PVL in MRSA virulence has focused research on other key protein players in the development of MRSA infection. Additional virulence factors include -toxin, which also targets leukocytes, as well as platelets.
  • #34 Virulence mechanisms of MRSA | Microbiology Society
    https://microbiologysociety.org/blog/virulence-mechanisms-of-mrsa.html
    The emergence of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains as potentially lethal pathogens is a continuing cause for public health concern worldwide. An understanding of the various virulence mechanisms used by these antibiotic-resistant bacterial pathogens is crucial to help prevent and treat the infections they cause. […] MRSA possesses a number of weapons with which to cause infection so-called virulence factors. One protein in particular is being widely studied; Panton Valentine Leukocidin (PVL) is a toxin which forms pores in leukocyte membranes, causing them to burst. PVL is associated with abscess formation and severe necrotizing pneumonia. […] The controversy over the role of PVL in MRSA virulence has focused research on other key protein players in the development of MRSA infection. Additional virulence factors include -toxin, which also targets leukocytes, as well as platelets.
  • #35 Virulence mechanisms of MRSA | Microbiology Society
    https://microbiologysociety.org/blog/virulence-mechanisms-of-mrsa.html
    Other proteins being studied for their role in virulence are phenol soluble modulins (PSMs), which are produced by most staphylococci. […] Biofilm formation, especially on medical implants such as catheters, is another important virulence mechanism for MRSA. […] The review suggests that therapeutic agents targeted at specific virulence mechanisms of MRSA will have advantages over more broad-spectrum antibiotics as they will not affect beneficial bacteria, they will have fewer negative side effects and less potential for developing drug resistance.
  • #36 Pathogenesis of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2474459/
    The accessory gene regulator (agr) is a quorum-sensing system that plays a critical role in the regulation of staphylococcal virulence. […] The basis for the apparent increased virulence of CA-MRSA strains is incompletely understood. […] The genes and mechanisms by which CA-MRSA strains may cause aggressive disease are discussed in the sections that follow. […] Given this evidence and the strong epidemiological association between PVL-containing CA-MRSA strains and necrotizing pneumonia and skin and soft-tissue infections, it is plausible that PVL is partly responsible for the enhanced virulence of CA-MRSA. […] These studies suggest that the association of PVL with enhanced S. aureus virulence is complex and controversial and warrants further investigation. […] The role of many virulence factors in the pathogenesis of staphylococcal disease is unclear. […] Understanding what enables these strains to do this, what their reservoirs are, and what their means of transmission are requires further investigation.
  • #37 Molecular Pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus Infection | Pediatric Research
    https://www.nature.com/articles/pr2009125
    MRSA deserves separate consideration in S. aureus pathogenesis because it is associated with distinct epidemiology, particularly morbidity and mortality. […] MRSA can be divided into HA-MRSA and CA-MRSA, two genotypically dissimilar groups of bacteria that target different but overlapping populations and cause different diseases. […] Interestingly, when removed from the healthcare setting, HA-MRSA rarely causes diseases in individuals without predisposing conditions. […] It has therefore been suggested that HA-MRSA represents less robust strains of S. aureus that could only survive environments where bacterial competition is limited by antibiotic pressure. […] As physicians attempt to grapple with the antibiotic resistance problem posed by HA-MRSA, increasingly there are reports of the more virulent CA-MRSA infiltrating the healthcare setting.
  • #38 Molecular Pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus Infection | Pediatric Research
    https://www.nature.com/articles/pr2009125
    MRSA deserves separate consideration in S. aureus pathogenesis because it is associated with distinct epidemiology, particularly morbidity and mortality. […] MRSA can be divided into HA-MRSA and CA-MRSA, two genotypically dissimilar groups of bacteria that target different but overlapping populations and cause different diseases. […] Interestingly, when removed from the healthcare setting, HA-MRSA rarely causes diseases in individuals without predisposing conditions. […] It has therefore been suggested that HA-MRSA represents less robust strains of S. aureus that could only survive environments where bacterial competition is limited by antibiotic pressure. […] As physicians attempt to grapple with the antibiotic resistance problem posed by HA-MRSA, increasingly there are reports of the more virulent CA-MRSA infiltrating the healthcare setting.
  • #39 Molecular Pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus Infection | Pediatric Research
    https://www.nature.com/articles/pr2009125
    CA-MRSA strains were responsible for a dramatic increase in the incidence of infections, particularly of the skin and soft tissue and were the cause of many unusually severe infections such as necrotizing pneumonia, necrotizing fasciitis, and myositis. […] The change in the clinical manifestations of S. aureus prompted speculation that CA-MRSA infections reflected infection by more virulent strains. […] The epidemiologic findings, though suggestive of a more virulent phenotype, need to be interpreted with caution. […] Together, these studies suggest that clones such as USA300 are particularly successful because they are transmitted more easily, colonize better, and are more pathogenic. […] Among putative virulence factors proposed to be the major determinant of the CA-MRSA epidemic, PVL has been most extensively studied.
  • #40 Molecular Pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus Infection | Pediatric Research
    https://www.nature.com/articles/pr2009125
    CA-MRSA strains were responsible for a dramatic increase in the incidence of infections, particularly of the skin and soft tissue and were the cause of many unusually severe infections such as necrotizing pneumonia, necrotizing fasciitis, and myositis. […] The change in the clinical manifestations of S. aureus prompted speculation that CA-MRSA infections reflected infection by more virulent strains. […] The epidemiologic findings, though suggestive of a more virulent phenotype, need to be interpreted with caution. […] Together, these studies suggest that clones such as USA300 are particularly successful because they are transmitted more easily, colonize better, and are more pathogenic. […] Among putative virulence factors proposed to be the major determinant of the CA-MRSA epidemic, PVL has been most extensively studied.
  • #41 Discovery of novel mechanism for MRSA virulence
    https://www.drugtargetreview.com/news/108020/discovery-of-novel-mechanism-for-mrsa-virulence/
    US researchers revealed that MRSA has undergone repeated mutations in the sarZ gene, leading to increased severity of blood stream infections in mouse models. […] The study, published in Cell Host and Microbe, revealed that MRSA has undergone repeated mutations in the sarZ gene, a transcriptional regulator responsible for regulating virulence gene expression, leading to increased severity of blood stream infections in mouse models. […] Using comparative genomics, they found the genes involved in this phenotype and discovered repeated and independent mutations in the transcriptional regulator sarZ. These mutations resulted in increased virulence of USA300 BSI isolates in a mouse model of BSI. The sarZ mutations resulted in increased expression and production of the surface protein ClfB, which was shown to be critical for the pathogenesis of USA300 BSI isolates.
  • #42 Discovery of novel mechanism for MRSA virulence
    https://www.drugtargetreview.com/news/108020/discovery-of-novel-mechanism-for-mrsa-virulence/
    US researchers revealed that MRSA has undergone repeated mutations in the sarZ gene, leading to increased severity of blood stream infections in mouse models. […] The study, published in Cell Host and Microbe, revealed that MRSA has undergone repeated mutations in the sarZ gene, a transcriptional regulator responsible for regulating virulence gene expression, leading to increased severity of blood stream infections in mouse models. […] Using comparative genomics, they found the genes involved in this phenotype and discovered repeated and independent mutations in the transcriptional regulator sarZ. These mutations resulted in increased virulence of USA300 BSI isolates in a mouse model of BSI. The sarZ mutations resulted in increased expression and production of the surface protein ClfB, which was shown to be critical for the pathogenesis of USA300 BSI isolates.
  • #43 Molecular Pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus Infection | Pediatric Research
    https://www.nature.com/articles/pr2009125
    The type I arginine catabolic mobile element (ACME) has many properties that make it an equally attractive candidate to explain the success of USA300. […] PSM peptides have been described previously to contribute to CA-MRSA skin infection in mice. […] Many other putative virulence factors uniquely expressed by CA-MRSA strains remain to be explored. […] If Occam’s razor, the principle of diagnostic parsimony frequently used in clinical decision making, is to guide the assessment of CA-MRSA pathogenesis, it is likely that one or very few factors are ultimately responsible for the simultaneous emergence of several CA-MRSA epidemic clones.
  • #44 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus
    Staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) is a genomic island of unknown origin containing the antibiotic resistance gene mecA. […] Different SCCmec genotypes confer different microbiological characteristics, such as different antimicrobial resistance rates. […] These distinctions were thoroughly investigated by Collins et al. in 2001, and can be explained by the fitness differences associated with the carriage of a large or small SCCmec plasmid. […] MRSA is able to thrive in hospital settings with increased antibiotic resistance but decreased virulence HA-MRSA targets immunocompromised, hospitalized hosts, thus a decrease in virulence is not maladaptive. […] mecA is a biomarker gene responsible for resistance to methicillin and other -lactam antibiotics. […] mecA encodes penicillin-binding protein 2a (PBP2a), which differs from other penicillin-binding proteins as its active site does not bind methicillin or other -lactam antibiotics. […] The arginine catabolic mobile element (ACME) is a virulence factor present in many MRSA strains but not prevalent in MSSA.
  • #45 Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus | IDR
    https://www.dovepress.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-molecular-mechanisms-under-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR
    Methicillin and other beta-lactam antibiotics are among the many medications to which MRSA strains have developed resistance. […] This resistance allows MRSA to survive and thrive in environments where MSSA strains would be susceptible to treatment, leading to a higher incidence of MRSA infections. […] The altered cell wall structure and increased virulence factors in MRSA strains contribute to their ability to persist on surfaces, survive in the environment, and spread between individuals. […] The development of drug resistance in staphylococci is facilitated by MGEs. […] For instance, S. aureus gained resistance to vancomycin and methicillin by acquiring VanA operon from enterococci, and chromosomal cassette harboring mecA respectively. […] Antimicrobial resistance development is not a condition that is associated with simple process, rather influenced by numerous elements, including organisms genetic makeup, environmental factors, and the use of antibiotics.
  • #46 MRSA’s double defence against antibiotics | News | The University of Sheffield
    https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/news/mrsas-double-defence-against-antibiotics
    Scientists have discovered the mechanism which allows the superbug Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) to become highly resistant to antibiotics, paving the way for new approaches to control infectious disease. […] MRSA has a double defence mechanism against antibiotics – this new insight offers hope in treating the life-threatening superbug and other infectious diseases. […] In order to be resistant, MRSA has acquired a new cell wall enzyme that allows it to survive exposure to antibiotics. However, the Sheffield researchers have found that this alone is insufficient for survival. […] The new study shows MRSA has also evolved an alternative division mechanism that allows it to replicate in the presence of antibiotics. This previously unknown mechanism is essential for MRSA resistance. […] By understanding the details of this process, researchers are working towards developing inhibitors that can target MRSAs novel survival strategy.
  • #47 New Defense Mechanism Discovered in MRSA Superbug | Technology Networks
    https://www.technologynetworks.com/immunology/news/mrsas-second-defense-strategy-against-antibiotics-revealed-392807
    University of Sheffield scientists have uncovered a novel mechanism enabling the superbug Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) to resist antibiotic treatment. This discovery reveals a second defense strategy that helps MRSA survive in the presence of antibiotics and opens new possibilities for targeting this highly resistant pathogen. […] The study shows MRSA has evolved a second, previously unknown defense: an alternative division mechanism that allows it to reproduce even when exposed to antibiotics. This mechanism supports the superbugs resilience, allowing it to replicate without relying on the usual enzyme-dependent process. The findings open a path toward therapies that inhibit this novel resistance pathway. […] With this deeper understanding of MRSAs survival mechanisms, the research team aims to develop inhibitors to target this alternative division method. This discovery could lead to more effective treatments against MRSA and similar antibiotic-resistant bacteria, although these findings are still in the early stages of application.
  • #48 Researchers pinpoint mechanism responsible for MRSA’s resistance to antibiotics – About UMSOD
    https://www.dental.umaryland.edu/about/news/february-2023/researchers-pinpoint-mechanism-responsible-for-mrsas-resistance-to-antibiotics.php
    For Chatterjee, the teams most significant find was determining the role of a receptor in the MRSA bacteria, called BlaR1, which senses beta-lactam drug in its bacterial surrounding and interacts with Blal, a beta-lactam repressor to mediate resistance. […] However, their recent work has revealed the structure and molecular details of BlaR1s action at the atomic level. […] Now that we better understand BlaR1 structure and function as well as its interplay with Blal, we can potentially inhibit their interplay through designing new drugs that target BlaR1 function and, thus, preserving the beta-lactam drug class action, Chatterjee said.
  • #49 Researchers pinpoint mechanism responsible for MRSA’s resistance to antibiotics – About UMSOD
    https://www.dental.umaryland.edu/about/news/february-2023/researchers-pinpoint-mechanism-responsible-for-mrsas-resistance-to-antibiotics.php
    For Chatterjee, the teams most significant find was determining the role of a receptor in the MRSA bacteria, called BlaR1, which senses beta-lactam drug in its bacterial surrounding and interacts with Blal, a beta-lactam repressor to mediate resistance. […] However, their recent work has revealed the structure and molecular details of BlaR1s action at the atomic level. […] Now that we better understand BlaR1 structure and function as well as its interplay with Blal, we can potentially inhibit their interplay through designing new drugs that target BlaR1 function and, thus, preserving the beta-lactam drug class action, Chatterjee said.
  • #50 A non-classical mechanism of β-lactam resistance in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and its effect on virulence | bioRxiv
    https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.06.17.496612v1
    Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) are pathogenic bacteria that are infamously resistant to β-lactam antibiotics, a property attributed to the mecA gene. Recent studies have reported that mutations associated with the promoter region of pbp4 demonstrated high levels of β-lactam resistance, suggesting the role of PBP4 as an important non-mecA mediator of β-lactam resistance. […] In this study, by introducing various pbp4 promoter-associated mutations in the genome of an MRSA strain, we demonstrate that PBP4 overexpression can supplement mecA-associated resistance in S. aureus and can lead to increased β-lactam resistance. […] PBP4 has also been associated with staphylococcal pathogenesis, however, its exact role remains unclear. […] Using a C. elegans model, we demonstrate that strains having increased PBP4 expression are less virulent compared to wild-type strains, suggesting that β-lactam resistance mediated via PBP4 likely comes at the cost of virulence. […] This study also demonstrates that S. aureus strains with increased PBP4 expression are less pathogenic, providing important hints about the role of PBP4 in S. aureus resistance and pathogenesis.
  • #51 A non-classical mechanism of β-lactam resistance in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and its effect on virulence | bioRxiv
    https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.06.17.496612v1
    Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) are pathogenic bacteria that are infamously resistant to β-lactam antibiotics, a property attributed to the mecA gene. Recent studies have reported that mutations associated with the promoter region of pbp4 demonstrated high levels of β-lactam resistance, suggesting the role of PBP4 as an important non-mecA mediator of β-lactam resistance. […] In this study, by introducing various pbp4 promoter-associated mutations in the genome of an MRSA strain, we demonstrate that PBP4 overexpression can supplement mecA-associated resistance in S. aureus and can lead to increased β-lactam resistance. […] PBP4 has also been associated with staphylococcal pathogenesis, however, its exact role remains unclear. […] Using a C. elegans model, we demonstrate that strains having increased PBP4 expression are less virulent compared to wild-type strains, suggesting that β-lactam resistance mediated via PBP4 likely comes at the cost of virulence. […] This study also demonstrates that S. aureus strains with increased PBP4 expression are less pathogenic, providing important hints about the role of PBP4 in S. aureus resistance and pathogenesis.
  • #52 Virulence mechanisms of MRSA | Microbiology Society
    https://microbiologysociety.org/blog/virulence-mechanisms-of-mrsa.html
    Other proteins being studied for their role in virulence are phenol soluble modulins (PSMs), which are produced by most staphylococci. […] Biofilm formation, especially on medical implants such as catheters, is another important virulence mechanism for MRSA. […] The review suggests that therapeutic agents targeted at specific virulence mechanisms of MRSA will have advantages over more broad-spectrum antibiotics as they will not affect beneficial bacteria, they will have fewer negative side effects and less potential for developing drug resistance.
  • #53 Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus
    The S. aureusbiofilm is embedded in a glycocalyx slime layer and can consist of teichoic acids, host proteins, extracellular DNA (eDNA) and sometimes polysaccharide intercellular antigen (PIA). […] S. aureusbiofilms also have high resistance to host immune response. […] Studies in biofilm development have shown to be related to changes in gene expression. […] Biofilms are groups of microorganisms, such as bacteria, that attach to each other and grow on wet surfaces. […] The genes encoding the components of PVL are encoded on a bacteriophage found in community-associated MRSA strains. […] The exact mechanism of how substrates reach the cell surface is unknown, as is the interaction of the three membrane proteins with each other and EssC. […] T7SS and known secreted effector proteins are a strategy of pathogenesis by improving fitness against competitor S. aureus species as well as increased virulence via evading the innate immune system and optimizing persistent infections.
  • #54 Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus
    The S. aureusbiofilm is embedded in a glycocalyx slime layer and can consist of teichoic acids, host proteins, extracellular DNA (eDNA) and sometimes polysaccharide intercellular antigen (PIA). […] S. aureusbiofilms also have high resistance to host immune response. […] Studies in biofilm development have shown to be related to changes in gene expression. […] Biofilms are groups of microorganisms, such as bacteria, that attach to each other and grow on wet surfaces. […] The genes encoding the components of PVL are encoded on a bacteriophage found in community-associated MRSA strains. […] The exact mechanism of how substrates reach the cell surface is unknown, as is the interaction of the three membrane proteins with each other and EssC. […] T7SS and known secreted effector proteins are a strategy of pathogenesis by improving fitness against competitor S. aureus species as well as increased virulence via evading the innate immune system and optimizing persistent infections.
  • #55 Staphylococcus aureus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus
    The S. aureusbiofilm is embedded in a glycocalyx slime layer and can consist of teichoic acids, host proteins, extracellular DNA (eDNA) and sometimes polysaccharide intercellular antigen (PIA). […] S. aureusbiofilms also have high resistance to host immune response. […] Studies in biofilm development have shown to be related to changes in gene expression. […] Biofilms are groups of microorganisms, such as bacteria, that attach to each other and grow on wet surfaces. […] The genes encoding the components of PVL are encoded on a bacteriophage found in community-associated MRSA strains. […] The exact mechanism of how substrates reach the cell surface is unknown, as is the interaction of the three membrane proteins with each other and EssC. […] T7SS and known secreted effector proteins are a strategy of pathogenesis by improving fitness against competitor S. aureus species as well as increased virulence via evading the innate immune system and optimizing persistent infections.
  • #56 Progress in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus | IDR
    https://www.dovepress.com/progress-in-the-prevalence-classification-and-drug-resistance-mechanis-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR
    The SCCmec element, a mobile genetic element, inserts into the chromosomes of sensitive strains and produces penicillin-binding protein (PBP2a/2c), which significantly reduces the binding affinity to -lactam antibiotics, and thereby produces resistance to -lactam antibiotics. […] The important mechanism of antibiotic resistance in S. aureus is the acquisition of the mecA gene, which encodes a high molecular weight penicillin-binding protein PBP2a with a low affinity for -lactam. […] The vanA operon is more common in enterococcus and can be transferred to MRSA. […] The mechanism of biofilm-mediated drug resistance is very complex, mainly because the components in biofilms reduce the permeability of antibiotics, the bacteria in biofilms reduce the growth rate to escape the stimulation of antibiotics, and there are some specific resistance genes in biofilms.
  • #57 MRSA’s double defense against antibiotics | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/10/241031151846.htm
    Scientists have discovered the mechanism which allows the superbug Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) to become highly resistant to antibiotics, paving the way for new approaches to control infectious disease. […] The new research, led by the University of Sheffield, reveals MRSA has a double defence mechanism against antibiotics — this new insight offers hope in treating the life-threatening superbug and other infectious diseases. […] The new study shows MRSA has also evolved an alternative division mechanism that allows it to replicate in the presence of antibiotics. This previously unknown mechanism is essential for MRSA resistance. […] By understanding the details of this process, researchers are working towards developing inhibitors that can target MRSA’s novel survival strategy.
  • #58 Researchers pinpoint mechanism responsible for MRSA’s resistance to antibiotics – About UMSOD
    https://www.dental.umaryland.edu/about/news/february-2023/researchers-pinpoint-mechanism-responsible-for-mrsas-resistance-to-antibiotics.php
    For Chatterjee, the teams most significant find was determining the role of a receptor in the MRSA bacteria, called BlaR1, which senses beta-lactam drug in its bacterial surrounding and interacts with Blal, a beta-lactam repressor to mediate resistance. […] However, their recent work has revealed the structure and molecular details of BlaR1s action at the atomic level. […] Now that we better understand BlaR1 structure and function as well as its interplay with Blal, we can potentially inhibit their interplay through designing new drugs that target BlaR1 function and, thus, preserving the beta-lactam drug class action, Chatterjee said.
  • #59 The Mechanism of Lysostaphin, a MRSA-Killing Enzyme, is Revealed | Microbiology
    https://www.labroots.com/trending/microbiology/16100/mechanism-lysostaphin-mrsa-killing-enzyme-revealed?srsltid=AfmBOopuBK_1xyTY1STWU9JxJxaVkLkA7fLflSMrZDEIWWlDQhvafQ3N
    Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a bacterial pathogen that is often associated with healthcare settings but can cause serious infections in anyone. […] Researchers at the University of Sheffield have now learned how a toxin called lysostaphin, which is produced by another bacterium called Staphylococcus simulans, can target and destroy MRSA. […] In this work, reported in Nature Chemical Biology, the scientists found that lysostaphin can zero in on the cell wall of MRSA superbugs. […] Lysostaphin is an enzyme, and there are two places on one part of the lysostaphin molecule that each recognize their own portion of the cell wall. […] This unusual attachment can cluster enzymes together on the cell wall of the MRSA pathogen. […] The enzymes can then trigger the breakdown of the wall, killing the superbug.
  • #60 Virulence mechanisms of MRSA | Microbiology Society
    https://microbiologysociety.org/blog/virulence-mechanisms-of-mrsa.html
    Other proteins being studied for their role in virulence are phenol soluble modulins (PSMs), which are produced by most staphylococci. […] Biofilm formation, especially on medical implants such as catheters, is another important virulence mechanism for MRSA. […] The review suggests that therapeutic agents targeted at specific virulence mechanisms of MRSA will have advantages over more broad-spectrum antibiotics as they will not affect beneficial bacteria, they will have fewer negative side effects and less potential for developing drug resistance.
  • #61 The mechanism of human β-defensin 3 in MRSA-induced infection of implant drug-resistant bacteria biofilm in the mouse tibial bone marrow
    https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/etm.2017.4112
    In conclusion, -defensin 3 can inhibit the bacterial growth by regulating inflammation and immune responses in the MRSA-induced implant drug-resistant bacteria biofilm infection in the mouse tibial bone marrow. […] -defensin, as a kind of cationic protein polypeptide with the molecular weight of 26 kDa, has potent antimicrobial activity if the concentration is from mol to nmol. […] Compared with other antimicrobial peptides, HBD-3 has a broad antibacterial spectrum, stable physical and chemical properties as well as a strong bactericidal effect on the Gram-positive, negative and fungi. […] The bacteriostatic effect of HBD-3 may be related to the upregulation of the expressions of NF-B and TLR-4, while the bacteriostatic effect of vancomycin may be accomplished by other means. […] It was suggested that HBD-3 and vancomycin could significantly reduce the IL-10, TNF-, IL-1 and IP-10 mediated inflammatory response.
  • #62 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201833
    Vaccine candidates are also under development and could become an effective prevention measure. […] This paper reveals how different S. aureus lineages have adopted different strategies to overcome host responses and cause severe pathology. […] This is a comprehensive review of the mechanisms of vancomycin resistance in S. aureus.
  • #63 Cinnamaldehyde Inhibits MRSA Biofilm Formation and Reduces Cell Viability | American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science
    https://clsjournal.ascls.org/content/30/4/214
    It is herein reported that cinnamaldehyde inhibited biofilm formation of MRSA, probably via the mechanism of reducing bacterial viability since both effects were observed at similar concentrations and kinetics. […] It can be concluded that the results of Figure 2 identify that cinnamaldehyde exerted a killing effect on staphylococci, especially MRSA. […] Since cinnamaldehyde has both antimicrobial action as well as quorum sensing inhibition abilities, it is plausible that the mechanisms through which these effects were exerted are linked. […] Another possible mechanism by which cinnamaldehyde elicits a lethal effect is inhibition of ATPase activity. […] Interestingly, cinnamaldehyde has been shown to inhibit staphylococcal quorum sensing and that biofilm formation decreased as a result of hindered quorum sensing. […] To conclude, the spectrophotometric assay for biofilm formation and CFU assay for cell viability showed that cinnamaldehyde is capable of inhibiting biofilm formation and reducing cell viability.
  • #64 Cinnamaldehyde Inhibits MRSA Biofilm Formation and Reduces Cell Viability | American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science
    https://clsjournal.ascls.org/content/30/4/214
    It is herein reported that cinnamaldehyde inhibited biofilm formation of MRSA, probably via the mechanism of reducing bacterial viability since both effects were observed at similar concentrations and kinetics. […] It can be concluded that the results of Figure 2 identify that cinnamaldehyde exerted a killing effect on staphylococci, especially MRSA. […] Since cinnamaldehyde has both antimicrobial action as well as quorum sensing inhibition abilities, it is plausible that the mechanisms through which these effects were exerted are linked. […] Another possible mechanism by which cinnamaldehyde elicits a lethal effect is inhibition of ATPase activity. […] Interestingly, cinnamaldehyde has been shown to inhibit staphylococcal quorum sensing and that biofilm formation decreased as a result of hindered quorum sensing. […] To conclude, the spectrophotometric assay for biofilm formation and CFU assay for cell viability showed that cinnamaldehyde is capable of inhibiting biofilm formation and reducing cell viability.
  • #65 Phytotherapeutic potential against MRSA: mechanisms, synergy, and therapeutic prospects | Chinese Medicine | Full Text
    https://cmjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13020-024-00960-8
    Rising resistance to antimicrobials, particularly in the case of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), represents a formidable global health challenge. […] Mechanistic insights were obtained through fluorescence and transmission electron microscopy (FM and TEM). […] FM and TEM revealed a diverse array of actions against MRSA, such as disrupting the cell wall and membrane, interference with nucleoids, and inducing morphological alterations resembling pseudo-multicellular structures in MRSA. […] This study unveil new insights into the mechanistic actions and pleiotropic antibacterial effectiveness of these medicinal plants against resistant bacteria, providing robust evidence for their potential use as standalone or in conjunction with antibiotics, to effectively combat antimicrobial resistance, particularly against MRSA.
  • #66 Phytotherapeutic potential against MRSA: mechanisms, synergy, and therapeutic prospects | Chinese Medicine | Full Text
    https://cmjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13020-024-00960-8
    The antibacterial impact of plant extract was observed internally within bacterial cells, evidenced by nucleoid condensation in the cytoplasm. […] Our discovery of alterations in the nucleoid DNA in addition to cell walls and membranes serves as compelling proof of the multifaceted effects of plant-derived phytochemicals, akin to the impacts of antibiotics and antibacterial peptides. […] The findings presented in this paper offer robust evidence supporting the potential of medicinal plants as effective phytobiotics against resistant bacteria, either independently or in combination with existing antibiotics.
  • #67 Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus | IDR
    https://www.dovepress.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-molecular-mechanisms-under-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR
    MRSA poses a substantial threat both in medical settings and community settings, where it spreads rapidly. […] The resistance of S. aureus to methicillin is due to expression of penicillin-binding protein 2a (PBP2a), which renders it impervious to the action of -lactam antibiotics including methicillin. […] The primary mechanism of antibiotic resistance in S. aureus is the acquisition of resistance genes, like the mecA gene that confers methicillin resistance. […] MRSA is Staphylococcus aureus with that possess SCCmec element encoding pbp2a. […] PBP2a has a low affinity for most of the beta-lactam antibiotics, rendering most of beta lactam antibiotics ineffective in inhibiting the trans-peptidase activity of the enzyme and preventing cell wall synthesis. […] The other mechanism is through production of beta lactamase.
  • #68 Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus | IDR
    https://www.dovepress.com/methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-molecular-mechanisms-under-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR
    MRSA poses a substantial threat both in medical settings and community settings, where it spreads rapidly. […] The resistance of S. aureus to methicillin is due to expression of penicillin-binding protein 2a (PBP2a), which renders it impervious to the action of -lactam antibiotics including methicillin. […] The primary mechanism of antibiotic resistance in S. aureus is the acquisition of resistance genes, like the mecA gene that confers methicillin resistance. […] MRSA is Staphylococcus aureus with that possess SCCmec element encoding pbp2a. […] PBP2a has a low affinity for most of the beta-lactam antibiotics, rendering most of beta lactam antibiotics ineffective in inhibiting the trans-peptidase activity of the enzyme and preventing cell wall synthesis. […] The other mechanism is through production of beta lactamase.
  • #69 Progress in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus | IDR
    https://www.dovepress.com/progress-in-the-prevalence-classification-and-drug-resistance-mechanis-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR
    Staphylococcus aureus is a common human pathogen with a variety of virulence factors, which can cause multiple infectious diseases. […] The genetic diversity of MRSA was mainly represented by the continuous emergence of epidemic strains, resulting in the constant changes of epidemic clones. […] Since the resistance mechanism of MRSA is very complex, it is important to clarify these resistance mechanisms at the molecular level for the treatment of infectious diseases. […] We firstly described the diversity of SCCmec elements, and discussed the types of SCCmec, its drug resistance mechanisms and expression regulations. […] Analyzing the resistance mechanism of MRSA can help study new anti-infective drugs and alleviate the evolution of MRSA. […] To sum up, here we reviewed the epidemic characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus, summarized its classifications, drug resistance mechanisms of MRSA (SCCmec element, vanA operon, biofilm and active efflux pump system) and novel therapy strategies, so as to provide a theoretical basis for the treatment of MRSA infection.
  • #70 Progress in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus | IDR
    https://www.dovepress.com/progress-in-the-prevalence-classification-and-drug-resistance-mechanis-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR
    Staphylococcus aureus is a common human pathogen with a variety of virulence factors, which can cause multiple infectious diseases. […] The genetic diversity of MRSA was mainly represented by the continuous emergence of epidemic strains, resulting in the constant changes of epidemic clones. […] Since the resistance mechanism of MRSA is very complex, it is important to clarify these resistance mechanisms at the molecular level for the treatment of infectious diseases. […] We firstly described the diversity of SCCmec elements, and discussed the types of SCCmec, its drug resistance mechanisms and expression regulations. […] Analyzing the resistance mechanism of MRSA can help study new anti-infective drugs and alleviate the evolution of MRSA. […] To sum up, here we reviewed the epidemic characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus, summarized its classifications, drug resistance mechanisms of MRSA (SCCmec element, vanA operon, biofilm and active efflux pump system) and novel therapy strategies, so as to provide a theoretical basis for the treatment of MRSA infection.
  • #71 MRSA’s double defense against antibiotics | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/10/241031151846.htm
    Professor Simon Foster from the University of Sheffield’s School of Biosciences said: „This research is very exciting as it has not only uncovered a new mechanism for MRSA, that was hiding in plain sight, but also the ability of the bacteria to divide in an alternative way.” […] „These findings have important ramifications for the development of new antibiotics, but also for understanding the fundamental principles that underpin bacterial growth and division.” […] The next step for this research is to determine how MRSA is able to grow and divide in the presence of antibiotics using the new mechanism that has been discovered.
  • #72 Researchers discover novel mechanism for MRSA virulence
    https://phys.org/news/2023-01-mechanism-mrsa-virulence.html
    The study’s goal was to identify potential mechanisms by which MRSA has adapted to invasive infection environments. […] „The findings of our study provide a better understanding of the factors contributing to MRSA virulence and may ultimately help uncover new treatment approaches,” said Harm van Bakel, Ph.D., Professor of Genetics and Genomic Sciences at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai and one of the corresponding authors of the study. […] „The continued evolution of MRSA has changed the ways it regulates its virulence in bloodstream infections. Our work highlights the ongoing evolution of a major MRSA lineage and suggests that USA300 strains can optimize their fitness through altered regulation of virulence.” […] The study focused on the USA300 lineage of MRSA, and future work will investigate additional lineages as well as adaptations in methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus infections (MSSA).
  • #73 MRSA’s double defense against antibiotics | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2024/10/241031151846.htm
    Scientists have discovered the mechanism which allows the superbug Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) to become highly resistant to antibiotics, paving the way for new approaches to control infectious disease. […] The new research, led by the University of Sheffield, reveals MRSA has a double defence mechanism against antibiotics — this new insight offers hope in treating the life-threatening superbug and other infectious diseases. […] The new study shows MRSA has also evolved an alternative division mechanism that allows it to replicate in the presence of antibiotics. This previously unknown mechanism is essential for MRSA resistance. […] By understanding the details of this process, researchers are working towards developing inhibitors that can target MRSA’s novel survival strategy.
  • #74 Researchers discover novel mechanism for MRSA virulence
    https://phys.org/news/2023-01-mechanism-mrsa-virulence.html
    The study’s goal was to identify potential mechanisms by which MRSA has adapted to invasive infection environments. […] „The findings of our study provide a better understanding of the factors contributing to MRSA virulence and may ultimately help uncover new treatment approaches,” said Harm van Bakel, Ph.D., Professor of Genetics and Genomic Sciences at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai and one of the corresponding authors of the study. […] „The continued evolution of MRSA has changed the ways it regulates its virulence in bloodstream infections. Our work highlights the ongoing evolution of a major MRSA lineage and suggests that USA300 strains can optimize their fitness through altered regulation of virulence.” […] The study focused on the USA300 lineage of MRSA, and future work will investigate additional lineages as well as adaptations in methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus infections (MSSA).
  • #75 Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus | Nature Reviews Disease Primers
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201833
    Since the 1960s, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has emerged, disseminated globally and become a leading cause of bacterial infections in both health-care and community settings. […] Different MRSA clones have resulted from the independent acquisition of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec), which contains genes encoding proteins that render the bacterium resistant to most -lactam antibiotics (such as methicillin), by several S. aureus clones. […] The success of MRSA is a consequence of the extensive arsenal of virulence factors produced by S. aureus combined with -lactam resistance and, for most clones, resistance to other antibiotic classes. […] An understanding of colonization dynamics, routes of transmission, risk factors for progression to infection and conditions that promote the emergence of resistance will enable optimization of strategies to effectively control MRSA.
  • #76 Progress in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus | IDR
    https://www.dovepress.com/progress-in-the-prevalence-classification-and-drug-resistance-mechanis-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR
    Staphylococcus aureus is a common human pathogen with a variety of virulence factors, which can cause multiple infectious diseases. […] The genetic diversity of MRSA was mainly represented by the continuous emergence of epidemic strains, resulting in the constant changes of epidemic clones. […] Since the resistance mechanism of MRSA is very complex, it is important to clarify these resistance mechanisms at the molecular level for the treatment of infectious diseases. […] We firstly described the diversity of SCCmec elements, and discussed the types of SCCmec, its drug resistance mechanisms and expression regulations. […] Analyzing the resistance mechanism of MRSA can help study new anti-infective drugs and alleviate the evolution of MRSA. […] To sum up, here we reviewed the epidemic characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus, summarized its classifications, drug resistance mechanisms of MRSA (SCCmec element, vanA operon, biofilm and active efflux pump system) and novel therapy strategies, so as to provide a theoretical basis for the treatment of MRSA infection.