Hipospadia
Etiologia i przyczyny

Hipospadia jest jedną z najczęstszych wrodzonych wad układu moczowo-płciowego u chłopców, z częstością występowania szacowaną na 1:200-300 noworodków płci męskiej. Etiologia hipospadii jest wieloczynnikowa i obejmuje czynniki genetyczne, hormonalne oraz środowiskowe. Genetyczne uwarunkowanie potwierdzają dane o zwiększonym ryzyku u potomstwa ojców i braci z hipospadią (od 8% do 21%) oraz wyższe ryzyko u bliźniąt jednojajowych. Mutacje w genach takich jak SHH, WNT5A, BMP7 oraz genach związanych z sygnalizacją FGF są powiązane z rozwojem tej wady. Kluczową rolę odgrywają zaburzenia hormonalne, zwłaszcza niedobór androgenów, defekty receptorów androgenowych oraz enzymu 5α-reduktazy, które prowadzą do niepełnego zamknięcia fałdów cewkowych w okresie 8-14 tygodnia ciąży, krytycznym dla formowania zewnętrznych narządów płciowych.

Etiologia hipospadii

Hipospadia to jedna z najczęstszych wad wrodzonych układu moczowo-płciowego u chłopców, charakteryzująca się nieprawidłowym położeniem ujścia cewki moczowej, które zamiast znajdować się na szczycie żołędzi prącia, jest umiejscowione na dolnej powierzchni prącia. Częstość występowania tej wady szacuje się na 1 na 200-300 noworodków płci męskiej, a w niektórych źródłach nawet 1 na 150, co czyni ją jedną z najczęstszych wad wrodzonych u chłopców.123

Dokładna przyczyna powstawania hipospadii pozostaje w dużej mierze nieznana. Badacze wskazują, że etiologia tej wady jest wieloczynnikowa, obejmująca kombinację czynników genetycznych, hormonalnych i środowiskowych, które wpływają na rozwój cewki moczowej i napletka w okresie płodowym.12 Przyczyną hipospadii jest nieprawidłowy rozwój cewki moczowej, który następuje między 8. a 14. tygodniem ciąży, w okresie intensywnego rozwoju zewnętrznych narządów płciowych płodu.12

Czynniki genetyczne

Istnieją wyraźne dowody na genetyczne uwarunkowanie hipospadii, choć dokładny mechanizm dziedziczenia pozostaje nie w pełni poznany. Badania wykazują, że tylko około 30% przypadków hipospadii ma wyraźną przyczynę genetyczną.1 Hipospadia występuje częściej w rodzinach z historią tej wady, co sugeruje dziedziczenie wielogenowe.12

Stopień ryzyka genetycznego jest szacowany następująco:12

  • Ryzyko wystąpienia hipospadii u dziecka, którego ojciec miał tę wadę, wynosi około 8-12%
  • Ryzyko wystąpienia hipospadii u drugiego syna, jeśli starszy brat miał tę wadę, wynosi około 14%
  • Jeśli zarówno ojciec, jak i starszy brat mieli hipospadię, ryzyko wzrasta do około 21%

12

Badania bliźniąt jednojajowych wykazały czterokrotnie wyższe ryzyko wystąpienia hipospadii w porównaniu z ciążami pojedynczymi, co dodatkowo potwierdza genetyczne podłoże tej wady.1 Interesujące jest jednak to, że gdy jedno z bliźniąt jednojajowych rodzi się z hipospadią, drugie bliźnię ma tę wadę tylko w 25% przypadków, mimo identycznego materiału genetycznego i środowiska hormonalnego w czasie życia płodowego, co sugeruje złożoność etiologii tej wady.1

W badaniach genetycznych zidentyfikowano mutacje w wielu genach związanych z rozwojem układu moczowo-płciowego, które mogą przyczyniać się do powstawania hipospadii. Obejmują one geny z rodziny SHH (Sonic Hedgehog), WNT5A, BMP7, oraz geny związane z sygnalizacją fibroblastycznego czynnika wzrostu (FGF).1

Czynniki hormonalne

Hormony płciowe, szczególnie androgeny, odgrywają kluczową rolę w prawidłowym rozwoju zewnętrznych narządów płciowych u płodów męskich. Zaburzenia w działaniu androgenów są istotnym czynnikiem przyczyniającym się do powstawania hipospadii.12

Do możliwych mechanizmów hormonalnych prowadzących do hipospadii należą:12

  • Niedobór androgenów – zbyt niska produkcja testosteronu przez jądra płodu
  • Zmniejszona wrażliwość tkanek docelowych na androgeny – defekty receptora androgenowego
  • Zaburzenia enzymatyczne – defekty enzymu 5α-reduktazy, który przekształca testosteron w dihydrotestosteron (DHT) – bardziej aktywną formę hormonu
  • Przedwczesne zakończenie stymulacji androgenowej – spowodowane wczesnym zanikiem komórek Leydiga w jądrach
  • Opóźnienie dojrzewania osi podwzgórze-przysadka-jądra

1

Zaburzenia w działaniu hormonów mogą prowadzić do niepełnego zamknięcia fałdów cewkowych, co skutkuje powstaniem hipospadii. Stymulacja hormonalna jest niezbędna do prawidłowego formowania się cewki moczowej i napletka między 8. a 14. tygodniem ciąży.12

Czynniki środowiskowe

W ostatnich dziesięcioleciach zaobserwowano wzrost częstości występowania hipospadii w krajach zachodnich, co skłoniło badaczy do poszukiwania czynników środowiskowych mogących przyczyniać się do tego zjawiska.12

Do potencjalnych czynników środowiskowych należą:12

  • Endokrynne substancje zaburzające (EDC, Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals) – substancje chemiczne mogące ingerować w działanie układu hormonalnego, znajdujące się w pestycydach, tworzywach sztucznych, żywności i innych produktach przemysłowych
  • Ksenoestrogeny – substancje o działaniu podobnym do estrogenów, które mogą zakłócać działanie androgenów
  • Ekspozycja na pestycydy – szczególnie w przypadku kobiet w ciąży mieszkających w pobliżu obszarów rolniczych
  • Ekspozycja na dym tytoniowy podczas ciąży

12

Badania sugerują, że substancje środowiskowe mogą wpływać na ekspresję genów poprzez mechanizmy epigenetyczne, nie zmieniając samej sekwencji DNA. Modyfikacje epigenetyczne mogą prowadzić do dysregulacji genów odpowiedzialnych za prawidłowy rozwój prącia.12

Obecna teoria „dwóch uderzeń” sugeruje, że na rozwój hipospadii wpływa genetyczna predyspozycja w połączeniu z ekspozycją płodu na środowiskowe substancje zaburzające działanie układu hormonalnego.12

Czynniki ryzyka

Badacze zidentyfikowali szereg czynników ryzyka, które zwiększają prawdopodobieństwo wystąpienia hipospadii:12

  • Wiek matki powyżej 35 lat – starszy wiek matki wiąże się z wyższym ryzykiem hipospadii u dziecka
  • Otyłość matki – wysoki wskaźnik masy ciała (BMI) matki przed ciążą zwiększa ryzyko hipospadii
  • Techniki wspomaganego rozrodu – dzieci poczęte metodą in vitro (IVF) mają wyższe ryzyko hipospadii, prawdopodobnie z powodu zwiększonej ekspozycji na hormony (szczególnie progesteron) stosowane podczas procedury
  • Stosowanie hormonów – przyjmowanie przez matkę progesteronu lub innych hormonów przed ciążą lub w jej trakcie
  • Niska masa urodzeniowa – dzieci urodzone przedwcześnie lub z niską masą urodzeniową mają wyższe ryzyko hipospadii
  • Zaburzenia funkcji łożyskadysfunkcja łożyska może prowadzić do niewystarczającej stymulacji produkcji androgenów płodowych, niezbędnych do prawidłowego zamknięcia cewki moczowej
  • Nadciśnienie tętnicze lub stan przedrzucawkowy u matki – zaburzenia naczyniowe w ciąży mogą przyczyniać się do rozwoju hipospadii

123

Teorie patogenetyczne

W świetle aktualnych badań, proponuje się kilka teorii dotyczących patogenezy hipospadii:12

  • Model epigenetyczny – hipospadia może powstać w wyniku niewymazanych markerów epigenetycznych, które kanalizują rozwój płciowy. Markery te mogą być przenoszone przez pokolenia, co mogłoby wyjaśniać rodzinne występowanie wady
  • Teoria zaburzeń sygnalizacji androgenowej – zaburzenia w szlaku sygnałowym androgenów prowadzą do niepełnego rozwoju cewki moczowej
  • Model dysfunkcji łożyska – dysfunkcja łożyska może przyczyniać się do rozwoju hipospadii i jednocześnie powodować ograniczenie wzrostu płodu
  • Teoria interakcji genów i środowiska – kombinacja genetycznej wrażliwości i ekspozycji środowiskowej podczas krytycznego okna rozwojowego może prowadzić do powstania hipospadii

12

Implikacje kliniczne

Zrozumienie złożonej etiologii hipospadii ma istotne znaczenie dla postępowania klinicznego. Rozpoznanie czynników ryzyka pozwala na wczesną diagnostykę i interwencję.1 W przypadku cięższych postaci hipospadii, ważne jest przeprowadzenie badań przesiewowych w kierunku innych wad wrodzonych, takich jak:12

  • Wnętrostwo (niezstąpienie jąder)
  • Przepukliny pachwinowe
  • Wady układu moczowego
  • Inne zespoły genetyczne, które mogą współwystępować z hipospadią

1

Leczenie hipospadii jest głównie chirurgiczne, z wysokim odsetkiem powodzenia. W łagodnych przypadkach interwencja chirurgiczna może nie być konieczna. W cięższych przypadkach, celem leczenia jest rekonstrukcja cewki moczowej umożliwiająca normalne oddawanie moczu i późniejsze funkcje seksualne.12

Kierunki badań

Badania nad etiologią hipospadii koncentrują się obecnie na kilku obszarach:12

  • Identyfikacja konkretnych genów i wariantów genetycznych predysponujących do hipospadii
  • Badanie mechanizmów epigenetycznych w rozwoju hipospadii
  • Ocena wpływu środowiskowych substancji zaburzających działanie układu hormonalnego
  • Badanie interakcji genów i środowiska w etiologii hipospadii
  • Poszukiwanie biomarkerów umożliwiających wczesną diagnostykę prenatalną

12

Lepsze zrozumienie etiologii hipospadii może prowadzić do opracowania strategii prewencyjnych dla rodzin z wysokim ryzykiem genetycznym oraz do modyfikacji czynników środowiskowych mogących przyczyniać się do rozwoju tej wady.12

Podsumowanie etiologii

Etiologia hipospadii jest złożona i wieloczynnikowa. Obecne dowody wskazują na kombinację czynników genetycznych, hormonalnych i środowiskowych w patogenezie tej wady. Ryzyko hipospadii zwiększa się w rodzinach z historią tej wady, co wskazuje na komponent genetyczny. Zaburzenia w działaniu androgenów, czy to z powodu niedoboru, czy zmniejszonej wrażliwości tkanek, odgrywają kluczową rolę w rozwoju hipospadii. Czynniki środowiskowe, takie jak ekspozycja na substancje zaburzające działanie układu hormonalnego, mogą przyczyniać się do wzrostu częstości występowania hipospadii w krajach rozwiniętych.12

Ważne jest, aby podkreślić, że w większości przypadków hipospadii nie można zidentyfikować pojedynczego czynnika przyczynowego, a wada ta wynika z interakcji wielu czynników podczas krytycznego okresu rozwoju płodowego. Dalsze badania nad etiologią hipospadii są niezbędne dla opracowania skutecznych strategii profilaktycznych i lepszych metod leczenia.12

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  1. 13.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Hypospadias: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1015227-overview
    Several etiologies for hypospadias have been suggested, including genetic, endocrine, and environmental factors. […] A genetic predisposition has been suggested by a fourfold increase in the incidence of hypospadias among monozygotic twins as compared with singletons. […] A familial trend has been noted with hypospadias. The prevalence of hypospadias in male children of fathers with hypospadias has been reported as 8%, and 14% of brothers of children with hypospadias are also affected. The inheritance is likely polygenic. […] A decrease in available androgen or an inability to use available androgen appropriately may result in hypospadias. […] Mutations in the 5-alpha reductase enzyme, which converts testosterone (T) to the more potent dihydrotestosterone (DHT), have been associated with hypospadias.
  • #1 Hypospadias – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482122/
    Hypospadias is an anatomical congenital malformation of the male external genitalia. It is characterized by abnormal development of the urethral fold and the ventral foreskin of the penis that causes abnormal positioning of the urethral opening. […] The exact etiology of hypospadias is unknown but is believed to include genetic, endocrine, and environmental factors. […] Inheritance is believed to be polygenic, and it has been noticed more often in males with a family history of hypospadias. […] Hypospadias is commonly seen in males with decreased androgens or with receptors that have decreased sensitivity to androgens. Recent studies also suggest that in-utero exposure to estrogens found in pesticides used in fruits and vegetables as well as in plastic linings can have an antiandrogenic activity.
  • #1 Hypospadias: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15060-hypospadias
    Hypospadias is a congenital condition in which the meatus isnt at the tip of the penis. Healthcare providers arent sure what causes it. […] Healthcare providers and medical researchers dont know exactly what causes hypospadias. Certain chemicals may increase the risk of hypospadias. There may also be a genetic link. A baby is more likely to have hypospadias if they have a biological relative who also had hypospadias. […] Hypospadias occurs during early pregnancy. The penis starts to develop around the eighth week of pregnancy. Hypospadias occurs between weeks nine and 12. […] The rate of hypospadias seems to be increasing in Western cultures. Researchers suspect there may be a link between rising rates of hypospadias and the increased use of certain chemicals, pollutants and pesticides.
  • #1 The Genetic and Environmental Factors Underlying Hypospadias
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5012964/
    Hypospadias results from a failure of urethral closure in the male phallus and affects 1 in 200-300 boys. It is thought to be due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. […] Numerous DSDs have a genetic cause, and a number of genes have been broadly implicated in hypospadias; it is thought that a combination of environmental influences and genetic susceptibility cause this anomaly. […] Only 30% of hypospadias cases have a clear genetic cause. […] Recent advances in massively parallel sequencing technologies and linkage studies using large cohorts are uncovering novel hypospadias-associated genes and potentially causative variants. […] Perturbation of the genes or signalling pathways involved in phallus development and urethral closure can result in hypospadias, which typically refers to an anomaly of closure of the ventral aspect of the penis.
  • #1 7 Common Hypospadias Myths, Busted! – Hypospadias Specialty Center
    https://hypospadias.com/parent-pointers-cat/7-common-hypospadias-myths/
    Hypospadias occurs more frequently than people may think, and researchers estimate that about 1 in every 200 babies is born with hypospadias in the United States. This makes it one of the most common congenital disabilities. For the most part, mild forms of hypospadias are more common, but more severe forms of hypospadias can occur. […] Hypospadias occurs between 8-14 weeks of pregnancy and can be detected on a prenatal ultrasound. The ultrasound technician or your doctor may be able to recognize the physical differences that hypospadias presents and talk you through the condition for proximal forms, but distal forms are typically not visible on ultrasound. […] If a child is born with hypospadias, research shows a 7% chance that the boys father also had the condition. The chance that a second son will be born with hypospadias is around 12%. And if the father and brother both have hypospadias, the risk in a second boy increases to 21 out of 100. So, while there is a link to genetics, hypospadias is not entirely caused by genetic makeup. […] Research shows that hypospadias does not directly cause infertility issues down the line. However, in rare circumstances men with severe hypospadias may be infertile due to accompanying problems with their testes.
  • #1 Hypospadias – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypospadias
    Hypospadias is a common malformation in fetal development of the penis in which the urethra does not open from its usual location on the head of the penis. […] The cause of hypospadias is unknown; scientists have investigated both genetic and environmental mechanisms, such as prenatal hormones. […] Another model suggests hypospadias arises as a result of unerased epigenetic markers which canalize sexual development. […] Hypospadias is present at birth, although the cause of hypospadias remains unknown. The influence of genes and the intrauterine environment have been proposed. […] One hypothesis proposes that atypical androgen exposure, or interference in the differentiation process, produces hypospadias. […] When one identical twin is born with hypospadias, his identical twin also has the trait only 25% of the time, despite sharing their genes and prenatal hormonal environment.
  • #1 The Genetic and Environmental Factors Underlying Hypospadias
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5012964/
    Variants in both SHH itself, and also in downstream components of its signalling pathway, have been associated with hypospadias in humans. […] In humans, mutations in WNT5A have been found in patients with Robinow syndrome, who often have hypospadias. […] Signalling by the fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) is suggested to regulate epithelial to mesenchymal interactions during GT growth. […] Various BMP signalling molecules are expressed in the DUE and surrounding tissues, where they regulate different epithelial-mesenchymal interactions during GT formation. […] In humans, screening in hypospadias patients revealed mutations in BMP7 and SNPs in BMP7 associated with a 2-fold increased risk of hypospadias, regardless of the severity. […] Environmental factors can change transcriptional activity via epigenetic modifications to the genome.
  • #1 Pediatric urology:Hypospadias- etiology, embryology | PPT
    https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/pediatric-urologyhypospadias-etiology-embryology/248887846
    Hypospadias is caused by incomplete development of the penis during embryogenesis. […] Hypospadias results from partial or complete failure of urethral folds to form throughout their normal length or a failure of the folds to close distally if they have formed. […] The hypospadias occurs due to incomplete embryologic development as a result of: abnormal androgen production by the fetal testis, limited androgen sensitivity in target tissues of the developing genitalia, premature cessation of androgenic stimulation due to early atrophy of the Leydig cells of the testes. […] Hypospadias results from multiple factors. […] Endocrine factors result from an endocrinopathy in which there is a disruption in the synthetic biopathway of androgens. […] A qualitative androgen receptor abnormality or defects at a postreceptor level, mutation in the luteinizing hormone (LH) receptor in the testis, and a delay in the maturation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis are also implicated. […] Mllerian inhibiting substance (MIS) has a role in the etiology of hypospadias. […] Environmental factors such as insecticides, pharmaceuticals, and plant estrogens contain estrogenic ingredients that may contribute to the condition.
  • #1 Hypospadias – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hypospadias/symptoms-causes/syc-20355148
    Hypospadias is a condition that is present at birth. As the penis develops in a male unborn baby, certain hormones stimulate how the urethra and foreskin form. Hypospadias results from a change in the action of these hormones. This keeps the two sides of the urethral folds from joining completely. The location of the urethral opening depends on when the joining stopped. […] In most cases, the exact cause of hypospadias is not known. Sometimes, hypospadias is caused by gene changes, but environment also may play a role.
  • #1 Hypospadias: Causes, diagnosis, and treatment
    https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/hypospadias
    Hypospadias is a birth abnormality that causes the urethra to develop in the wrong place while a baby is in the womb. […] The exact cause of hypospadias is currently unknown. However, researchers believe that it can be the result of various factors, including: […] Genetics seems to play a role in the risk of developing hypospadias. […] The CDC states that babies born to females 35 years or older with obesity are more likely to have hypospadias. […] Additionally, there may be a link between in vitro fertilization (IVF) and hypospadias. […] A hormonal deficiency is, therefore, a potential cause of hypospadias. […] The cause of hypospadias is currently unknown. However, researchers believe that a number of different factors may cause it.
  • #1 Role of epigenetics in the etiology of hypospadias through penile foreskin DNA methylation alterations | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-27763-5
    Abnormal penile foreskin development in hypospadias is the most frequent genital malformation in male children, which has increased dramatically in recent decades. A number of environmental factors have been shown to be associated with hypospadias development. […] The current study investigated the role of epigenetics in the etiology of hypospadias and compared mild (distal), moderate (mid shaft), and severe (proximal) hypospadias. […] Atresia (cell loss) of the principal foreskin fibroblast is suspected to be a component of the disease etiology. […] Observations demonstrate altered DNA methylation sites in penile foreskin is a component of hypospadias etiology. In addition, a potential role of environmental epigenetics and epigenetic inheritance in hypospadias disease etiology is suggested.
  • #1 Hypospadias: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1015227-overview
    A higher incidence of hypospadias in winter conceptions has also been proposed. […] A threefold increased risk of hypospadias appears to exist in males born through assisted reproductive techniques. […] Endocrine disruption by environmental agents is gaining popularity as a possible etiology for hypospadias and as an explanation for its increasing incidence. […] Estrogens have been implicated in abnormal penile development in many animal models. […] A growing body of evidence suggests that the development of hypospadias has a two-hit etiology involving a genetic predisposition coupled with fetal exposure to an environmental disruptor.
  • #1 Hypospadias | Birth Defects | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/birth-defects/about/hypospadias.html
    Hypospadias is a birth defect where the location of the opening of the urethra is not at the tip of the penis. […] The causes of hypospadias among most infants are unknown. […] CDC researchers have reported findings about some factors that affect the chance of having a baby with hypospadias: Maternal age of 30 years or older, Maternal BMI classified as overweight or obese, Use of assisted reproductive technology to conceive (ART), Maternal use of certain hormones (progestins) just before or during pregnancy.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40471-014-0034-0
    Hypospadias is one of the most common birth defects among males. […] While hypospadias is highly heritable, there is limited knowledge about the specific genetic and epigenetic factors that play a role in its etiology. […] Risk factors for hypospadias include family history, older maternal age, nulliparity, high maternal prepregnancy body mass index, hypertension or preeclampsia, multiple gestations, reduced birth weight, and small for gestational age. […] The underlying causes of hypospadias are believed to be multifactorial with non-genetic factors interacting with epigenetic and genetic susceptibilities during the critical window of development between 8-14 weeks gestation. […] Evidence supports the interaction of multiple genetic and environmental factors as the cause of most cases of hypospadias, as opposed to single genetic mutations, but the molecular pathways contributing to hypospadias risk are only beginning to be explored.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40471-014-0034-0
    Although hypospadias is generally believed to result from a combination of genetic and environmental factors, to date, there are few data regarding gene-environment interactions and hypospadias risk. […] Many causes of hypospadias may act through a few shared pathways. For example, placental dysfunction may contribute to the development of hypospadias and also cause growth restriction, and upstream causes of placental dysfunction would be implicated as causes of hypospadias.
  • #1 Hypospadias Repair: Purpose, Procedure, Risks & Recovery
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/15991-hypospadias-repair
    Hypospadias is a congenital condition (you’re born with it) in which your urethra (the tube where pee and sperm leave your body) doesn’t properly develop in your penis. […] Approximately 1 of every 250 to 300 newborn babies has hypospadias. […] Milder forms of hypospadias (subcoronal) are more common than severe forms (penoscrotal). […] If your child has hypospadias, they may also have congenital penile curvature (chordee) and penoscrotal transposition (a condition in which their scrotum forms above their penis). […] A hypospadias repair isn’t always necessary. […] If your child has minor hypospadias, they may not need a hypospadias repair. […] A two-stage procedure is two surgeries that are usually spaced six months apart. […] A hypospadias repair has a high rate of success. Most repairs last a lifetime, and your child’s penis will function normally and healthily.
  • #1 Hypospadias – MD Searchlight
    https://mdsearchlight.com/genetic-disorders/hypospadias/
    The doctor needs to rule out the following conditions when diagnosing Hypospadias: – Cryptorchidism (undescended testes) – Inguinal hernias – Kidney and urinary tract issues – Nearly 200 different syndromes, including WAGR syndrome, Denys-Drash, Smith-Lemli-Opitz, Wolff-Hirschhorn, CHARGE, which might have symptoms such as tumors, heart defects, growth delays, and other abnormalities.
  • #1 Role of epigenetics in the etiology of hypospadias through penile foreskin DNA methylation alterations | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-27763-5
    The assumption is genetic mutations in critical genes will be the cause of the disease. However, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) suggest less than 10% of the hypospadias patients have correlated genetic mutations. […] Observations suggest a potential role of epigenetic inheritance of hypospadias and environmental impacts are now thought to be critical. […] Since environmental factors such as toxicants or pharmaceuticals (diethylstilbestrol, DES) cannot directly alter DNA sequence, environmental epigenetics is thought to be the primary molecular mechanism involved. […] Environmental factors such as diet and chemical exposures of the mother and fetus are also felt to likely be involved in the etiology of hypospadias, and are known to act through epigenetics. […] The current study was designed to investigate the role of environmental epigenetics in hypospadias etiology, and to compare the mild (distal), moderate (mid shaft), and severe (proximal) hypospadias with regards to epigenetic alterations.
  • #1 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/Hypospadias.aspx
    Although there are up-to-date technologies for treating children with hypospadias, many researchers are developing clinical trials that provide great success in the diagnosis and treatment of this deformity. Clinical trials include research on hypospadias genetics to know about the cause and to help in identifying the malformation at the early stage. Various developing techniques have led to a high success rate for treatment of hypospadias.
  • #1 Role of epigenetics in the etiology of hypospadias through penile foreskin DNA methylation alterations | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-27763-5
    The current study demonstrates a role for epigenetics in hypospadias etiology. Direct environmental exposures, such as DES, have been shown to alter epigenetics and critical gene expression events to generate the etiology of disease, both in the individual exposed and in subsequent generations. […] Therefore, the parental and ancestral impacts on hypospadias etiology need to be investigated.
  • #1 Why does hypospadias occur
    https://www.hypospadiasfoundation.com/why-does-hypospadias-occur/
    Maternal pre pregnancy obesity with a BMI30 has been associated with 1.3-to-2-fold increased risk of hypospadias compared to other women who had normal weight in the pre pregnancy period. […] Hypertension in pregnancy and usage of anti-hypertensive medicines are associated with development of hypospadias in the fetus. […] It has been hypothesized that the maternal use of estrogen and progestin may cause hypospadias because of interference with fetal androgen production or action. […] Infants with hypospadias are most likely to be born preterm, low birth weight or small for gestational age. […] Placental dysfunction may fail to stimulate fetal androgen production which is necessary for urethral closure. […] The most important message here is that it is not the fault of the mother or father which can cause hypospadias in their child.
  • #2 Hypospadias – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hypospadias/symptoms-causes/syc-20355148
    Hypospadias is a condition that is present at birth. As the penis develops in a male unborn baby, certain hormones stimulate how the urethra and foreskin form. Hypospadias results from a change in the action of these hormones. This keeps the two sides of the urethral folds from joining completely. The location of the urethral opening depends on when the joining stopped. […] In most cases, the exact cause of hypospadias is not known. Sometimes, hypospadias is caused by gene changes, but environment also may play a role.
  • #2 Hypospadias: Causes, diagnosis, and treatment
    https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/hypospadias
    Hypospadias is a birth abnormality that causes the urethra to develop in the wrong place while a baby is in the womb. […] The exact cause of hypospadias is currently unknown. However, researchers believe that it can be the result of various factors, including: […] Genetics seems to play a role in the risk of developing hypospadias. […] The CDC states that babies born to females 35 years or older with obesity are more likely to have hypospadias. […] Additionally, there may be a link between in vitro fertilization (IVF) and hypospadias. […] A hormonal deficiency is, therefore, a potential cause of hypospadias. […] The cause of hypospadias is currently unknown. However, researchers believe that a number of different factors may cause it.
  • #2 7 Common Hypospadias Myths, Busted! – Hypospadias Specialty Center
    https://hypospadias.com/parent-pointers-cat/7-common-hypospadias-myths/
    Hypospadias occurs more frequently than people may think, and researchers estimate that about 1 in every 200 babies is born with hypospadias in the United States. This makes it one of the most common congenital disabilities. For the most part, mild forms of hypospadias are more common, but more severe forms of hypospadias can occur. […] Hypospadias occurs between 8-14 weeks of pregnancy and can be detected on a prenatal ultrasound. The ultrasound technician or your doctor may be able to recognize the physical differences that hypospadias presents and talk you through the condition for proximal forms, but distal forms are typically not visible on ultrasound. […] If a child is born with hypospadias, research shows a 7% chance that the boys father also had the condition. The chance that a second son will be born with hypospadias is around 12%. And if the father and brother both have hypospadias, the risk in a second boy increases to 21 out of 100. So, while there is a link to genetics, hypospadias is not entirely caused by genetic makeup. […] Research shows that hypospadias does not directly cause infertility issues down the line. However, in rare circumstances men with severe hypospadias may be infertile due to accompanying problems with their testes.
  • #2 Hypospadias: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1015227-overview
    Several etiologies for hypospadias have been suggested, including genetic, endocrine, and environmental factors. […] A genetic predisposition has been suggested by a fourfold increase in the incidence of hypospadias among monozygotic twins as compared with singletons. […] A familial trend has been noted with hypospadias. The prevalence of hypospadias in male children of fathers with hypospadias has been reported as 8%, and 14% of brothers of children with hypospadias are also affected. The inheritance is likely polygenic. […] A decrease in available androgen or an inability to use available androgen appropriately may result in hypospadias. […] Mutations in the 5-alpha reductase enzyme, which converts testosterone (T) to the more potent dihydrotestosterone (DHT), have been associated with hypospadias.
  • #2 Hypospadias
    https://upmc.it/en/blog/mens-health/hypospadias
    Hypospadias is one of the most common congenital defects. Its current incidence is estimated to be in the order of 1 case per 300 males in Italy. […] This condition can vary in severity, but the precise cause remains unknown. […] For most cases, the exact causes of hypospadias remain unknown. However, studies have indicated that both genetic and environmental factors may play a role in its manifestation. […] If the father was born with hypospadias, the risk that the son will have it is about 12%. […] If an older brother also has it, the probability increases to 21%. […] Certain factors during pregnancy, such as diet, exposure to specific chemicals, or medications taken by the mother, could increase the risk of hypospadias.
  • #2 Hypospadias: Causes, Diagnosis and Treatment
    https://www.urology-textbook.com/hypospadias.html
    Hypospadias is a common congenital disease of the penis with an abnormal ventral opening of the meatus of the urethra, a deficient ventral prepuce (dorsal hood) and an uretral plate reaching from meatus to the tip of the glans (chordee). […] The incidence of hypospadias is increasing (see etiology). […] An absolute (low concentration) or relative (decreased sensitivity of the target tissue) androgen deficiency is a significant cause of hypospadias development. […] Many enzyme deficiencies that cause hypospadias are known, such as 5-reductase deficiency or defects of the androgen receptor. […] Hypospadias is a polygenetic disease, this can be concluded from the family history and twin studies. […] The increasing incidence in industrialized countries argues for environmental toxins, which increase the risk for hypospadias and other diseases (male infertility, cryptorchidism, premature births, testicular cancer). […] Numerous substances (endocrine disruptors) in plastics and pesticides are discussed as causal substances.
  • #2 Hypospadias
    https://caps.nationwidechildrens.org/radiology/atlas/Urethra_Atlas/Hypospadias.html
    Hypospadias is an abnormality in boys in which failure of closure of the urethral lumen leads to an abnormal ventral positioning of the urethral orifice. […] Recent reviews suggest a multifactorial etiology, including abnormal androgen production by the fetal testis, limited androgen sensitivity in the target tissues of the developing external genitalia, and/or premature cessation of androgenic stimulation. […] Associated abnormalities include enlargement of the utricle which occurs commonly, the size of the utricle in proportion to the severity of hypospadias. […] Abnormalities of kidney ascent and rotation have been described, as has hypospadias as the primary genital abnormality in boys with low imperforate anus.
  • #2 Hypospadias: Causes, Symptoms, Types, Surgery
    https://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/what-is-hypospadias
    Hypospadias is pretty common and can sometimes be left as is. But doctors can do surgery to fix the problem when needed. […] As with many other birth defects, doctors arent sure why some boys get hypospadias. They think some of the reasons could be: […] Genetics. Its more likely if the boy has a father or brother who were born with it. It is also associated with some genetic syndromes. […] Fertility treatments. The mother may have used hormone therapy or medicine to help them get pregnant. […] The mothers age and weight. Theres more chance a baby will be born with hypospadia if their mom is overweight and over age 35, has diabetes prior to their pregnancy. […] Exposure to smoking or pesticides. […] You can reduce your babys chances of hypospadias while youre pregnant.
  • #2 The Genetic and Environmental Factors Underlying Hypospadias
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5012964/
    The process of urethral closure is known to be exquisitely responsive to the hormonal environment. Oestrogenic and anti-androgenic compounds are well established to induce hypospadias in humans and mice. […] This may include exposure to molecules that interfere with synthesis, transport or metabolism of endogenous hormones, such as xenoestrogens or endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). […] A strong association between low birth weight and hypospadias exists, especially in the proximal forms. […] Factors that affect the level or activity of ER may also play a role.
  • #2 Role of epigenetics in the etiology of hypospadias through penile foreskin DNA methylation alterations | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-27763-5
    The assumption is genetic mutations in critical genes will be the cause of the disease. However, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) suggest less than 10% of the hypospadias patients have correlated genetic mutations. […] Observations suggest a potential role of epigenetic inheritance of hypospadias and environmental impacts are now thought to be critical. […] Since environmental factors such as toxicants or pharmaceuticals (diethylstilbestrol, DES) cannot directly alter DNA sequence, environmental epigenetics is thought to be the primary molecular mechanism involved. […] Environmental factors such as diet and chemical exposures of the mother and fetus are also felt to likely be involved in the etiology of hypospadias, and are known to act through epigenetics. […] The current study was designed to investigate the role of environmental epigenetics in hypospadias etiology, and to compare the mild (distal), moderate (mid shaft), and severe (proximal) hypospadias with regards to epigenetic alterations.
  • #2 Center for the Study & Treatment of Hypospadias | UCSF Department of Urology
    https://urology.ucsf.edu/research/children/center-study-treatment-hypospadias
    Hypospadias is a congenital defect of the penis resulting in incomplete development of the penile urethra. […] As the etiology, or cause, of hypospadias is unknown, the goal of the Hypospadias Research Center is to define the etiology of hypospadias and to translate basic science findings into prevention or new treatment options. […] The center’s research focuses on the hypothesis that genetic susceptibility along with environmental endocrine disruptors causes hypospadias. […] The second part of the hypothesis is that patients with a genetic susceptibility for Hypospadias will develop Hypospadias only if an environmental exposure triggers the disease during urethral development. […] Based on epidemiologic human and experimental animal data we conclude that a number of genes are elevated in hypospadias. Genetic susceptibility combined with exposure to endocrine disruptors during the first trimester when genital development occurs may explain the cause of hypospadias for the majority of patients.
  • #2 Hypospadias in Children: Causes and Symptoms
    https://www.massgeneral.org/children/hypospadias/causes-and-symptoms
    Hypospadias is present at birth, but its exact cause is still unknown. […] The exact causes of hypospadias are unknown, but it is likely caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors during pregnancy. Researchers from the CDC predict the following findings as increased risk factors for hypospadias: The use of assisted reproductive technology/fertility and hormone treatments during pregnancy, Use of other hormones before or during pregnancy, Mothers over the age of 35, Mothers who have obesity, Fathers and/or brothers of the baby also had the condition, The baby has a low birth weight or is born preterm.
  • #2 Hypospadias | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia
    https://www.chop.edu/conditions-diseases/hypospadias
    Reproductive technology: There is a higher risk of hypospadias based on the type of conception (such as use of in-vitro fertilization). […] Prematurity: Babies with a low birth weight who are born premature have a higher chance of having hypospadias. […] Although these have all been identified as risk factors for hypospadias, it is more common for hypospadias to occur without an identifiable cause.
  • #2 Hypospadias – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypospadias
    Rice et al. have proposed that sexually dimorphic development occurs through epigenetic markers which are laid down during stem cell development, which blunt androgen signalling in XX fetuses, and boost sensitivity in XY fetuses. […] If this marks are sexually antagonistic, and if a subset of these epigenetic marks carry over generations, they are expected to produce mosaicism of sexual development in opposite-sex offspring, sometimes producing hypospadias or cryptorchidism when passed from a mother to son (feminizing the external genitalia).
  • #2 Hypospadias Repair: Purpose, Procedure, Risks & Recovery
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/15991-hypospadias-repair
    Hypospadias is a congenital condition (you’re born with it) in which your urethra (the tube where pee and sperm leave your body) doesn’t properly develop in your penis. […] Approximately 1 of every 250 to 300 newborn babies has hypospadias. […] Milder forms of hypospadias (subcoronal) are more common than severe forms (penoscrotal). […] If your child has hypospadias, they may also have congenital penile curvature (chordee) and penoscrotal transposition (a condition in which their scrotum forms above their penis). […] A hypospadias repair isn’t always necessary. […] If your child has minor hypospadias, they may not need a hypospadias repair. […] A two-stage procedure is two surgeries that are usually spaced six months apart. […] A hypospadias repair has a high rate of success. Most repairs last a lifetime, and your child’s penis will function normally and healthily.
  • #2 Hypospadias Repair: Purpose, Procedure, Risks & Recovery
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/15991-hypospadias-repair
    The advantages of hypospadias repair include: Reconstructing your child’s urethra to the tip of their penis to allow for normal peeing and ejaculating. […] Some risks of hypospadias repair include: Anesthesia risks. […] Urethrocutaneous fistula is a hole that forms in the skin of your child’s penis and is deep enough to reach their urethra. […] A narrow urethra can affect how pee flows and create pressure on their kidneys, prostate, bladder and testicles (testes). […] If you or your child has a hypospadias repair during puberty or post-puberty, their penis may get shorter.
  • #2 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/Hypospadias.aspx
    Although there are up-to-date technologies for treating children with hypospadias, many researchers are developing clinical trials that provide great success in the diagnosis and treatment of this deformity. Clinical trials include research on hypospadias genetics to know about the cause and to help in identifying the malformation at the early stage. Various developing techniques have led to a high success rate for treatment of hypospadias.
  • #2 Hypospadias: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1015227-overview
    A higher incidence of hypospadias in winter conceptions has also been proposed. […] A threefold increased risk of hypospadias appears to exist in males born through assisted reproductive techniques. […] Endocrine disruption by environmental agents is gaining popularity as a possible etiology for hypospadias and as an explanation for its increasing incidence. […] Estrogens have been implicated in abnormal penile development in many animal models. […] A growing body of evidence suggests that the development of hypospadias has a two-hit etiology involving a genetic predisposition coupled with fetal exposure to an environmental disruptor.
  • #2 Role of epigenetics in the etiology of hypospadias through penile foreskin DNA methylation alterations | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-27763-5
    The current study demonstrates a role for epigenetics in hypospadias etiology. Direct environmental exposures, such as DES, have been shown to alter epigenetics and critical gene expression events to generate the etiology of disease, both in the individual exposed and in subsequent generations. […] Therefore, the parental and ancestral impacts on hypospadias etiology need to be investigated.
  • #3 Hypospadias: Causes, Symptoms, Types, Surgery
    https://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/what-is-hypospadias
    Hypospadias is pretty common and can sometimes be left as is. But doctors can do surgery to fix the problem when needed. […] As with many other birth defects, doctors arent sure why some boys get hypospadias. They think some of the reasons could be: […] Genetics. Its more likely if the boy has a father or brother who were born with it. It is also associated with some genetic syndromes. […] Fertility treatments. The mother may have used hormone therapy or medicine to help them get pregnant. […] The mothers age and weight. Theres more chance a baby will be born with hypospadia if their mom is overweight and over age 35, has diabetes prior to their pregnancy. […] Exposure to smoking or pesticides. […] You can reduce your babys chances of hypospadias while youre pregnant.
  • #3 Why does hypospadias occur
    https://www.hypospadiasfoundation.com/why-does-hypospadias-occur/
    Maternal pre pregnancy obesity with a BMI30 has been associated with 1.3-to-2-fold increased risk of hypospadias compared to other women who had normal weight in the pre pregnancy period. […] Hypertension in pregnancy and usage of anti-hypertensive medicines are associated with development of hypospadias in the fetus. […] It has been hypothesized that the maternal use of estrogen and progestin may cause hypospadias because of interference with fetal androgen production or action. […] Infants with hypospadias are most likely to be born preterm, low birth weight or small for gestational age. […] Placental dysfunction may fail to stimulate fetal androgen production which is necessary for urethral closure. […] The most important message here is that it is not the fault of the mother or father which can cause hypospadias in their child.