Cholera
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Cholera jest ostrą biegunkową chorobą zakaźną wywołaną przez Vibrio cholerae, głównie serotypów O1 i O139, przenoszoną drogą fekalno-oralną. Patogeneza opiera się na działaniu toksyny cholerycznej (CT), która poprzez ADP-rybozylację podjednostki Gα białek G blokuje hydrolizę GTP, prowadząc do nadmiernej aktywacji cyklazy adenylanowej i wzrostu poziomu cAMP w enterocytach. To z kolei aktywuje kinazę białkową A (PKA), która fosforyluje kanały chlorkowe CFTR, powodując masywne wydzielanie jonów Cl⁻, HCO₃⁻, Na⁺ i wody do światła jelita cienkiego, skutkując obfitą biegunką wodnistą, sięgającą nawet do 12 litrów na godzinę. Dodatkowo toksyna osłabia połączenia międzykomórkowe nabłonka jelitowego, co zwiększa przepuszczalność dla jonów i wody. Kolonizacja jelita wymaga ekspresji pilusa współregulowanego toksyną (TCP) oraz białka GbpA, które umożliwiają przyleganie i tworzenie mikrokolonii. Wysiłki adaptacyjne bakterii obejmują tolerancję na kwaśne pH żołądka (ATR) oraz przejście z formy planktonicznej do biofilmu, co zwiększa ich przeżywalność i transmisję.

Patogeneza cholery

Cholera jest ostrą chorobą biegunkową wywołaną przez bakterię Vibrio cholerae, która może prowadzić do ciężkiego odwodnienia i śmierci, jeśli nie zostanie szybko leczona. Za objawy kliniczne cholery odpowiada głównie toksyna choleryczna (CT), która wywołuje masywne wydzielanie wody i elektrolitów do światła jelita cienkiego12. W tym artykule przedstawiono szczegółowy mechanizm patogenezy cholery, skupiając się na czynnikach wirulencji i procesach prowadzących do charakterystycznej, obfitej biegunki wodnistej.

Drogi transmisji i dawka zakaźna

Cholera jest chorobą przenoszoną drogą fekalno-oralną, głównie poprzez spożycie wody lub żywności skażonej bakteriami V. cholerae12. Dawka zakaźna bakterii V. cholerae wymagana do wywołania objawów klinicznych różni się w zależności od sposobu zakażenia. Przy spożyciu z wodą dawka zakaźna wynosi 10³-10⁶ organizmów, natomiast przy spożyciu z żywnością wystarczy mniejsza liczba bakterii (10²-10⁴) do wywołania choroby1. W badaniach na zdrowych ochotnikach wykazano, że dawka 10⁸ bakterii lub wyższa prowadziła do ciężkiego zakażenia1.

Czynniki wirulencji V. cholerae

Bakterie V. cholerae O1 i O139 są głównymi serotypami powodującymi epidemie i pandemie cholery. Ekspresja zjadliwości tych bakterii zależy od kilku kluczowych czynników wirulencji12:

  • Toksyna choleryczna (CT/CTX) – główny czynnik wirulencji odpowiedzialny za charakterystyczną biegunkę wydzielniczą12
  • Pilus współregulowany toksyną (TCP) – niezbędny czynnik kolonizacji jelita i receptor dla faga CTXf12
  • Białko GbpA – mediuje początkowe przyłączanie się bakterii do komórek nabłonka jelitowego1
  • Toksyna MARTX – zaburza cytoszkielet aktynowy, hamuje fagocytozę i tłumi sygnalizację odpowiedzi immunologicznej w komórkach nabłonka jelitowego1
  • Toksyna zonula occludens (ZOT) – uczestniczy w inwazji V. cholerae poprzez zmniejszenie odporności tkanki jelitowej1
  • Dodatkowa toksyna choleryczna (ACE) – zwiększa wydzielanie płynów1
  • Enzymy mukolityczne – pomagają zniszczyć integralność śluzu jelitowego1
  • Wici i ruchliwość bakterii – umożliwiają penetrację warstwy śluzu i kolonizację jelita cienkiego1

Proces kolonizacji jelita

Po spożyciu bakterii V. cholerae, organizmy muszą najpierw przetrwać kwaśne środowisko żołądka. Kwasowość żołądka stanowi potężny naturalny mechanizm obronny przeciw cholerze, co wykazano w badaniach, gdzie podanie wodorowęglanu neutralizującego kwasowość żołądka znacznie zwiększało ryzyko wystąpienia biegunki u ochotników 12. Bakterie V. cholerae posiadają odpowiedź tolerancji na kwasy (ATR), która pozwala im przetrwać w środowisku o niskim pH1.

Po przedostaniu się do jelita cienkiego, bakterie V. cholerae muszą przeniknąć przez warstwę śluzu o grubości około 100-400 μm1. Wykorzystują do tego wici i ruchliwość, a następnie zmniejszają swoją ruchliwość po osiągnięciu nabłonka jelitowego12. Początkowe przyłączenie do komórek nabłonka jelitowego (IEC) jest prawdopodobnie mediowane przez białko GbpA1. Po przyłączeniu bakterie namnażają się i tworzą mikrokolonie, głównie pochodzące z pojedynczych komórek V. cholerae12.

Kolonizacja jelita zależy w dużej mierze od ekspresji pilusa współregulowanego toksyną (TCP). Mutanty deficytowe TCP nie są w stanie skolonizować modeli zwierzęcych ani jelita ludzkiego1. TCP mediuje przyleganie i tworzenie mikrokolonii wzdłuż osi kosmków i krypt jelitowych1.

Mechanizm działania toksyny cholerycznej

Toksyna choleryczna (CT) to główny czynnik wirulencji odpowiedzialny za biegunkę w cholerze. Jest białkiem polimerycznym (Mr 84 000) składającym się z dwóch głównych domen lub regionów12:

  • Podjednostka A (CTA) – odpowiedzialna za aktywność biologiczną toksyny (Mr 28 000)
  • Podjednostka B (CTB) – składa się z pięciu identycznych łańcuchów peptydowych (Mr 56 000 łącznie), odpowiedzialnych za wiązanie do receptorów na komórkach

Proces działania toksyny cholerycznej przebiega w kilku etapach123:

  1. Wiązanie do receptora – podjednostka B wiąże się do gangliozydu GM1 na powierzchni komórek nabłonka jelitowego
  2. Endocytoza – kompleks toksyny jest endocytowany i transportowany wstecznie przez aparat Golgiego do siateczki śródplazmatycznej (ER)
  3. Rozdzielenie podjednostek – w ER podjednostka A (CTA) jest rozcinana przez proteazy na CTA1 i CTA2, które pozostają połączone mostkiem disiarczkowym
  4. Translokacja do cytoplazmy – CTA1 częściowo rozwija się i wykorzystuje szlak degradacji związanej z ER (ERAD) do przemieszczenia się do cytoplazmy
  5. Aktywacja enzymatyczna – CTA1 wiąże się z ARF6-GTP w cytoplazmie, co indukuje zmianę konformacyjną odsłaniającą jej miejsce aktywne
  6. ADP-rybozylacja – CTA1 katalizuje ADP-rybozylację Arg201 w podjednostce Gα białek G, wykorzystując NAD jako substrat
  7. Ta modyfikacja posttranslacyjna hamuje hydrolizę GTP, blokując podjednostkę Gα w jej aktywnym stanie związanym z GTP, co prowadzi do ciągłej stymulacji cyklazy adenylanowej12. W rezultacie drastycznie wzrastają wewnątrzkomórkowe poziomy cAMP, aktywując kinazę białkową A (PKA), która fosforyluje i aktywuje kanały chlorkowe CFTR, promując wydzielanie Cl⁻, HCO₃⁻, Na⁺ i wody do światła jelita12.

    Dodatkowo, pobieranie Na⁺ i wody przez enterocyty jest hamowane, co skutkuje charakterystyczną obfitą biegunką wodnistą (do 12 litrów na godzinę), przyczyniając się do ciężkiego odwodnienia i zaburzeń elektrolitowych u pacjentów z cholerą1.

    Dodatkowe mechanizmy patogenezy

    Oprócz głównego szlaku działania toksyny cholerycznej, badania wykazały dodatkowe mechanizmy przyczyniające się do patogenezy cholery:

    Osłabienie połączeń międzykomórkowych – toksyna choleryczna zaburza połączenia, które normalnie „zamykają” komórki nabłonka jelitowego, tworząc szczelną barierę między organizmen a treścią jelitową. W konsekwencji dochodzi do osłabienia połączeń międzykomórkowych, co umożliwia jonom sodu i wodzie ucieczkę między komórkami do światła jelita12.

    Podwójny mechanizm działania – badacze z UC San Diego odkryli, że toksyna choleryczna działa za pomocą dwóch odrębnych, ale współdziałających mechanizmów powodujących biegunkę. Oprócz zwiększania wypływu jonów chlorkowych przez kanał CFTR, osłabia ona połączenia komórkowe, umożliwiając szybki wypływ przeciwważących jonów sodu i wody między komórkami1.

    Tworzenie biofilmuV. cholerae może tworzyć agregaty podobne do biofilmu podczas infekcji, co może odgrywać kluczową rolę w patogenezie i transmisji choroby1. Przejście z formy planktonicznej do biofilmu wiąże się z obniżeniem ekspresji genów ruchliwości i indukcją genów wymaganych do biosyntezy macierzy pozakomórkowej biofilmu1.

    Stan hiperinfektywnościV. cholerae wydalane w wodnistym stolcu cholerycznym (zwanym „wodą ryżową”) są przejściowo hiperinfektywne, co może odgrywać rolę w rozprzestrzenianiu się cholery, gdy transmisja do innej osoby następuje w stosunkowo krótkim czasie12.

    Regulacja ekspresji czynników wirulencji

    Ekspresja głównych czynników wirulencji V. cholerae, w tym toksyny cholerycznej (CT) i pilusa współregulowanego toksyną (TCP), jest kontrolowana przez kaskadę regulatorowych białek12:

    • ToxR – transbłonowy czynnik transkrypcyjny, który posiada domenę peryplazmatyczną służącą jako sensor środowiskowy dla kwasów żółciowych1
    • TcpP – współdziała z ToxR w aktywacji ekspresji ToxT1
    • ToxT – bezpośrednio aktywuje ekspresję genów wirulencji, w tym CT i TCP12

    Warto zauważyć, że ekspresja genów wirulencji jest regulowana przez różne czynniki środowiskowe, w tym12:

    • Kwasy żółciowe – mogą mieć mieszany wpływ na ekspresję genów wirulencji, z niektórymi badaniami sugerującymi efekt represyjny na transkrypcję zależną od ToxT, a innymi wskazującymi na indukowanie ekspresji CT poprzez mechanizm niezależny od ToxT
    • Wodorowęglany – wysokie stężenie wodorowęglanów zwiększa powinowactwo wiązania ToxT do promotorów genów wirulencji
    • Stężenie wapnia – wyższe poziomy wapnia mogą wzmacniać ekspresję tcpA w obecności induktorów kwasów żółciowych
    • Gęstość komórek – niska gęstość komórek sprzyja tworzeniu mikrokolonii i biofilmów oraz ekspresji czynników wirulencji; wysoka gęstość komórek indukuje quorum sensing, które aktywuje HapR, czynnik transkrypcyjny hamujący ekspresję CT i TCP

    Genetyczne podstawy patogenezy

    Geny kodujące czynniki wirulencji V. cholerae są umiejscowione w różnych elementach genomu bakterii12:

    • Geny toksyny cholerycznej (ctxAB) – znajdują się na transpozono-podobnym elemencie w chromosomie V. cholerae, wprowadzonym poprzez horyzontalny transfer genów od bakteriofaga CTX
    • Gen pilusa współregulowanego toksyną (tcp) – kodowany na wyspie patogenności V. cholerae 1 (VPI-1)
    • Geny vps – odpowiedzialne za wytwarzanie macierzy egzopolisacharydowej, zlokalizowane w dwóch klastrach (vpsU, vpsA-K i vpsL-Q) na chromosomie I V. cholerae

    Interesującym aspektem patogenezy cholery jest fakt, że zdolność wytwarzania toksyny cholerycznej jest nabywana przez bakterię V. cholerae poprzez zakażenie bakteriofagiem CTX. Bakteriofag integruje cały swój genom z genomem bakterii, umożliwiając mu wykorzystanie procesów reprodukcyjnych gospodarza do własnego rozprzestrzeniania. W zamian bakteria nabywa zdolność wytwarzania toksyny cholerycznej, która jest kodowana w genomie bakteriofaga12.

    Adaptacja V. cholerae w środowisku jelitowym

    Bakterie V. cholerae wykazują zdolność do szybkiej adaptacji do środowiska jelitowego, co stanowi kluczowy element ich patogenezy12:

    Po dotarciu do jelita, bakterie przestają wytwarzać flagellinę, aby zaoszczędzić energię i składniki odżywcze, zmieniając ekspresję białek w odpowiedzi na zmienione warunki chemiczne1. Mikrobiolodzy badali mechanizmy genetyczne, za pomocą których bakterie V. cholerae wyłączają produkcję niektórych białek i włączają produkcję innych w odpowiedzi na serię środowisk chemicznych, które napotykają, przechodząc przez żołądek, przez warstwę śluzu jelita cienkiego i do ściany jelita1.

    Jelito ludzkie dostarcza znacznie więcej składników odżywczych w porównaniu ze środowiskiem wodnym, co sprzyja namnażaniu się bakterii1. Zdolność V. cholerae do przyjmowania zarówno planktonicznego, jak i biofilmowego stylu życia podczas infekcji może zapewniać korzyści adaptacyjne w środowisku jelitowym1.

    Odpowiedź immunologiczna gospodarza

    Zakażenie V. cholerae wywołuje odpowiedź zapalną, która wpływa na rozwój pamięci immunologicznej przeciwko cholerze1. Toksyna MARTX oraz inne czynniki wirulencji mogą hamować sygnalizację odpowiedzi immunologicznej w komórkach nabłonka jelitowego, zapobiegając rekrutacji neutrofili i usuwaniu bakterii1.

    Enterotoksyna działa lokalnie i nie wnika do ściany jelita. W rezultacie w kale znajduje się niewiele neutrofili1. Mimo to, badania biopsyjne jelita pacjentów z klasyczną epidemiczną i endemiczną cholerą azjatycką wykazały, że nabłonek jelitowy w tej chorobie jest nienaruszony, a zmiany histologiczne jelita cienkiego w cholerze ujawniły ostre zapalenie jelit manifestujące się naciekiem zapalnym z komórek jednojądrzastych, przekrwieniem naczyń, wyraźnym przerostem komórek kubkowych z ostatecznym zanikiem z wyczerpania oraz zwiększoną wymianą komórek nabłonkowych1.

    Wpływ czynników środowiskowych na transmisję cholery

    Transmisja cholery jest związana z kilkoma czynnikami społeczno-ekonomicznymi i środowiskowymi1. Wzrost temperatury otoczenia i temperatury powierzchni morza przybrzeżnego sprzyja transmisji cholery poprzez wzrost planktonu i preferencję V. cholerae dla cieplejszych wód1.

    Zwiększone opady deszczu mogą potencjalnie wspierać lub ograniczać transmisję poprzez kilka mechanizmów1. Teoria stałego rezerwuaru środowiskowego wyjaśnia początek sezonowych epidemii, sugerując, że stężenie V. cholerae wzrasta w odpowiedzi na korzystne warunki, takie jak podwyższona temperatura wody, zmniejszone zasolenie i zwiększona obecność fitoplanktonu i zooplanktonu, które działają jak bogate w składniki odżywcze mini-rezerwuary1.

    Wykazano jednak, że patogenne szczepy V. cholerae wymagają obecności jonów Na⁺ do przeżycia, a grupa serologiczna O1 nie jest w stanie przetrwać dłużej niż 24 godziny przy poziomach zasolenia poza zakresem 0,25-3,0%1.

    Potencjalne nowe strategie terapeutyczne

    Badania nad patogenezą cholery prowadzą do identyfikacji potencjalnych nowych celów terapeutycznych12:

    • Inhibitory CFTR – badania wykazały, że leczenie inhibitorem CFTR o nazwie CFTRinh-172 całkowicie zapobiegało gromadzeniu się płynu jelitowego wywołanemu przez V. cholerae1
    • Kwas L-askorbinowy (witamina C) – wykazano, że skutecznie zabija komórki V. cholerae in vitro w różnych warunkach wzrostu naśladujących warunki in vivo. Badania na modelach zwierzęcych wykazały, że kwas L-askorbinowy może skutecznie zmniejszyć obciążenie bakteryjne i przyspieszyć powrót do zdrowia z objawów biegunkowych12
    • Leki przywracające integralność bariery jelitowej – rozwój leków naśladujących manipulacje genetyczne przeprowadzone w badaniach może pomóc przywrócić integralność uszkodzonej bariery jelitowej, potencjalnie zmniejszając objawy choroby w cholerze i innych przewlekłych zaburzeniach jelit1

    Włączenie kwasu L-askorbinowego do doustnego roztworu nawadniającego (ORS) mogłoby zrewolucjonizować istniejące metody leczenia nawadniającego1.

    Znaczenie dla zdrowia publicznego

    Zrozumienie patogenezy cholery ma kluczowe znaczenie dla opracowania skutecznych strategii zapobiegania, gotowości i reagowania na epidemie tej choroby1. Długoterminowe rozwiązanie problemu cholery leży w rozwoju gospodarczym i powszechnym dostępie do bezpiecznej wody pitnej, podstawowej kanalizacji i dobrych praktyk higienicznych1.

    Cholera jest chorobą, która dobrze reaguje na leczenie medyczne. Większość przypadków można skutecznie leczyć poprzez szybkie podanie doustnych roztworów nawadniających (ORS)12. Wczesne i odpowiednie leczenie ogranicza wskaźnik śmiertelności (CFR) hospitalizowanych pacjentów do mniej niż 1%1.

    Działania w zakresie wody, warunków sanitarnych i higieny (WaSH) oraz zarządzanie przypadkami pozostają podstawą każdej odpowiedzi i powinny być wdrażane równolegle z działaniami szczepiennymi1.

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  1. 09.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10196187/
    Table 2 provides a summary of the main virulence factors of V. cholerae that are expressed during infection, and Figure 2A depicts some of these virulence factors. […] Cholera toxin (CTX) is the main virulence factor in toxigenic V. cholerae strains. […] CTX is responsible for the secretory diarrhea characteristic of cholera. […] The expression of TCP is coordinately upregulated with that of CTX. […] Accessory toxins such as MARTX toxin disrupt the actin cytoskeleton, inhibit phagocytosis, and suppress innate immune signaling in intestinal epithelial cells (IECs), preventing neutrophil recruitment and bacterial clearance. […] The incubation period of cholera can range from 12h to 5days. […] To successfully colonize the small intestine, V. cholerae must penetrate a highly viscous mucus layer that is approximately 100400m thick.
  • #1 Cholera, Vibrio cholerae O1 and O139, and Other Pathogenic Vibrios – Medical Microbiology – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8407/
    Cholera is transmitted by the fecal-oral route. […] Surviving virulent organisms may adhere to and colonize the small bowel, where they secrete the potent cholera enterotoxin (CT, also called choleragen). This toxin binds to the plasma membrane of intestinal epithelial cells and releases an enzymatically active subunit that causes a rise in cyclic adenosine 51-monophosphate (cAMP) production. The resulting high intracellular cAMP level causes massive secretion of electrolytes and water into the intestinal lumen. […] Recent studies with laboratory animal models and human volunteers have provided a detailed understanding of the pathogenesis of cholera. Initial attempts to infect healthy American volunteers with cholera vibrios revealed that the oral administration of up to 1011 living cholera vibrios rarely had an effect; in fact, the organisms usually could not be recovered from stools of the volunteers. After the administration of bicarbonate to neutralize gastric acidity, however, cholera diarrhea developed in most volunteers given 104 cholera vibrios. Therefore, gastric acidity itself is a powerful natural resistance mechanism.
  • #1 Cholera: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/962643-overview
    The infectious dose of V cholerae required to cause clinical disease varies by the mode of administration. If V cholerae is ingested with water, the infectious dose is 10^3 -10^6 organisms. When ingested with food, fewer organisms (10^2 -10^4) are required to produce disease. […] The use of antacids, histamine receptor blockers, and proton pump inhibitors increases the risk of cholera infection and predisposes patients to more severe disease as a result of reduced gastric acidity. […] V cholerae O1 and V cholerae O139 cause clinical disease by producing an enterotoxin that promotes the secretion of fluid and electrolytes into the lumen of the small intestine. The enterotoxin is a protein molecule composed of 5 B subunits and 2 A subunits. The B subunits are responsible for binding to a ganglioside (monosialosyl ganglioside, GM1) receptor located on the surface of the cells that line the intestinal mucosa.
  • #1 Cholera: Epidemiology, clinical features, and diagnosis – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/cholera-clinical-features-diagnosis-treatment-and-prevention
    Cholera is a life-threatening diarrheal illness caused by cholera toxin-producing strains of Vibrio cholerae. […] The infectious dose of Vibrio cholerae required to cause cholera is thought to be relatively high; an inoculum of 10^8 Vibrio cholerae or higher resulted in severe infection among healthy volunteers. […] For infection to occur, Vibrio cholerae must survive the acidic environment of the stomach, then attach to the small intestine and produce cholera toxin. […] Cholera toxin is the main virulence factor of pathogenic Vibrio cholerae strains; it activates an intracellular pathway resulting in massive fluid secretion into the small intestine, leading to large volumes of fluid loss with high concentrations of sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, and potassium.
  • #1 Vibrio cholerae Biofilms and Cholera Pathogenesis | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
    https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0004330
    Vibrio cholerae can switch between motile and biofilm lifestyles. […] Evidence has grown suggesting that V. cholerae can form biofilm-like aggregates during infection that could play a critical role in pathogenesis and disease transmission. […] The structure and regulation of biofilms formed during infection, as well as their role in intestinal colonization and virulence, remains poorly understood. […] The two major virulence factors expressed by V. cholerae O1 and O139 are (i) cholera toxin (CT), an AB5 family ADP-ribosyltransferase responsible for the profuse rice-watery diarrhea typical of this disease, and (ii) the toxin-coregulated pilus (TCP), a type IV pilus that mediates adherence and microcolony formation and is required for intestinal colonization in neonate mice and humans.
  • #1
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10196187/
    The initial attachment of V. cholerae to intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) is likely mediated by the GbpA protein. […] After attachment to the intestinal epithelium, V. cholerae decreases its motility, proliferates, and forms microcolonies, mostly originating from single vibrio cells. […] Importantly, TCP-deficient mutant strains are unable to colonize animal models and the human intestine. […] CTX is secreted into the extracellular milieu through the type II secretion system (T2SS). […] The mechanism of action of CTX is described in detail in Figure 3C. […] The hyperinfectious state could play a role in the spread of cholera when transmission to another person occurs in a relatively short period of time.
  • #1
    https://proteinswebteam.github.io/interpro-blog/potm/2005_9/Page2.htm
    The effects of cholera involve the actions of other Vibrio cholerae toxins that aid the pathogen in its colonisation, coordinated expression of virulence factors, and toxin action. […] These additional proteins include zona occludens toxin (zot, involved in Vibrio cholerae invasion by acting to decrease intestinal tissue resistance), accessory cholera toxin (ace, increases fluid secretion), toxin-coregulated pilus (tcpA, essential colonisation factor and receptor for the CTXf phage), NAG-specific heat-labile toxin (st), and outer membrane porin proteins (ompU and ompT). […] The expression of virulence factors is controlled by the transcriptional factors ToxR, TcpP and ToxT. […] Different strains of Vibrio cholerae produce differing sets and amounts of these auxiliary toxins, which in turn affect the clinical symptoms of cholera and its responsiveness to treatment.
  • #1 Pathogenesis of Cholera: Recent Prospectives in Rapid Detection and Prevention of Cholera | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/59438
    Cholera, also known as blue death is a potentially epidemic and life-threatening secretory diarrhea characterized by numerous voluminous watery stools, often accompanied by vomiting and resulting in hypovolemic shock and acidosis. […] The pathogenesis and virulence of the bacteria are due to an enterotoxin it producescholera toxin (CT). […] The mechanism of action of CT is discussed in this chapter at a later stage. […] The mechanism of invasion begins as soon as the bacterium establishes itself in the bowel, following the colonization of the epithelial layer of the small intestine by penetrating the mucous. […] The penetration of the mucous is facilitated by mucolytic enzymes which help to destroy the mucous integrity, and also the long tail of the invading organism allows it to propel itself through the thick mucosal layer.
  • #1 Vibrio cholerae Biofilms and Cholera Pathogenesis | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
    https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0004330
    Also important for the pathogenicity of the cholera bacterium is the expression of a sheathed polar flagellum driven by sodium motive force (SMF). […] The expression of motility requires a hierarchical regulatory cascade that involves the alternative RNA polymerase subunits 54 and 28 and the 54-dependent transcriptional activators FlrA and FlrC. […] In addition, evidence has grown suggesting that flagellar motility participates in the regulation of virulence gene expression. […] The human small intestine, nevertheless, provides a superior bounty of nutrients compared to aquatic environments. […] Disruption of genes encoding the general stress response regulator RpoS (S) or the RNA polymerase E subunit (RpoE) that mediates the envelope stress response results in significant attenuation of V. cholerae virulence and its capacity to colonize the small intestine.
  • #1 Cholera: A Latent Threat to Human Health
    https://brieflands.com/articles/archcid-139934
    Vibrio cholerae is known to be acid-resistant, utilizing an acid tolerance response (ATR) when exposed to human gastric acids. The ATR mechanism of V. cholerae involves several physiological changes that allow the bacterium to maintain its structural integrity and metabolic activity in low pH environments. For example, V. cholerae alters its gene expression, enhancing the expression of the lysine decarboxylase, CadA, under conditions of low pH and high lysine concentrations. CadA, among other amino acid decarboxylases, consumes protons in their enzymatic reactions, thus maintaining internal pH. […] Similar to environmental pH, the presence of bile acids represents a major component in virulence regulation for V. cholerae among other enteropathogens. ToxR, a transmembrane transcription factor, possesses a periplasmic domain serving as an environmental sensor for bile acids. Positioned within a regulatory cascade, ToxR triggers the expression of toxin coregulated pilus (TCP) and cholera toxin (CT). CT, housed within the cholera toxin bacteriophage (CTX), falls under the direct control of ToxT. Research on the impact of bile acids has yielded mixed results, with some studies suggesting a repressive effect on ToxT-dependent transcription of CT and other virulence factors. Conversely, bile acids have been shown to induce ToxR and CT transcription through a ToxT-independent mechanism.
  • #1 Vibrio cholerae Biofilms and Cholera Pathogenesis | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
    https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0004330
    The genes (vps) responsible for making the V. cholerae exopolysaccharide matrix are located in two clusters (vpsU, vpsA-K) and vpsL-Q on V. cholerae chromosome I. […] The expression of genes in the vps and rbm clusters is under positive transcription regulation by VpsR and VpsT. […] The expression of TCP and unknown factors promote microcolony formation along the villous axis and the crypts. […] The hallmark of intestinal colonization is adherence, multiplication, and microcolony formation along the villi and crypts. […] The capacity of V. cholerae to adopt both lifestyles during infection could provide fitness in the environment of the gut.
  • #1 Cholera, Vibrio cholerae O1 and O139, and Other Pathogenic Vibrios – Medical Microbiology – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8407/
    To establish residence and multiply in the human small bowel (normally relatively free of bacteria because of the effective clearance mechanisms of peristalsis and mucus secretion), the cholera vibrios have one or more adherence factors that enable them to adhere to the microvilli. […] The growing cholera vibrios elaborate the cholera enterotoxin (CT or choleragen), a polymeric protein (Mr 84,000) consisting of two major domains or regions. The A region (Mr 28,000), responsible for biologic activity of the enterotoxin, is linked by noncovalent interactions with the B region (Mr 56,000), which is composed of five identical noncovalently associated peptide chains of Mr 11,500. […] The structural genes that encode the synthesis of CT reside on a transposon-like element in the Vibrio cholerae chromosome, in contrast to those for the heat-labile enterotoxins (LTs) of E coli, which are encoded by plasmids.
  • #1 Cholera toxin – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera_toxin
    Cholera toxin (CT) initiates its toxic effects by binding to GM1 ganglioside receptors on the surface of intestinal epithelial cells via its B subunit pentamer. […] Once bound, the entire holotoxin is endocytosed and undergoes retrograde trafficking through the Golgi apparatus to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In the ER, the A subunit (CTXA) is cleaved by proteases into CTA1 and CTA2, which remain linked by a disulfide bond between Cys187 and Cys199. […] CTA1 partially unfolds and exploits the ER-associated degradation (ERAD) pathway to translocate into the cytosol through the Sec61 translocon. […] CTA1 binds to ARF6-GTP (ADP-ribosylation factor 6) in the cytosol, which induces a conformational change that exposes its active site. […] CTA1 then catalyses the ADP-ribosylation of Arg201 on the Gs subunit of heterotrimeric G proteins, using NAD as a substrate.
  • #1 Cholera: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/962643-overview
    The A1 subunit of cholera toxin activates adenylate cyclase to cause a net increase in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). The increased cAMP then carries on the downstream effects. cAMP blocks the absorption of sodium and chloride by the microvilli and promotes the secretion of chloride and water by the crypt cells. […] The result is watery diarrhea with electrolyte concentrations isotonic to those of plasma. […] The enterotoxin acts locally and does not invade the intestinal wall. As a result, few neutrophils are found in the stool. […] The O139 Bengal strain of V cholerae has a very similar pathogenic mechanism except that it produces a novel O139 lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and an immunologically related O-antigen capsule. These 2 features enhance its virulence and increase its resistance to human serum in vitro and occasional development of O139 bacteremia.
  • #1 Cholera toxin – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera_toxin
    This post-translational modification inhibits GTP hydrolysis, locking Gs in its active GTP-bound state and continuously stimulating adenylyl cyclase. […] This dramatically increases intracellular 3,5-cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels, activating protein kinase A (PKA). […] PKA phosphorylates and activates CFTR chloride channels, promoting the secretion of Cl, HCO, Na, and water into the intestinal lumen. […] Additionally, the uptake of Na and water by enterocytes is inhibited, resulting in the hallmark profuse watery diarrhoea (up to 12 litres per hour), contributing to severe dehydration and electrolyte imbalance in cholera patients.
  • #1 Biologists Uncover Mechanisms for Cholera Toxin’s Deadly Effects
    https://biology.ucsd.edu/about/news/article_091113.html
    Cholera toxin is produced by the highly infectious bacterium Vibrio cholerae. […] Biologists at the University of California, San Diego have identified an underlying biochemical mechanism that helps make cholera toxin so deadly, often resulting in life-threatening diarrhea that causes people to lose as much as half of their body fluids in a single day. […] They discovered the toxin exerts some of its devastating effects by reducing the delivery of proteins to molecular junctions that normally act like Velcro to hold intestinal cells together in the outer lining of the gut. […] We uncovered a mechanism by which cholera toxin disrupts junctions that normally zip intestinal epithelial cells together into a tight sheet, which acts as a barrier between the body and intestinal content. […] A consequence of these weakened cell junctions is that sodium ions and water can escape between cells and empty into the gut.
  • #1 Mechanisms for cholera toxin’s deadly effects uncovered | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/09/130911125051.htm
    „High levels of cAMP activate a protein channel called CFTR that allows the negatively-charged chloride ions to rush out of intestinal epithelial cells into the contents of the gut,” said Victor Nizet, MD, a professor of pediatrics and pharmacy at UC San Diego School of Medicine, who headed the other team. „Through basic physiological principals known as electroneutrality and osmotic balance, these secreted chloride ions must be accompanied by positively-charged sodium ions and water, altogether leading to a profuse loss of salt and water in the diarrheal stools.” […] The UC San Diego researchers found that cholera toxin acts by two entirely distinct, but cooperating mechanisms to produce diarrhea. In addition to increasing the efflux of chloride ions through the CFTR channel, it weakens cell junctions to allow a rapid outflow of counterbalancing sodium ions and water between the cells.
  • #1 Vibrio cholerae Biofilms and Cholera Pathogenesis | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
    https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0004330
    Biofilms are microbially derived sessile communities characterized by cells that are attached to a substratum, an interface, or to each other; are embedded in a self-produced matrix; and exhibit an altered phenotype with respect to growth rate and transcription profile. […] A major event in the transition from planktonic to biofilm lifestyle is the down-regulation of motility gene expression and induction of genes required for the biosynthesis of the biofilm extracellular matrix. […] The regulation and structure of biofilms formed under laboratory conditions has been the subject of much study and several reviews. […] It is well established that the intracellular concentration of the second messenger cyclic diguanylic acid (c-di-GMP) controls the transition between V. cholerae planktonic and biofilm lifestyles.
  • #1 Expression of Cholera Toxin (CT) and the Toxin Co-Regulated Pilus (TCP) by Variants of ToxT in Vibrio cholerae Strains
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/15/8/507
    The expression of the two major virulence genes of Vibrio cholerae—tcpA (the major subunit of the toxin co-regulated pilus) and ctxAB (cholera toxin)—is regulated by the ToxR regulon, which is triggered by environmental stimuli during infection within the human small intestine. […] The mechanisms for the regulation of virulence gene expression in V. cholerae strains have been extensively studied. The expression of CT, the TCP, and other virulence factors is controlled by a cascade of regulatory proteins known as the ToxR regulon. […] ToxT has been shown to directly bind to the promoters of virulence genes in V. cholerae. […] Our results indicated that no specific toxT allele could consistently stimulate virulence gene expression in V. cholerae strains, even within the same biotype. Rather, each toxT allele showed strain-specific transcriptional activator functions among V. cholerae strains, suggesting that the regulation of virulence gene expression may involve more than just the production of ToxT by the ToxR regulon.
  • #1 Cholera – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera
    The gene encoding the cholera toxin was introduced into Vibrio cholerae by horizontal gene transfer. […] Microbiologists have studied the genetic mechanisms by which the Vibrio cholerae bacteria turn off the production of some proteins and turn on the production of other proteins as they respond to the series of chemical environments they encounter, passing through the stomach, through the mucous layer of the small intestine, and on to the intestinal wall. […] In responding to the chemical environment at the intestinal wall, the Vibrio cholerae bacteria produce the TcpP/TcpH proteins, which, together with the ToxR/ToxS proteins, activate the expression of the ToxT regulatory protein. ToxT then directly activates expression of virulence genes that produce the toxins, causing diarrhea in the infected person and allowing the bacteria to colonize the intestine.
  • #1 Cholera: How Parasites Make Bacteria Pathogenic | Institut Pasteur
    https://www.pasteur.fr/en/cholera-how-parasites-make-bacteria-pathogenic
    Vibrio cholerae, the bacteria that causes cholera, is made pathogenic by one of its parasites, the CTX virus. This virus enables the vibrio to produce a toxin that causes the lethal diarrhea of cholera. […] In order to become pathogenic, the vibrio must acquire the ability to produce the cholera toxin, which causes the lethal diarrhea of cholera. The ability to produce this toxin is transferred to the bacteria by a resourceful parasite, the CTX bacteriophage. […] In order to become a parasite of the Vibrio cholerae, the CTX bacteriophage integrates its entire genome in that of the bacteria, thus enabling it to use its hosts reproduction process to propagate itself. In exchange, the vibrio acquires the ability to produce the cholera toxin, which is encoded in the genome of the bacteriophage.
  • #1 Cholera – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera
    Cholera is caused by a number of types of Vibrio cholerae, with some types producing more severe disease than others. […] Once the cholera bacteria reach the intestinal wall, they no longer need the flagella to move. The bacteria stop producing the protein flagellin to conserve energy and nutrients by changing the mix of proteins that they express in response to the changed chemical surroundings. […] The cholera toxin (CTX or CT) is an oligomeric complex made up of six protein subunits: a single copy of the A subunit (part A), and five copies of the B subunit (part B), connected by a disulfide bond. […] This results in constitutive cAMP production, which in turn leads to the secretion of water, sodium, potassium, and bicarbonate into the lumen of the small intestine and rapid dehydration.
  • #1
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10196187/
    Vibrio cholerae is the causative agent of cholera, a highly contagious diarrheal disease affecting millions worldwide each year. […] In this narrative review, we aim to summarize the current understanding of the evolution of virulence and pathogenesis of V. cholerae as well as provide an overview of the immune response against this pathogen. […] Furthermore, we show that this pathogen expresses several virulence factors enabling it to efficiently colonize the human intestine and cause cholera. […] A cumulative body of work also shows that V. cholerae infection triggers an inflammatory response that influences the development of immune memory against cholera. […] In this section, we will review the current understanding of the pathogenesis of toxigenic V. cholerae strains, particularly the O1 serogroup.
  • #1 The Nature of the Gastrointestinal Lesion in Asiatic Cholera and Its Relation to Pathogenesis: A Biopsy Study in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 9 Issue 2 (1960)
    https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/9/2/article-p125.xml
    1. A serial intestinal biopsy study of patients with classical epidemic and endemic Asiatic cholera demonstrates that the intestinal epithelium in this disease is intact, contrary to the classical textbook concept that a mucolytic enzyme causes desquamation of the epithelium during life. […] 2. The histological abnormalities of the small bowel in cholera revealed an acute enteritis manifested by a mononuclear cell inflammatory exudate, vascular congestion, marked goblet cell hyperplasia with eventual exhaustion atrophy, and increased turn-over of epithelial cells. Except in degree, the lesion in cholera could not be differentiated from that in cases of nonspecific diarrhea observed during this epidemic. […] 3. The additional finding of a separate, underlying, chronic, atrophic enteritis suggested that a dietary or nutritional factor may be important in predisposing an individual to cholera.
  • #1 Mechanisms of cholera transmission via environment in India and Bangladesh: state of the science review
    https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/reveh-2022-0201/html?lang=en
    Cholera has a long history in India and Bangladesh, the region where six out of the past seven global pandemics have been seeded. […] The changing climate and growing population have led to global cholera cases remaining high despite a consistent improvement in the access to clean water and sanitation. […] We aim to provide a holistic overview of variables influencing environmental cholera transmission within the context of India and Bangladesh, with a focus on the mechanisms by which they act. […] The results of the review found that cholera transmission is associated with several socio-economic and environmental factors, each associated variable is suggested to have at least one mediating mechanism. […] Increases in ambient temperature and coastal sea surface temperature support cholera transmission via increases in plankton and a preference of Vibrio cholerae for warmer waters.
  • #1 Mechanisms of cholera transmission via environment in India and Bangladesh: state of the science review
    https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/reveh-2022-0201/html?lang=en
    Increased rainfall can potentially support or reduce transmission via several mechanisms. […] A comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms which drive cholera transmission via the environment is essential for both effective prediction and mitigation through interruption of these mechanisms. […] This review aims to establish the primary factors associated with increased cholera transmission via the environment, and to identify the specific mechanisms which mediate these associations. […] The evidence supporting a temporary environmental reservoir of pathogenic V. cholerae (strains within O1 and O139 serogroups) is strong. […] The permanent environmental reservoir theory explains the onset of seasonal epidemics by suggesting that V. cholerae concentrations increase in response to favourable conditions such as elevated water temperature, reduced salinity, and increased presence of phyto- and zooplankton which act as nutrient rich mini-reservoirs.
  • #1 Mechanisms of cholera transmission via environment in India and Bangladesh: state of the science review
    https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/reveh-2022-0201/html?lang=en
    However, other studies have shown that pathogenic V. cholerae require the presence of Na+ ions for survival, with the O1 serogroup unable to survive beyond 24 h in salinity levels outside the Goldilocks range of 0.25-3.0%. […] The precise mechanisms by which pathogenic V. cholerae is continually reintroduced into the environment, particularly in inland regions lacking brackish water, remains uncertain. […] It is nonetheless clear from the literature that secondary transmission in the region, which defines the growth, spread, and persistence of an outbreak occurs largely via the environment. […] The reviewed literature suggests that an association between ambient temperature and cholera incidence exists when considered at a lag time of around two months. […] The review found highly mixed results regarding the relationship between coastal SST and cholera outbreaks with different studies finding any of positive, negative or neutral relationships.
  • #1 An Adult Mouse Model of Vibrio cholerae-induced Diarrhea for Studying Pathogenesis and Potential Therapy of Cholera | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
    https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0002293
    Cholera is a diarrheal disease causing significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. This study aimed to establish an adult mouse model of Vibrio cholerae-induced diarrhea and to characterize its pathophysiology. Diarrhea in cholera results from both direct and indirect (via enteric nervous system) effects of V. cholerae-derived enterotoxins, especially cholera toxin (CT), on intestinal epithelium. Using cAMP as a second messenger, CT induces transepithelial Cl secretion, which in turn provides a driving force for Na+ and water secretion. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated that cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) mediates CT-induced apical Cl efflux into intestinal lumen and therefore represents a promising therapeutic target for treatment of cholera. To study the pathophysiology of diarrhea and to evaluate the potential anti-diarrheal therapies for cholera, most previous studies employed rodent and rabbit models of CT-induced intestinal fluid secretion. However, extrapolation of the data obtained from these studies to explain the pathogenesis which would lead to therapeutic intervention of cholera in human proved difficult, since pathogenesis of cholera in human requires coordinated expression by V. cholerae of several other virulence factors other than CT. Indeed, a number of investigations have recently suggested that other non-CT virulence factors produced by V. cholerae and inflammatory response induced by V. cholerae independently of CT may be involved in the pathogenesis of cholera. Pathogenesis of diarrhea in cholera required V. cholerae colonization and production of CT. To gain insight into the mechanism of diarrhea in this model, the amount of V. cholerae in the intestinal loops (intestinal fluid plus intestinal tissues) and CT in intestinal fluid were determined. It has been known that CFTR-mediated transepithelial Cl secretion provides the driving force for CT-induced intestinal fluid secretion. To estimate the relative contribution of CFTR-mediated Cl secretion to the pathogenesis of diarrhea in this model, the effect of CFTRinh-172, a CFTR inhibitor, on V. cholerae-induced intestinal fluid secretion was investigated. Interestingly, we found that treatment with CFTRinh-172 completely prevented V. cholerae-induced intestinal fluid accumulation. Taken together, our results suggested that paracellular permeability of the mouse intestine was unaltered by V. cholerae infection and CT exposure. This observation, together with the inhibitory effect of CFTRinh-172 on V. cholerae-induced intestinal fluid secretion, suggests that CFTR-mediated Cl secretion is the major pathophysiological event leading to secretory diarrhea at least in the early phase (12 h) of V. cholerae infection and could be the important target of anti-secretory drug for cholera. In summary, we have established the ligated ileal loop model of V. cholerae-induced diarrhea in adult mice. Pathogenesis of diarrhea in this cholera model results from CFTR-mediated transepithelial Cl secretion with no involvement of disrupted intestinal barrier function or vascular leakage. This animal model may be beneficial for studying pathogenesis of diarrhea and evaluating potential anti-secretory therapies as well as vaccines for cholera.
  • #1 In vivo efficacy of L-ascorbic acid in restricting cholera pathogenesis | bioRxiv
    https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.04.01.646656v1.full
    In the last three centuries, our world has experienced seven cholera pandemics. Cholera is a deadly diarrheal disease caused by Vibrio cholerae, an important member of the gamma-proteobacteria. […] L-ascorbic acid was recently shown to effectively kill the Vibrio cholerae cells in vitro under various growth conditions mimicking the in vivo host conditions, including growth in the presence of bile salts, growth of acid-adapted V. cholerae, and growth in the presence of various ORS components. […] We show that L-ascorbic acid can effectively reduce the bacterial load in both the rabbit models as well as fast-track the recovery from the diarrheal symptoms. […] Results suggest that L-AA treatment inhibits bacterial proliferation and leads to shortened recovery from disease. […] Our data demonstrated that L-ascorbic acid (L-AA) could effectively reduce fluid volume and bacterial burden in stools in both RIL and RITARD animal models, respectively.
  • #1 Mechanisms for cholera toxin’s deadly effects uncovered | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/09/130911125051.htm
    Understanding this novel mechanism of cholera action could also have important implications for other disorders of intestinal barrier function such as Crohn’s disease, colitis and celiac disease. […] „The development of drugs that mimic the genetic manipulations performed in our study may help restore integrity to a damaged intestinal barrier,” said Guichard. „This new approach could reduce disease symptoms in cholera and other chronic gut disorders.”
  • #1 In vivo efficacy of L-ascorbic acid in restricting cholera pathogenesis | bioRxiv
    https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.04.01.646656v1.full-text
    L-AA had a considerable effect on Vibrio cholerae N16961, as demonstrated using the RIL. […] This observation remained consistent when the L-AA concentration was reduced to 150 mg. […] One explanation for this is that L-AA’s high concentration and extremely acidic pH might have a negative impact on bacterial viability. […] We further conclude from this RITARD model that L-AA plays a significant role in the reduction, elimination, and recovery from in vivo V. cholerae infections. […] Thus, LAA holds excellent potential in reducing the number of diarrhea cases due to Vibrio cholerae in endemic areas. […] Incorporation of L-AA to oral rehydration solution (ORS) might revolutionize existing methods of rehydration treatment.
  • #1 Understanding Cholera: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization
    https://www.paho.org/en/topics/cholera
    Cholera is an acute diarrheal infection caused by ingestion of food or water contaminated with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. […] The bacterium produces an enterotoxin that causes copious, painless, watery diarrhea that can quickly lead to severe dehydration and death if treatment is not promptly given. […] The key to mitigating cholera outbreaks, controlling the disease when it becomes endemic, and reducing mortality continues to be a multidisciplinary approach to prevention, preparedness, and response, coupled with a robust surveillance system for timely case detection. […] Cholera is a disease that responds satisfactorily to medical treatment. […] Most cases can be successfully treated by prompt administration of oral rehydration salts (ORS). […] Early and adequate treatment limits the case-fatality rate (CFR) of hospitalized patients to less than 1%.
  • #1
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cholera
    The long-term solution for cholera control lies in economic development and universal access to safe drinking water, basic sanitation and good hygiene practices. […] Cholera is an easily treatable disease. Most people can be treated successfully with prompt ORS administration. […] Community engagement is essential for effectively communicating the potential risks and symptoms of cholera, precautions to take to avoid cholera, when and where to report cases, and the importance of seeking immediate treatment if symptoms appear. […] Currently, three WHO pre-qualified oral cholera vaccines (OCV) are available: Dukoral, Euvichol-Plus, and Euvichol-S. […] The Global Task Force on Cholera Control (GTFCC) is a partnership of governmental and nongovernmental organizations, UN agencies and academic institutions with a common mission to reduce the global cholera burden. […] The WHO cholera programme works to increase awareness of cholera and advocate for its control globally.
  • #1 Understanding Cholera: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization
    https://www.paho.org/en/topics/cholera
    The cholera vaccine protects against severe cases and, together with other measures such as hand washing, helps to stop the spread of cholera. […] Community-based water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) operations and case management remain the cornerstones of any response and should be implemented alongside vaccination activities.
  • #2 Cholera, Vibrio cholerae O1 and O139, and Other Pathogenic Vibrios – Medical Microbiology – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8407/
    Cholera is transmitted by the fecal-oral route. […] Surviving virulent organisms may adhere to and colonize the small bowel, where they secrete the potent cholera enterotoxin (CT, also called choleragen). This toxin binds to the plasma membrane of intestinal epithelial cells and releases an enzymatically active subunit that causes a rise in cyclic adenosine 51-monophosphate (cAMP) production. The resulting high intracellular cAMP level causes massive secretion of electrolytes and water into the intestinal lumen. […] Recent studies with laboratory animal models and human volunteers have provided a detailed understanding of the pathogenesis of cholera. Initial attempts to infect healthy American volunteers with cholera vibrios revealed that the oral administration of up to 1011 living cholera vibrios rarely had an effect; in fact, the organisms usually could not be recovered from stools of the volunteers. After the administration of bicarbonate to neutralize gastric acidity, however, cholera diarrhea developed in most volunteers given 104 cholera vibrios. Therefore, gastric acidity itself is a powerful natural resistance mechanism.
  • #2 Cholera: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/962643-overview
    Cholera is an intestinal infection caused by Vibrio cholerae. The hallmark of the disease is profuse secretory diarrhea. Cholera can be endemic, epidemic, or pandemic. Despite all the major advances in research, the condition still remains a challenge to the modern medical world. Although the disease may be asymptomatic or mild, severe cholera can cause dehydration and death within hours of onset. […] Cholera is transmitted by the fecal-oral route. […] Definitive diagnosis is not a prerequisite for the treatment of patients with cholera. The priority in management of any watery diarrhea is replacing the lost fluid and electrolytes and providing an antimicrobial agent when indicated. […] The El Tor biotype of V cholerae O1 is the predominant cholera pathogen. […] The clinical and epidemiologic features of disease caused by V cholerae O139 are indistinguishable from those of disease caused by O1 strains. Both serogroups cause clinical disease by producing an enterotoxin that promotes the secretion of fluid and electrolytes into the lumen of the small intestine.
  • #2 Pathogenesis of Cholera: Recent Prospectives in Rapid Detection and Prevention of Cholera | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/59438
    Cholera, also known as blue death is a potentially epidemic and life-threatening secretory diarrhea characterized by numerous voluminous watery stools, often accompanied by vomiting and resulting in hypovolemic shock and acidosis. […] The pathogenesis and virulence of the bacteria are due to an enterotoxin it producescholera toxin (CT). […] The mechanism of action of CT is discussed in this chapter at a later stage. […] The mechanism of invasion begins as soon as the bacterium establishes itself in the bowel, following the colonization of the epithelial layer of the small intestine by penetrating the mucous. […] The penetration of the mucous is facilitated by mucolytic enzymes which help to destroy the mucous integrity, and also the long tail of the invading organism allows it to propel itself through the thick mucosal layer.
  • #2
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10196187/
    The initial attachment of V. cholerae to intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) is likely mediated by the GbpA protein. […] After attachment to the intestinal epithelium, V. cholerae decreases its motility, proliferates, and forms microcolonies, mostly originating from single vibrio cells. […] Importantly, TCP-deficient mutant strains are unable to colonize animal models and the human intestine. […] CTX is secreted into the extracellular milieu through the type II secretion system (T2SS). […] The mechanism of action of CTX is described in detail in Figure 3C. […] The hyperinfectious state could play a role in the spread of cholera when transmission to another person occurs in a relatively short period of time.
  • #2 Cholera: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/962643-overview
    The infectious dose of V cholerae required to cause clinical disease varies by the mode of administration. If V cholerae is ingested with water, the infectious dose is 10^3 -10^6 organisms. When ingested with food, fewer organisms (10^2 -10^4) are required to produce disease. […] The use of antacids, histamine receptor blockers, and proton pump inhibitors increases the risk of cholera infection and predisposes patients to more severe disease as a result of reduced gastric acidity. […] V cholerae O1 and V cholerae O139 cause clinical disease by producing an enterotoxin that promotes the secretion of fluid and electrolytes into the lumen of the small intestine. The enterotoxin is a protein molecule composed of 5 B subunits and 2 A subunits. The B subunits are responsible for binding to a ganglioside (monosialosyl ganglioside, GM1) receptor located on the surface of the cells that line the intestinal mucosa.
  • #2 Cholera – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera
    Cholera is caused by a number of types of Vibrio cholerae, with some types producing more severe disease than others. […] Once the cholera bacteria reach the intestinal wall, they no longer need the flagella to move. The bacteria stop producing the protein flagellin to conserve energy and nutrients by changing the mix of proteins that they express in response to the changed chemical surroundings. […] The cholera toxin (CTX or CT) is an oligomeric complex made up of six protein subunits: a single copy of the A subunit (part A), and five copies of the B subunit (part B), connected by a disulfide bond. […] This results in constitutive cAMP production, which in turn leads to the secretion of water, sodium, potassium, and bicarbonate into the lumen of the small intestine and rapid dehydration.
  • #2 Vibrio cholerae Biofilms and Cholera Pathogenesis | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
    https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0004330
    The genes (vps) responsible for making the V. cholerae exopolysaccharide matrix are located in two clusters (vpsU, vpsA-K) and vpsL-Q on V. cholerae chromosome I. […] The expression of genes in the vps and rbm clusters is under positive transcription regulation by VpsR and VpsT. […] The expression of TCP and unknown factors promote microcolony formation along the villous axis and the crypts. […] The hallmark of intestinal colonization is adherence, multiplication, and microcolony formation along the villi and crypts. […] The capacity of V. cholerae to adopt both lifestyles during infection could provide fitness in the environment of the gut.
  • #2 Pathogenesis of Cholera: Recent Prospectives in Rapid Detection and Prevention of Cholera | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/59438
    The production of an endotoxin by the bacteria, called CT, is the major key for the virulence mechanism. […] So it is proved that only toxigenic strains of Vibrio, i.e., Vibrio that produces CT, are capable of causing cholera. […] The CT that is made is comprised of six protein subunits: one A subunit and five copies of B subunits, generally denoted as AB5. […] B subunit is also known as the binding factor which binds to the GM1 ganglioside receptor of the epithelial cells of the small intestine. […] Once bound with the target cells, it forms a toxin complex which is then endocytosed by the cell. […] As soon as the process of endocytosis takes place, the enzymatic activation of A subunit occurs leading to increased adenylate cyclase activity, thereby increasing the concentration of cAMP to more than 120-folds.
  • #2 Cholera toxin – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera_toxin
    This post-translational modification inhibits GTP hydrolysis, locking Gs in its active GTP-bound state and continuously stimulating adenylyl cyclase. […] This dramatically increases intracellular 3,5-cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels, activating protein kinase A (PKA). […] PKA phosphorylates and activates CFTR chloride channels, promoting the secretion of Cl, HCO, Na, and water into the intestinal lumen. […] Additionally, the uptake of Na and water by enterocytes is inhibited, resulting in the hallmark profuse watery diarrhoea (up to 12 litres per hour), contributing to severe dehydration and electrolyte imbalance in cholera patients.
  • #2 Pathogenesis of Cholera: Recent Prospectives in Rapid Detection and Prevention of Cholera | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/59438
    This in turns leads to increased permeability of the chloride channels subsequently mediating the efflux of more ATP-mediated chloride ions and secretion of mere H2O, Na+, K+ and HCO3 into the lumen of the intestine. […] The increased absorption of water as well as electrolytes is responsible for the massive dehydration leading to the clinical symptoms of cholera.
  • #2 Mechanisms for cholera toxin’s deadly effects uncovered | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/09/130911125051.htm
    Biologists have identified an underlying biochemical mechanism that helps make cholera toxin so deadly, often resulting in life-threating diarrhea that causes people to lose as much as half of their body fluids in a single day. […] They discovered the toxin exerts some of its devastating effects by reducing the delivery of proteins to molecular junctions that normally act like Velcro to hold intestinal cells together in the outer lining of the gut. […] „We uncovered a mechanism by which cholera toxin disrupts junctions that normally zip intestinal epithelial cells together into a tight sheet, which acts as a barrier between the body and intestinal content,” said Ethan Bier, a professor of biology at UC San Diego who headed one of the two teams. „A consequence of these weakened cell junctions is that sodium ions and water can escape between cells and empty into the gut.”
  • #2 Cholera transmission: the host, pathogen and bacteriophage dynamic | Nature Reviews Microbiology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro2204
    Vibrio cholerae is a facultative pathogen that has an environmental reservoir in aquatic ecosystems and a pathogenic phase in the human small intestine. It produces cholera toxin in the small intestine that results in massive secretory diarrhoea containing billions of vibrios per litre. […] The nature of hyperinfectivity of V. cholerae is multifactorial and transient. […] This paper reports that V. cholerae shed in human rice water stool is transiently hyperinfectious. […] This study shows that factoring hyperinfectivity into a standard mathematical model for transmission yields a model that is more representative of the case loads that are observed in the field. […] This paper proposes that lytic bacteriophages increase in density in the environment to limit the duration of cholera outbreaks.
  • #2 Expression of Cholera Toxin (CT) and the Toxin Co-Regulated Pilus (TCP) by Variants of ToxT in Vibrio cholerae Strains
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/15/8/507
    The expression of the two major virulence genes of Vibrio cholerae—tcpA (the major subunit of the toxin co-regulated pilus) and ctxAB (cholera toxin)—is regulated by the ToxR regulon, which is triggered by environmental stimuli during infection within the human small intestine. […] The mechanisms for the regulation of virulence gene expression in V. cholerae strains have been extensively studied. The expression of CT, the TCP, and other virulence factors is controlled by a cascade of regulatory proteins known as the ToxR regulon. […] ToxT has been shown to directly bind to the promoters of virulence genes in V. cholerae. […] Our results indicated that no specific toxT allele could consistently stimulate virulence gene expression in V. cholerae strains, even within the same biotype. Rather, each toxT allele showed strain-specific transcriptional activator functions among V. cholerae strains, suggesting that the regulation of virulence gene expression may involve more than just the production of ToxT by the ToxR regulon.
  • #2 Cholera: A Latent Threat to Human Health
    https://brieflands.com/articles/archcid-139934
    Vibrio cholerae is known to be acid-resistant, utilizing an acid tolerance response (ATR) when exposed to human gastric acids. The ATR mechanism of V. cholerae involves several physiological changes that allow the bacterium to maintain its structural integrity and metabolic activity in low pH environments. For example, V. cholerae alters its gene expression, enhancing the expression of the lysine decarboxylase, CadA, under conditions of low pH and high lysine concentrations. CadA, among other amino acid decarboxylases, consumes protons in their enzymatic reactions, thus maintaining internal pH. […] Similar to environmental pH, the presence of bile acids represents a major component in virulence regulation for V. cholerae among other enteropathogens. ToxR, a transmembrane transcription factor, possesses a periplasmic domain serving as an environmental sensor for bile acids. Positioned within a regulatory cascade, ToxR triggers the expression of toxin coregulated pilus (TCP) and cholera toxin (CT). CT, housed within the cholera toxin bacteriophage (CTX), falls under the direct control of ToxT. Research on the impact of bile acids has yielded mixed results, with some studies suggesting a repressive effect on ToxT-dependent transcription of CT and other virulence factors. Conversely, bile acids have been shown to induce ToxR and CT transcription through a ToxT-independent mechanism.
  • #2 Cholera: A Latent Threat to Human Health
    https://brieflands.com/articles/archcid-139934
    The influence of bile acids may also be subject to modulation by calcium concentrations. In the presence of established bile acid inducers of tcpA, the pilus subunit, a notable increase in tcpA expression was observed with elevated calcium levels, while this effect was mitigated upon calcium chelation within murine intestines. Another abundant molecule in the intestines is bicarbonate, which has been observed to enhance ToxT binding affinity to virulence gene promoters when at high levels, thus serving as an in-vivo signal modulator, particularly given its high concentration near the epithelium. In summary, V. cholerae adeptly responds to environmental cues like gastric acids, bile acids, and calcium, modulating its virulence and pathogenesis. […] Vibrio cholerae leverages flagellar motility to penetrate the mucus layer and establish intestinal colonization. The complex transcriptional changes that follow are mediated by the production of ToxT. TCP is encoded in the V. cholerae pathogenicity island 1 (VPI-1) and plays a crucial role in attaching V. cholerae to human intestinal Caco-2 cells. CT, encoded in the cholera toxin bacteriophage (CTX), comprises a single A subunit (CTA1) and five B subunits (CTB1-5) arranged hexamerically. Subunit B binds to the ganglioside GM1 cell surface receptor on human jejunal epithelial cells, entering the cytoplasm through receptor-mediated endocytosis and retrograde transport from the endoplasmic reticulum. The A subunit catalyzes ADP ribosylation of adenylate cyclase (AC), leading to increased AC activity and intracellular cAMP concentration. Elevated cAMP activates protein kinase A (PKA), which phosphorylates the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR), enhancing chloride secretion into the intestinal lumen. A single intraperitoneal injection with CFTR inhibitors belonging to the Thiazolidines chemical class reduced cholera-induced fluid secretion in mice by more than 90% over 6 hours. Another target of the CTA-PKA pathway is the inhibition of the Na+/H+ exchanger 3 (NHE3), thus increasing Na+ in the intestinal lumen. The combination of elevated sodium and chloride expands luminal fluid volume, resulting in watery diarrhea.
  • #2 Cholera: How Parasites Make Bacteria Pathogenic | Institut Pasteur
    https://www.pasteur.fr/en/cholera-how-parasites-make-bacteria-pathogenic
    Vibrio cholerae, the bacteria that causes cholera, is made pathogenic by one of its parasites, the CTX virus. This virus enables the vibrio to produce a toxin that causes the lethal diarrhea of cholera. […] In order to become pathogenic, the vibrio must acquire the ability to produce the cholera toxin, which causes the lethal diarrhea of cholera. The ability to produce this toxin is transferred to the bacteria by a resourceful parasite, the CTX bacteriophage. […] In order to become a parasite of the Vibrio cholerae, the CTX bacteriophage integrates its entire genome in that of the bacteria, thus enabling it to use its hosts reproduction process to propagate itself. In exchange, the vibrio acquires the ability to produce the cholera toxin, which is encoded in the genome of the bacteriophage.
  • #2 Cholera: How Parasites Make Bacteria Pathogenic | Institut Pasteur
    https://www.pasteur.fr/en/cholera-how-parasites-make-bacteria-pathogenic
    Researchers at the CNRS and Institut Pasteur recently showed by which mechanism the CTX bacteriophage hijacks the cellular machinery of the bacteria to integrate its genome, despite this structural difference. […] The bacteriophage thus successfully and irreversibly modifies the bacterias genetic code. This is the special advantage of this integration mechanism for the virus. […] The integration mechanism of the CTX bacteriophage may be applied to many parasites. In particular, researchers at Institut Pasteur showed that a similar mechanism could explain the acquisition of multiple resistances by Gram-negative bacteria, such as enterobacteria, pseudomonads and vibrios.
  • #2 Cholera – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholera
    The gene encoding the cholera toxin was introduced into Vibrio cholerae by horizontal gene transfer. […] Microbiologists have studied the genetic mechanisms by which the Vibrio cholerae bacteria turn off the production of some proteins and turn on the production of other proteins as they respond to the series of chemical environments they encounter, passing through the stomach, through the mucous layer of the small intestine, and on to the intestinal wall. […] In responding to the chemical environment at the intestinal wall, the Vibrio cholerae bacteria produce the TcpP/TcpH proteins, which, together with the ToxR/ToxS proteins, activate the expression of the ToxT regulatory protein. ToxT then directly activates expression of virulence genes that produce the toxins, causing diarrhea in the infected person and allowing the bacteria to colonize the intestine.
  • #2 In vivo efficacy of L-ascorbic acid in restricting cholera pathogenesis | bioRxiv
    https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.04.01.646656v1.full
    In the last three centuries, our world has experienced seven cholera pandemics. Cholera is a deadly diarrheal disease caused by Vibrio cholerae, an important member of the gamma-proteobacteria. […] L-ascorbic acid was recently shown to effectively kill the Vibrio cholerae cells in vitro under various growth conditions mimicking the in vivo host conditions, including growth in the presence of bile salts, growth of acid-adapted V. cholerae, and growth in the presence of various ORS components. […] We show that L-ascorbic acid can effectively reduce the bacterial load in both the rabbit models as well as fast-track the recovery from the diarrheal symptoms. […] Results suggest that L-AA treatment inhibits bacterial proliferation and leads to shortened recovery from disease. […] Our data demonstrated that L-ascorbic acid (L-AA) could effectively reduce fluid volume and bacterial burden in stools in both RIL and RITARD animal models, respectively.
  • #2 In vivo efficacy of L-ascorbic acid in restricting cholera pathogenesis | bioRxiv
    https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.04.01.646656v1.full-text
    L-AA had a considerable effect on Vibrio cholerae N16961, as demonstrated using the RIL. […] This observation remained consistent when the L-AA concentration was reduced to 150 mg. […] One explanation for this is that L-AA’s high concentration and extremely acidic pH might have a negative impact on bacterial viability. […] We further conclude from this RITARD model that L-AA plays a significant role in the reduction, elimination, and recovery from in vivo V. cholerae infections. […] Thus, LAA holds excellent potential in reducing the number of diarrhea cases due to Vibrio cholerae in endemic areas. […] Incorporation of L-AA to oral rehydration solution (ORS) might revolutionize existing methods of rehydration treatment.
  • #2
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cholera
    The long-term solution for cholera control lies in economic development and universal access to safe drinking water, basic sanitation and good hygiene practices. […] Cholera is an easily treatable disease. Most people can be treated successfully with prompt ORS administration. […] Community engagement is essential for effectively communicating the potential risks and symptoms of cholera, precautions to take to avoid cholera, when and where to report cases, and the importance of seeking immediate treatment if symptoms appear. […] Currently, three WHO pre-qualified oral cholera vaccines (OCV) are available: Dukoral, Euvichol-Plus, and Euvichol-S. […] The Global Task Force on Cholera Control (GTFCC) is a partnership of governmental and nongovernmental organizations, UN agencies and academic institutions with a common mission to reduce the global cholera burden. […] The WHO cholera programme works to increase awareness of cholera and advocate for its control globally.
  • #3
    https://proteinswebteam.github.io/interpro-blog/potm/2005_9/Page2.htm
    Cholera Toxin […] When cholera toxin is released from the bacteria in the infected intestine, it binds to the intestinal cells known as enterocytes (epithelial cell in above diagram) through the interaction of the pentameric B subunit of the toxin with the GM1 ganglioside receptor on the intestinal cell, triggering endocytosis of the toxin. […] Next, the A/B cholera toxin must undergo cleavage of the A1 domain from the A2 domain in order for A1 to become an active enzyme. […] Once inside the enterocyte, the enzymatic A1 fragment of the toxin A subunit enters the cytosol, where it activates the G protein Gsα through an ADP-ribosylation reaction that acts to lock the G protein in its GTP-bound form, thereby continually stimulating adenylate cyclase to produce cAMP. […] The high cAMP levels activate the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), causing a dramatic efflux of ions and water from infected enterocytes, leading to watery diarrhoea.