Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Hyperglycemia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430900/

  The incidence of hyperglycemia has increased dramatically over the last two decades due to increased obesity, decreased activity level, and an aging population. The prevalence is equal between men and women. The countries with the greatest number of patients with diabetes included China, India, United States, Brazil, and Russia. Hyperglycemia is more prominent in low to medium-income households. […] The latest data released by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicate that there are nearly 30.5 million Americans with diabetes and nearly 84 million Americans with prediabetes. These numbers are set to increase significantly over the next decade.

• #2 Management of Diabetes and Hyperglycemia in Hospitalized Patients – Endotext – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279093/

  Diabetes is the most prevalent metabolic disorder, and in 2021, the International Diabetes Federation estimated that it affected 537 million adults globally. In 2024, the United States Centers for Disease Control reported that 38.1 million adult Americans, or 14.7% of the adult population, have diabetes. Patients with diabetes have a 3-4-fold greater chance of hospitalization compared to those without diabetes. In 2020, in the U.S., there were over 7.86 million hospital discharges for adults listed as having diabetes. Hyperglycemia, defined as a blood glucose greater than 140 mg/dl (7.8 mmol/l), is reported in 22-46% of non-critically ill hospitalized patients. Extensive data indicates that inpatient hyperglycemia, in patients with or without a prior diagnosis of diabetes, is associated with an increased risk of complications and mortality.

• #3

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes

  The number of people living with diabetes rose from 200 million in 1990 to 830 million in 2022. Prevalence has been rising more rapidly in low- and middle-income countries than in high-income countries. […] In 2021, diabetes and kidney disease due to diabetes caused over 2 million deaths. In addition, around 11% of cardiovascular deaths were caused by high blood glucose. […] Hyperglycaemia, also called raised blood glucose or raised blood sugar, is a common effect of uncontrolled diabetes and over time leads to serious damage to many of the body’s systems, especially the nerves and blood vessels. […] In 2022, 14% of adults aged 18 years and older were living with diabetes, an increase from 7% in 1990. […] Diabetes treatment coverage was lowest in low- and middle-income countries. […] In 2021, diabetes was the direct cause of 1.6 million deaths and 47% of all deaths due to diabetes occurred before the age of 70 years.

• #4 Diabetes Facts and Figures | International Diabetes Federation

  https://idf.org/about-diabetes/diabetes-facts-figures/

  590m people worldwide have diabetes […] Diabetes facts and figures show the growing global burden for individuals, families, and countries. The latest IDF Diabetes Atlas (2025) reports that 11.1% or 1 in 9 of the adult population (20-79 years) is living with diabetes, with over 4 in 10 unaware that they have the condition. […] By 2050, IDF projections show that 1 in 8 adults, approximately 853 million, will be living with diabetes, an increase of 46%. […] Over 90% of people with diabetes have type 2 diabetes, which is driven by socio-economic, demographic, environmental, and genetic factors. […] The total number of people living with diabetes is projected to rise to 853 million by 2045. […] Over 4 in 5 adults (81%) with diabetes live in low- and middle-income countries.

• #5 IDF Diabetes Atlas | Global Diabetes Data & Statistics

  https://diabetesatlas.org/

  589 million adults (20-79 years) are living with diabetes worldwide […] This number is predicted to rise to 853 million by 2050 […] Diabetes was responsible for 3.4 million deaths in 2024 1 every 9 seconds […] Diabetes caused at least USD 1 trillion dollars in health expenditure a 338% increase over the last 17 years.

• #6 Management of Diabetes and Hyperglycemia in Hospitalized Patients – Endotext – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279093/

  In 2020, in the U.S., there were over 7.86 million hospital discharges for adults listed as having diabetes, (i.e., diabetes as either a principal diagnosis for hospitalization or as a secondary diagnosis, coexisting condition). Data from the USA suggest that the prevalence of diabetes in the adult inpatient population has increased by 2.5% annually from 17.1% to 27.3% between 2000 and 2018. […] Hyperglycemia is defined as a blood glucose concentration greater than 140 mg/dl (7.8 mmol/l). It is not just found in those with a pre-existing diagnosis of diabetes but in those with stress hyperglycemia or previously undiagnosed diabetes. The prevalence has been reported to be 22% to 46% in non-critically ill hospitalized patients. Extensive observational and trial data indicate that inpatient hyperglycemia, in patients with or without a prior diagnosis of diabetes, is associated with an increased risk of complications and mortality, a longer hospital stay, a higher admission rate to the intensive care unit (ICU), and a higher need for transitional or nursing home care after hospital discharge.

• #7 Management of Diabetes and Hyperglycemia in Hospitalized Patients – Endotext – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279093/

  The American Diabetes Association (ADA) and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE) consensus on inpatient hyperglycemia defined stress hyperglycemia or hospital-related hyperglycemia as any blood glucose concentration 140 mg/dl (7.8 mmol/l) in patients without a prior history of diabetes. The data from the US included those with newly identified diabetes or stress hyperglycemia as well as those with a prior diagnosis of diabetes. […] The majority of evidence linking hyperglycemia and poor outcomes comes from studies in the ICU. Falciglia et al., in a retrospective study of over 250,000 veterans admitted to various ICUs, reported that hyperglycemia is an independent risk factor for mortality and complications. […] The association of hyperglycemia and poor outcomes also applies to those not in ICU but admitted to general medicine, surgery, or mental health services. In such individuals, hyperglycemia is associated with poor hospital outcomes, including prolonged hospital stay, infections, disability after hospital discharge, and death.

• #8 Prevalence and determinants of hyperglycaemia among adults in Bangladesh: results from a population-based national survey | BMJ Open

  https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/9/7/e029674

  Objectives With the increasing burden of non-communicable diseases in low-income and middle-income countries, biological risk factors, such as hyperglycaemia, are a major public health concern in Bangladesh. Hyperglycaemia is an excess of glucose in the bloodstream and is often associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nationally representative data of hyperglycaemia prevalence starting from age 18 years are currently unavailable for Bangladeshi adults. The objective of this study was to assess the prevalence and determinants of hyperglycaemia among adults in Bangladesh aged 18 years. […] Overall, the prevalence of hyperglycaemia was 5.5% (95% CI 4.5% to 6.6%) and was significantly higher among urban (9.8%, 95%CI 7.7% to 12.2%) than rural residents (2.8%, 95%CI 1.9% to 3.9%). […] Our study found that about 1 in 20 Bangladeshi adults aged 18 years have hyperglycaemia. To control and prevent the development of type 2 diabetes, data from this study can be used to inform public health programming and provide descriptive information on surveillance of progress towards controlling diabetes in Bangladesh.

• #9 Prevalence and determinants of hyperglycaemia among adults in Bangladesh: results from a population-based national survey | BMJ Open

  https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/9/7/e029674

  Using data from this nationally representative sample, we estimate that about 1 in 20 Bangladeshi adults aged 18 years have hyperglycaemia. The prevalence of hyperglycaemia was higher among urban residents (9.8%) than rural residents (2.8%). Determinants of hyperglycaemia included older age, urban residence, abdominal obesity, low physical activity and hypertension. […] Data from this nationally representative sample of Bangladeshi adults aged 18 years and above will be critical to informing the progress of NCD control in Bangladesh per WHOs Global Monitoring Framework and goals for 2025.

• #10 Prevalence and factors associated with hyperglycemia in a rural population of Tanvè and Dékanmey in Benin in 2019 | PLOS Global Public Health

  https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0000471

  Hyperglycemia leads to serious damage to the body, especially the blood vessels and nerves. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and factors associated with hyperglycemia in a rural population of Tanv and Dkanmey in Benin in 2019. […] The prevalence of hyperglycemia was 4.6%. In multivariate analysis, advanced age (AOR = 1.03; 95%CI = 1.021.73; p = 0.004), male sex (AOR = 2.93; 95%CI = 1.495.84; p = 0.023), monthly income 105,000 FCFA (AOR = 2.63; 95%CI = 1.245.63; p = 0.030), abdominal obesity (AOR = 2.80; 95%CI = 1.296.16; p = 0.007, and obesity (AOR = 1.68; 95%CI = 0.753.59; p = 0.004) were statistically associated with hyperglycemia. […] The prevalence of hyperglycemia is not negligible in rural areas in Benin. Our study found that older age, male gender, high income, abdominal obesity, and obesity are determining factors in its occurrence.

• #11

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-024-06102-x

  An association between diabetes and infection has been recognised for many years, with infection being an important cause of death and morbidity in people with diabetes. […] People with diabetes have a 1.5- to 4-fold increased risk of infection. […] Outcomes from infection are worse in people with diabetes, with the most notable example being a twofold higher rate of death from COVID-19. […] Hyperglycaemia has deleterious effects on the immune response. […] Diabetes confers a worse outcome from infection, with the most notable example being a twofold higher rate of death from COVID-19. […] Hyperglycaemia and obesity are both risk factors for infection, but there is a lack of consistency between reports about the relationship between HbA1c and infection. […] Hyperglycaemia has deleterious effects on the innate immune response and adaptive immunity, both of which contribute towards the increased risk of different infections in individuals affected by diabetes.

• #12 Diabetes Mellitus and Cardiovascular Disease: Exploring Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Treatment Strategies

  https://www.imrpress.com/journal/RCM/25/12/10.31083/j.rcm2512436/htm

  Diabetes mellitus (DM) affects 537 million people as of 2021, and is projected to rise to 783 million by 2045. This positions DM as the ninth leading cause of death globally. […] Among DM patients, cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the primary cause of morbidity and mortality. Notably, the prevalence rates of CVD is alarmingly high among diabetic individuals, particularly in North America and the Caribbean (46.0%), and Southeast Asia (42.5%). […] The risk of CVD increases proportionally with mounting blood sugar levels, even before blood glucose reaches diabetic thresholds. […] Factors such as hyperglycemia, hypertension, obesity, dyslipidemia, and insulin resistance (IR) contribute to the development of CVD in diabetic patients. […] The aim of this study is to comprehensively investigate the interplay between DM and CVD by exploring epidemiological trends and underlying pathophysiological mechanisms.

• #13 Diabetes Mellitus and Cardiovascular Disease: Exploring Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Treatment Strategies

  https://www.imrpress.com/journal/RCM/25/12/10.31083/j.rcm2512436/htm

  The combination of hypertension and DM significantly heightens the risk of CVD. […] The high prevalence of DM, coupled with risk factors like obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, genetic predisposition, tobacco smoking, sex, and family history increases the susceptibility of diabetic individuals to CVD.

• #14 High blood sugar in adolescence tripled the risk of premature heart damage affecting females worse than males | ScienceDaily

  https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2025/04/250428220300.htm

  Persistently high blood sugar and insulin resistance significantly increased the risk of worsening functional and structural heart damage during growth from adolescence to young adulthood, a new study shows. […] The prevalence of excessive heart enlargement (left ventricular hypertrophy) increased threefold from 2.4% at age 17 years to 7.1% at age 24 years, while the prevalence of heart dysfunction increased from 9.2% in adolescence to 15.8% in young adulthood. […] Persistent fasting blood sugar of 5.6 mmol/L from age 17 to 24 years was associated with a 46% increased risk of left ventricular hypertrophy. The risk was threefold if fasting blood sugar was persistently 6.1 mmol/L. […] Previous studies among adults have shown that high blood glucose and insulin resistance in youth strongly predict the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in people in their mid-fifties.

• #15 High blood sugar in adolescence tripled the risk of premature heart damage affecting females worse than males | ScienceDaily

  https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2025/04/250428220300.htm

  The current findings further confirm that even healthy-looking adolescents and young adults who are mostly normal weight may be on a path towards cardiovascular diseases, if they have high blood glucose and insulin resistance. […] The five-fold increase in the prevalence of prediabetes within 7 years of growth from adolescence to young adulthood underscores the critical importance of lifestyle behaviour and dietary habits, especially after adolescents have become independent from their family.

• #16 Hyperglycemia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperglycemia

  Hyperglycemia is one of the main symptoms of diabetes and it has substantially affected the population making it an epidemic due to the population’s increased calorie consumption. […] Healthcare providers are trying to work more closely with people allowing them more freedom with interventions that suit their lifestyle. […] As physical inactivity and calorie consumption increases it makes individuals more susceptible to developing hyperglycemia. […] Hyperglycemia is caused by type 1 diabetes and non-whites have a higher susceptibility for it. […] Hyperglycemia is lower in higher income groups since there is access to better education, healthcare, and resources. […] Low-middle income groups are more likely to develop hyperglycemia, due in part to a limited access to education and a reduced availability of healthy food options. […] Living in warmer climates can reduce hyperglycemia due to increased physical activity while people are less active in colder climates.

• #17

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes

  High blood glucose causes around 11% of cardiovascular deaths. […] Since 2000, mortality rates from diabetes have been increasing. […] Gestational diabetes is hyperglycaemia with blood glucose values above normal but below those diagnostic of diabetes. […] People with IGT or IFG are at high risk of progressing to type 2 diabetes, although this is not inevitable. […] WHO aims to stimulate and support the adoption of effective measures for the surveillance, prevention and control of diabetes and its complications, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. […] WHO conducts surveillance of diabetes and its risk factors.

• #18 Trends and risk factors of hyperglycemia and diabetes among Kuwaiti adults: National Nutrition Surveillance Data from 2002 to 2009 | BMC Public Health | Full Text

  https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-13-103

  Kuwait instituted the Kuwait National Nutrition Surveillance (KNNS) in 1998 to monitor changes in obesity and biochemical indicators of chronic diseases including blood glucose levels. […] The present study was carried out to determine 8 year trends in prevalence of hyperglycemia and diabetes among Kuwaiti adults since 2002, and to examine various socio-demographic, biological and lifestyle factors that may have contributed to variation in this prevalence. […] The overall crude prevalences of IFG and diabetes were significantly higher in males than females. […] The results of linear regression showed a greater decrease over time in males and closer values between the genders in 2008-2009. […] In the present study we also explored the association of selected socio-demographic (age, education), biological (BMI and serum TC) and lifestyle (exercise and smoking) factors.

• #19 Classification, epidemiology, diagnosis, and risk factors of diabetes | Oncohema Key

  https://oncohemakey.com/classification-epidemiology-diagnosis-and-risk-factors-of-diabetes/

  The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported in 2011 that approximately 25.9 million Americans, or 8.3% of the U.S. population, had diabetes, of whom 7 million had not been diagnosed. […] The CDC tracks diabetes and obesity prevalence by county throughout the United States. […] According to the CDC, gestational diabetes occurs in 2-10% of pregnancies in the U.S., which is consistent with the estimates of 1.7-11.6% from Schneider, whose figures were for the world’s advanced economies, not just the United States.

• #20 Diabetes Mellitus: Insights from Epidemiology, Biochemistry, Risk Factors, Diagnosis, Complications and Comprehensive Management

  https://www.mdpi.com/2673-4540/2/2/4

  Diabetes mellitus has become a serious and chronic metabolic disorder that results from a complex interaction of genetic and environmental factors, principally characterized by hyperglycemia, polyuria, and polyphagia. […] The prevalence of diabetes patients is rising at epidemic proportions throughout the world. […] The disease burden related to diabetes is high and rising in every country, fueled by the global rise in the prevalence of obesity and unhealthy lifestyles. […] The latest estimates show a prevalence rate of 11.1% with diabetes in 2019, expected to rise to 13% by 2045 in Northern America and Caribbean regions. […] According to a recent study by Saeedi et al. in 2019, a global prevalence of 463 million people with diabetes was recorded which represents a 9.3% prevalence rate worldwide.

• #21 Diabetes | Georgia Department of Public Health

  https://dph.georgia.gov/chronic-disease-prevention/diabetes

  Approximately 1 Million people (12.4%) in Georgia have a diagnosis of diabetes with an additional 230,000 people with diabetes but are unaware. […] Between 2014 and 2018, diabetes was the cause for 104,098 hospitalizations and 154,761 ER visits in Georgia. […] The prevalence of diabetes in Georgia has increased by almost 20% since 2006 when an estimated 9.7% of adults had diabetes, compared to 11.4% in 2016. […] In addition, there are over 2 million Georgians who have pre-diabetes, a condition that can be prevented from becoming full diabetes through weight loss, increased physical activity, and better nutrition. […] Uncontrolled blood glucose levels could lead to complications such as blindness, kidney disease, slow-healing wounds, and even death.

• #22 Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/118361-overview

  Epidemiology […] Despite advancements in self-care of patients with diabetes, DKA accounts for 14% of all hospital admissions of patients with diabetes and 16% of all diabetes-related fatalities. Almost 50% of diabetes-related admissions in young persons are related to DKA. DKA frequently is observed during the diagnosis of type 1 diabetes and often indicates this diagnosis. While the exact incidence is not known, it is estimated to be 1 out of 2000. […] DKA occurs primarily in patients with type 1 diabetes. The incidence is roughly 2 episodes per 100 patient years of diabetes, with about 3% of patients with type 1 diabetes initially presenting with DKA. It can occur in patients with type 2 diabetes as well; this is less common, however. […] A study by Zhong et al found that in England, for adults with type 1 or type 2 diabetes, there was a growing incidence of hospitalization for DKA between 1998 and 2013. More specifically, the investigators reported that the incidence for patients with type 1 diabetes rose between 1998 and 2007 and then remained at the same level until 2013, while the incidence associated with type 2 diabetes expanded annually by 4.24% between 1998 and 2013. […] The incidence of diabetic ketoacidosis in developing countries is not known, but it may be higher than in industrialized nations. […] The incidence of DKA is higher in whites because of the higher incidence of type 1 diabetes in this racial group. The incidence of DKA is slightly greater in females than in males for reasons that are unclear. Recurrent DKA frequently is seen in young women with type 1 diabetes and is caused mostly by the omission of insulin treatment. […] Among persons with type 1 diabetes, DKA is much more common in young children and adolescents than it is in adults. DKA tends to occur in individuals younger than 19 years, but it may occur in patients with diabetes at any age. […] Although multiple factors (eg, ethnic minority, lack of health insurance, lower body mass index, preceding infection, delayed treatment) affect the risk of developing DKA among children and young adults, intervention is possible between symptom onset and development of DKA.

• #23 Trends and risk factors of hyperglycemia and diabetes among Kuwaiti adults: National Nutrition Surveillance Data from 2002 to 2009 | BMC Public Health | Full Text

  https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-13-103

  Current prevalence estimates for diabetes in Arabian Gulf countries are some of the worlds highest, yet regional trends and contributing factors are poorly documented. […] The present study was designed to determine temporal changes in the prevalence of impaired fasting glucose (IFG) and diabetes and associated factors in Kuwaiti adults. […] During the 8 years (2002-2009), prevalences of IFG in males and females decreased by 7.4% and 6.8% and of diabetes by 9.8% and 8.9% in males and females, respectively. […] Both males and females showed the largest decrease in the 2nd half of the study accounting for the majority of the overall decrease (1.13 mmol/L for males and 0.87 mmol/l for females for the 4 years). […] Compared with 2002-03, the OR for IFG in males decreased with time, and becoming significantly lower (OR=0.32; 95% CI: 0.21-0.49) for 2008-09.

• #24 Trends and risk factors of hyperglycemia and diabetes among Kuwaiti adults: National Nutrition Surveillance Data from 2002 to 2009 | BMC Public Health | Full Text

  https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-13-103

  In females, the OR for diabetes in males decreased to 0.34 (95% CI: 0.24-0.49) and in females to 0.33 (95% CI: 0.22-0.50) in 2008-09. […] Continued monitoring of blood glucose is needed to see if negative trends observed in 2008-2009 endure and further research of contributing factors is required for development of targeted intervention strategies. […] Hyperglycemia and diabetes prevalences are increasing at an epidemic rate in many parts of the world, with worldwide diabetes prevalence among adults aged 20-79 years estimated to be 6.4% in 2010 and increasing to 7.7% by 2030. […] Diabetes is particularly prevalent in the Arabian Gulf countries; Kuwait is in the top ten countries in prevalence of diabetes and diabetes accounts for an increasing number of hospital admissions. […] Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and impaired fasting glucose (IFG) are independent risk factors for diabetes.

• #25 Diabetes Mellitus and Cardiovascular Disease: Exploring Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Treatment Strategies

  https://www.imrpress.com/journal/RCM/25/12/10.31083/j.rcm2512436/htm

  The International Diabetes Federation’s (IDF) classification system reveals global variations in the prevalence of CVD in type 2 diabetic (T2D) patients. […] The regions with the greatest CVD prevalence were North America and Caribbean (46.0%; N = 4,327,503), Southeast Asia (42.5%, N = 537), and the Western Pacific (including China) (33.6%; N = 44,062). […] The presence of DM escalates the risk for the occurrence of CVD conditions including CAD, stroke, atrial fibrillation, and heart failure. Thus, in individuals with DM, CVD continues to be the leading cause of mortality. […] The correlation between obesity and DM, typically T2DM, is well known and has been studied for many years. […] One of the crucial risk factors for the development of DM is hypertension. […] Hypertensive diabetic patients typically present uncommon characteristics when compared to non-diabetic hypertensive patients.

• #26 Diabetes – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/diabetes

  The expansive increase in the diabetes epidemic goes hand in hand with the increase in its risk factors. […] The WHO Global report on diabetes provides an overview of the diabetes burden, interventions available to prevent and manage diabetes, and recommendations for governments, individuals, the civil society and the private sector. […] PAHO/WHO aims to stimulate and support the adoption of effective measures for the surveillance, prevention and control of diabetes and its complications, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. […] The series of diabetes country profiles illustrates the rising burden of diabetes and diabetic kidney disease for countries in the Region of the Americas.

• #27 Diabetes Dialogue: CATALYST Reveals High Prevalence of Hypercortisolism in T2D

  https://www.hcplive.com/view/diabetes-dialogue-catalyst-reveals-high-prevalence-of-hypercortisolism-in-t2d

  CATALYST enrolled 1057 adults with T2D and suboptimal glycemic control (HbA1c, 7.5-11.5%) despite treatment with 2 glucose-lowering agents. All participants underwent a 1-mg overnight dexamethasone suppression test (DST), and common confounders were excluded. Hypercortisolism defined as a post-DST cortisol level >1.8 g/dL was identified in 23.8% of participants, with even higher rates among those with cardiac disease (33.3%) or on 3 antihypertensives (36.6%). […] Isaacs and Bellini emphasized how striking it is that such a high proportion of patients met criteria for hypercortisolism, a condition historically considered rare. The trial challenges that perception, revealing that clinical features like persistent hyperglycemia and hypertension despite optimized therapy could reflect underlying endocrine dysfunction.

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