Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Epidemiology and surveillance implications of community-acquired pneumonia in children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9742763/

  Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is the single largest infectious cause of hospitalization and death in children worldwide. […] Therefore, it is necessary to elucidate the epidemiology and causative pathogens of CAP. […] The surveillance of these respiratory infections can play a role in monitoring the emergence of new infectious diseases such as SARS-CoV-2. […] Pneumonia is the single largest infectious cause of death in children worldwide. […] The epidemiology of child pneumonia varies widely among different regions of the world related to the prevalence of risk factors and causative pathogens. […] The introduction of routine childhood vaccination against both Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b has dramatically reduced the diseases caused by these pathogens.

• #2 PNEUMONIA | Overview and Epidemiology

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7150323/

  Pneumonia remains a common and serious illness despite the availability of potent antimicrobials and effective vaccines. […] In the US, pneumonia is the seventh leading cause of death and the number one cause of death from infection. […] A similar annual rate of approximately 5060 cases per 100000 is probably the case in most developed countries. […] However, data regarding its incidence are suboptimal because pneumonia is not a notifiable disease. […] The overall incidence of cases of CAP is approximately 1012 per 1000 persons per year; however, this varies considerably with age, sex, race, and socioeconomic condition. […] The incidence of CAP is highest among the oldest and youngest members of the population. […] Approximately 4 million cases of CAP are estimated to occur annually in the US, resulting in 600000 hospitalizations per year.

• #3 Epidemiology and surveillance implications of community-acquired pneumonia in children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9742763/

  The identification of the causative pathogens of community-acquired pneumonia and appropriate treatment and prevention can reduce mortality and the socioeconomic burden by reducing the medical expenses. […] Therefore, it is important to sustain a monitoring system for respiratory infectious diseases including pneumonia.

• #4 Bacterial Pneumonia: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/300157-overview

  In the United States, acute lower respiratory tract infections cause more disease and death than any other infection. In fact, these infections also cause a greater burden of disease worldwide than human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, malaria, cancer, or heart attacks. The prevalence of various pathogens and epidemiology of disease vary widely between countries and regions, making precise discussion of international disease burden difficult. […] More than three million cases occur annually in the United States. Pneumonia is more prevalent during the winter months and in colder climates. This condition is most likely from viral upper and lower respiratory infections, which increase in winter and result in impaired host defenses to bacterial superinfection. […] The most common etiologies of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in the outpatient setting are as follows (in descending order of frequency): S pneumoniae, M pneumoniae, H influenzae, C pneumoniae, and respiratory viruses.

• #5 Epidemiology of Lower Respiratory Tract Infections in Children

  https://brieflands.com/articles/jcp-19765

  Almost 150 million new episodes of pneumonia are identified per year worldwide more than 90% of which occur in developing countries. […] Nearly 30% of total annual deaths occur in children younger than 5 years old. […] Viruses remain the most common cause of RTIs. […] S. pneumonia and HIB are the main causes of bacterial pneumonia in the world; however, infections due to many of these pathogens can be prevented. […] Widespread immunization against influenza, measles, bacilli calmette-guerin (BCG) and now pneumococcus have been related to the decline of the LRTIs in children. […] Acute respiratory tract infection (ARI) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in both developing and developed countries. […] WHO recognized respiratory diseases as the second important cause of death for children under five years in 2010.

• #6 Epidemiology and surveillance implications of community-acquired pneumonia in children

  https://www.e-cep.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3345/cep.2022.00374

  Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is the single largest infectious cause of hospitalization and death in children worldwide. […] Therefore, it is necessary to elucidate the epidemiology and causative pathogens of CAP. […] Therefore, we will perform continuous national surveillance and monitor the epidemiology of respiratory pathogens in Korea and worldwide. The surveillance of these respiratory infections can play a role in monitoring the emergence of new infectious diseases such as SARS-CoV-2. […] Pneumonia is the single largest infectious cause of death in children worldwide. Pneumonia killed 740,180 children younger than 5 years in 2019, accounting for 14% of all deaths of children under 5 years old and 22% of all deaths in children aged 15 years worldwide. […] The epidemiology of child pneumonia varies widely among different regions of the world related to the prevalence of risk factors and causative pathogens.

• #7 Pneumonia in Children Statistics – UNICEF DATA

  https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/pneumonia/

  A child dies of pneumonia every 43 seconds. Pneumonia kills more children than any other infectious disease, claiming the lives of over 700,000 children under 5 every year, or around 2,000 every day. This includes around 190,000 newborns. Almost all of these deaths are preventable. Globally, there are over 1,400 cases of pneumonia per 100,000 children, or 1 case per 71 children every year, with the greatest incidence occurring in South Asia (2,500 cases per 100,000 children) and West and Central Africa (1,620 cases per 100,000 children). […] Progress in reducing deaths due to pneumonia in children under 5 has been significantly slower than for other infectious diseases. Since 2000, under-five deaths due to pneumonia have declined by 54 per cent, while deaths due to diarrhoea have decreased by 63 per cent and are now almost half of pneumonia deaths.

• #8 PNEUMONIA | Overview and Epidemiology

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7150323/

  Pneumonia remains a common and serious illness despite the availability of potent antimicrobials and effective vaccines. […] In the US, pneumonia is the seventh leading cause of death and the number one cause of death from infection. […] A similar annual rate of approximately 5060 cases per 100000 is probably the case in most developed countries. […] However, data regarding its incidence are suboptimal because pneumonia is not a notifiable disease. […] The overall incidence of cases of CAP is approximately 1012 per 1000 persons per year; however, this varies considerably with age, sex, race, and socioeconomic condition. […] The incidence of CAP is highest among the oldest and youngest members of the population. […] Approximately 4 million cases of CAP are estimated to occur annually in the US, resulting in 600000 hospitalizations per year.

• #9 Overview of community-acquired pneumonia in adults – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overview-of-community-acquired-pneumonia-in-adults

  CAP is one of the most common and morbid conditions encountered in clinical practice. In the United States, CAP accounts for over 4.5 million outpatient and emergency room visits annually, corresponding to approximately 0.4 percent of all encounters. CAP is the second most common cause of hospitalization and the most common infectious cause of death. Approximately 650 adults are hospitalized with CAP every year per 100,000 population in the United States, corresponding to 1.5 million unique CAP hospitalizations each year. Nearly 9 percent of patients hospitalized with CAP will be rehospitalized due to a new episode of CAP during the same year. […] The risk of CAP rises with age. The annual incidence of hospitalization for CAP among adults ≥65 years old is approximately 2000 per 100,000 in the United States. This figure is approximately three times higher than the general population and indicates that 2 percent of the older adult population will be hospitalized for CAP annually.

• #10 Overview of community-acquired pneumonia in adults – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overview-of-community-acquired-pneumonia-in-adults

  CAP is one of the most common and morbid conditions encountered in clinical practice. In the United States, CAP accounts for over 4.5 million outpatient and emergency room visits annually, corresponding to approximately 0.4 percent of all encounters. CAP is the second most common cause of hospitalization and the most common infectious cause of death. Approximately 650 adults are hospitalized with CAP every year per 100,000 population in the United States, corresponding to 1.5 million unique CAP hospitalizations each year. Nearly 9 percent of patients hospitalized with CAP will be rehospitalized due to a new episode of CAP during the same year. […] The risk of CAP rises with age. The annual incidence of hospitalization for CAP among adults ≥65 years old is approximately 2000 per 100,000 in the United States. This figure is approximately three times higher than the general population and indicates that 2 percent of the older adult population will be hospitalized for CAP annually.

• #11 Surveillance of community-acquired pneumonia in critically ill patients – Lam – Journal of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine

  https://jeccm.amegroups.org/article/view/4906/html

  In this study, we aimed to investigate the epidemiology, causative agents and outcomes of severe community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in Hong Kong. […] Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is a common cause for hospital admission. It was estimated that the annual incidence rate of CAP in adults was about 2.6 per 1,000 inhabitants with annual mortality rates about 0.1 per 1,000 inhabitants. […] The causative agents of pneumonia were identified in 60% of cases in the present study. Streptococcus pneumoniae was the most common bacterial pathogen of CAP in our cohort, contributing to about 15% of the CAP. […] In our study, pneumococcus and influenza were major causes of severe CAP. It was suggested that people infected by influenza may be prone to bacterial chest infection. […] Pneumococcal and influenza immunizations may be effective to reduce the incidence of CAP. Such vaccine should be provided to the high risk group so that it may improve the outcome of severe chest infection.

• #12 Overview of community-acquired pneumonia in adults – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overview-of-community-acquired-pneumonia-in-adults

  CAP is one of the most common and morbid conditions encountered in clinical practice. In the United States, CAP accounts for over 4.5 million outpatient and emergency room visits annually, corresponding to approximately 0.4 percent of all encounters. CAP is the second most common cause of hospitalization and the most common infectious cause of death. Approximately 650 adults are hospitalized with CAP every year per 100,000 population in the United States, corresponding to 1.5 million unique CAP hospitalizations each year. Nearly 9 percent of patients hospitalized with CAP will be rehospitalized due to a new episode of CAP during the same year. […] The risk of CAP rises with age. The annual incidence of hospitalization for CAP among adults ≥65 years old is approximately 2000 per 100,000 in the United States. This figure is approximately three times higher than the general population and indicates that 2 percent of the older adult population will be hospitalized for CAP annually.

• #13 PNEUMONIA | Overview and Epidemiology

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7150323/

  Pneumonia remains a common and serious illness despite the availability of potent antimicrobials and effective vaccines. […] In the US, pneumonia is the seventh leading cause of death and the number one cause of death from infection. […] A similar annual rate of approximately 5060 cases per 100000 is probably the case in most developed countries. […] However, data regarding its incidence are suboptimal because pneumonia is not a notifiable disease. […] The overall incidence of cases of CAP is approximately 1012 per 1000 persons per year; however, this varies considerably with age, sex, race, and socioeconomic condition. […] The incidence of CAP is highest among the oldest and youngest members of the population. […] Approximately 4 million cases of CAP are estimated to occur annually in the US, resulting in 600000 hospitalizations per year.

• #14 What to Know About Walking Pneumonia | Johns Hopkins | Bloomberg School of Public Health

  https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2024/what-to-know-about-walking-pneumonia

  Since the spring, cases of the bacterial respiratory infection commonly referred to as walking pneumonia have been increasing in North America, particularly among young children. […] The highest rates of walking pneumonia generally occur in school-age children and teens. Adults can get walking pneumonia too, but it is mostly a pediatric illness. […] Parts of Europe and Asia reported increases in M. pneumoniae in 2023. In North America, we began to detect M. pneumoniae more frequently on tests in 2024. Since the summer, the proportion of tests that are positive for M. pneumoniae has gone up and is still going up right now. […] M. pneumoniae infection can be prevented by the same methods we use to prevent other respiratory infections.

• #15 Bacterial Pneumonia: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/300157-overview

  In the United States, acute lower respiratory tract infections cause more disease and death than any other infection. In fact, these infections also cause a greater burden of disease worldwide than human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, malaria, cancer, or heart attacks. The prevalence of various pathogens and epidemiology of disease vary widely between countries and regions, making precise discussion of international disease burden difficult. […] More than three million cases occur annually in the United States. Pneumonia is more prevalent during the winter months and in colder climates. This condition is most likely from viral upper and lower respiratory infections, which increase in winter and result in impaired host defenses to bacterial superinfection. […] The most common etiologies of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in the outpatient setting are as follows (in descending order of frequency): S pneumoniae, M pneumoniae, H influenzae, C pneumoniae, and respiratory viruses.

• #16 Bacterial Pneumonia: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/300157-overview

  The most common etiologies of CAP in the nonintensive care unit (ICU) inpatient setting, in descending order of frequency, are as follows: S pneumoniae, M pneumoniae, C pneumoniae, H influenzae, Legionella species, aspiration, and respiratory viruses. […] Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) notably develops in approximately 9-27% of all intubated patients and carries a mortality rate of 30-60%. […] Native Americans (19.2 deaths per 100,000) and Black Americans (17.1 deaths per 100,000 population) are more likely to die from pneumonia compared with White Americans (15.9 deaths per 100,000 population). […] Advanced age increases the incidence of and the mortality from pneumonia. Comorbidity and a diminished immune response and defense against aspiration increase the risk for bacterial pneumonia. For individuals aged 65 years and older, pneumonia and influenza were the sixth leading cause of death in 2005. Close to 90% of deaths due to pneumonia and influenza occurred in this age group.

• #17 Surveillance of community-acquired pneumonia in critically ill patients – Lam – Journal of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine

  https://jeccm.amegroups.org/article/view/4906/html

  In this study, we aimed to investigate the epidemiology, causative agents and outcomes of severe community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in Hong Kong. […] Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is a common cause for hospital admission. It was estimated that the annual incidence rate of CAP in adults was about 2.6 per 1,000 inhabitants with annual mortality rates about 0.1 per 1,000 inhabitants. […] The causative agents of pneumonia were identified in 60% of cases in the present study. Streptococcus pneumoniae was the most common bacterial pathogen of CAP in our cohort, contributing to about 15% of the CAP. […] In our study, pneumococcus and influenza were major causes of severe CAP. It was suggested that people infected by influenza may be prone to bacterial chest infection. […] Pneumococcal and influenza immunizations may be effective to reduce the incidence of CAP. Such vaccine should be provided to the high risk group so that it may improve the outcome of severe chest infection.

• #18 Surveillance of community-acquired pneumonia in critically ill patients – Lam – Journal of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine

  https://jeccm.amegroups.org/article/view/4906

  In this study, we aimed to investigate the epidemiology, causative agents and outcomes of severe community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in Hong Kong. […] Totally 390 patients were admitted to ICU for severe CAP. […] Bacterial infection was identified in 154 patients and 88 patients suffered from viral infection. […] The common agents included Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Acinetobacter baumannii. […] Approximately 70% of viral infection was caused by influenza A infection, followed by influenza B and parainfluenza. […] The overall ICU and hospital mortality rate was 23.1% and 34.6%, respectively, with mean ICU stay of 11.3 days and mean hospital stay of 28.7 days. […] Significant factors identified to be associated with mortality included age, low platelet count, presence of metastatic carcinoma, need of renal replacement therapy and use of nitric oxide therapy.

• #19 Overview of community-acquired pneumonia in adults – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overview-of-community-acquired-pneumonia-in-adults

  The comorbidity that places patients at highest risk for CAP hospitalization is chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), with an annual incidence of 5832 per 100,000 in the United States. Other comorbidities associated with an increased incidence of CAP include other forms of chronic lung disease (eg, bronchiectasis, asthma), chronic heart disease (particularly congestive heart failure), stroke, diabetes mellitus, malnutrition, and immunocompromising conditions. […] Both the distribution of pathogens that cause CAP and our knowledge of these pathogens are evolving. Key observations that have changed our understanding of CAP and influenced our approach to management include: Decline in S. pneumoniae incidence – Although S. pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is the most commonly detected bacterial cause of CAP in most studies, the overall incidence of pneumococcal pneumonia is decreasing. […] Knowledge of antimicrobial resistance patterns and risk factors for infection with antimicrobial-resistant pathogens help inform the selection of antibiotics for empiric CAP treatment.

• #20

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s15010-024-02314-w

  Immunosuppression constitutes a significant risk for community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). […] Our study elucidates the relevance of particular immunosuppressive conditions including systemic steroids for occurrence and prognosis of CAP. […] Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is associated with a significant healthcare burden in elderly and multimorbid patients. […] However, there is still no widely accepted definition of immunosuppression as causes of immunosuppression are complex and include both innate and acquired medical conditions as well as numerous treatments resulting in immune impairments. […] The number of people at risk is presumably rising due to improved survival of patients with immunosuppressive conditions and increasing implementation of immune-modulating treatments for a variety of diseases.

• #21

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s15010-024-02314-w

  In order to target preventive measures like vaccines or drug prophylaxis and to potentially address modifiable immunosuppressive conditions in patients at risk, such information is key. […] Our large, population-based study demonstrated that 6% of an adult German population showed episodes of immunosuppression within 4 years. […] Apart from age and level of long-term care, immunosuppression was the most relevant risk factor related to CAP and CAP-associated mortality. […] This is particularly relevant for CAP associated with rare pathogens in which HIV infection, solid organ transplantation and prescription of high dose systemic steroids are dominant risk factors.

• #22

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00144995

  Risk factors for pneumonia were analysed in a large population of critically ill patients, collected in two prospective multicentre pneumonia studies in Italy. The incidence of pneumonia in the 1475 selected patients was 15% (220 cases). Pneumonia was found to be an independent highly significant risk factor for death in critically ill patients (OR = 3.88; p0.0001). […] Multivariate analysis of seven risk factors for pneumonia showed a significantly higher risk in patients with neuromuscular disease (OR = 3.8, p0.002), impairment of airway reflexes at admission (OR = 2.93, p0.0001), and 24h respiratory assistance (OR=3.05, p0.0001). […] Impairment of airway reflexes at admission to the emergency room or intensive care unit identifies the population who will experience 3/4 of the overall lower respiratory tract infections. Rapid recognition of at-risk patients seems clinically important and may improve awareness programs and preventive approaches.

• #23 Epidemiology and surveillance implications of community-acquired pneumonia in children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9742763/

  Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is the single largest infectious cause of hospitalization and death in children worldwide. […] Therefore, it is necessary to elucidate the epidemiology and causative pathogens of CAP. […] The surveillance of these respiratory infections can play a role in monitoring the emergence of new infectious diseases such as SARS-CoV-2. […] Pneumonia is the single largest infectious cause of death in children worldwide. […] The epidemiology of child pneumonia varies widely among different regions of the world related to the prevalence of risk factors and causative pathogens. […] The introduction of routine childhood vaccination against both Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b has dramatically reduced the diseases caused by these pathogens.

• #24 Epidemiology and surveillance implications of community-acquired pneumonia in children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9742763/

  The frequency and mortality rate of pneumonia, including Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia, have rapidly decreased since 2014. […] The national pneumococcal vaccination program caused a serotype replacement phenomenon. […] The introduction of routine childhood vaccination against Haemophilus influenzae type b has dramatically reduced the diseases caused by these pathogens. […] The diagnosis of pneumonia is generally possible through a thorough medical history, a physical examination, and chest radiography. […] Therefore, in the outpatient setting, blood cultures are not routinely recommended. […] The KoC-CAPS study showed the codetection of virus/M. pneumoniae in 15% and bacteria/M. pneumoniae in 3.7%. […] Therefore, severe or poorly treated M. pneumoniae infections should be checked for not only antibiotic resistance but also mixed infection with viruses.

• #25 Epidemiology and surveillance implications of community-acquired pneumonia in children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9742763/

  The frequency and mortality rate of pneumonia, including Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia, have rapidly decreased since 2014. […] The national pneumococcal vaccination program caused a serotype replacement phenomenon. […] The introduction of routine childhood vaccination against Haemophilus influenzae type b has dramatically reduced the diseases caused by these pathogens. […] The diagnosis of pneumonia is generally possible through a thorough medical history, a physical examination, and chest radiography. […] Therefore, in the outpatient setting, blood cultures are not routinely recommended. […] The KoC-CAPS study showed the codetection of virus/M. pneumoniae in 15% and bacteria/M. pneumoniae in 3.7%. […] Therefore, severe or poorly treated M. pneumoniae infections should be checked for not only antibiotic resistance but also mixed infection with viruses.

• #26 Epidemiology of Lower Respiratory Tract Infections in Children

  https://brieflands.com/articles/jcp-19765

  WHO states that pneumonia is one of the main three causes for newborn infant deaths. […] Pneumonia was diagnosed in approximately 156 million children in 2008 (151 million in developing countries and 5 million in developed countries) and led to 1.4 million deaths (28-34% of all deaths in those younger than five years of age). […] In developing countries, respiratory tract infection accounts for more than 2 million deaths yearly. […] Pneumonia is the major cause of children’s death in these countries. […] In developed countries, the yearly incidence of pneumonia is estimated to be 33 per 10000 in children 5 years and 14/5 per 10000 in children 0 to 16 years old. […] Hospitalization rates of pneumonia (all causes) among children younger than two years in the United States have decreased (from 12 to 14 per 1000 population to 8 to 10 per 1000 population) after considering the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine as the routine childhood immunization plan since twelve years ago. […] A recent Meta-analysis study reveals that 1.9 million children died from ARI in 2000 all over the world, two third of them in Southeast Asia and Africa. […] The mortality rate in developed countries is at the lowest level (1 per 1000).

• #27 Nonventilator Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia: Epidemiology, Prevention, and Where It Is Now

  https://www.contagionlive.com/view/nonventilator-hospital–acquired-pneumonia-epidemiology-prevention-and-where-it-is-now

  Hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), also known as nosocomial pneumonia, occurs in patients who have been hospitalized for more than 48 hours. […] The Society of Healthcare Epidemiology (SHEA) review from 2022 shows HAP as the most common hospital-acquired infection, affecting nearly 1 in every 100 patients and 1 in every 10 ventilated patients. […] NV-HAP carries a greater than 8.4 times the risk of inpatient mortality and 8 times the risk of need for mechanical ventilation. […] In discussing the epidemiology of NV-HAP, a brief review of health care-associated pneumonia (HCAP) is warranted. […] General antibiotic coverage for NV-HAP aligns with that of VAP and includes antimicrobials targeted against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Acinetobacter, and Enterobacteriaceae.

• #28 Nonventilator Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia: Epidemiology, Prevention, and Where It Is Now

  https://www.contagionlive.com/view/nonventilator-hospital–acquired-pneumonia-epidemiology-prevention-and-where-it-is-now

  Hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), also known as nosocomial pneumonia, occurs in patients who have been hospitalized for more than 48 hours. […] The Society of Healthcare Epidemiology (SHEA) review from 2022 shows HAP as the most common hospital-acquired infection, affecting nearly 1 in every 100 patients and 1 in every 10 ventilated patients. […] NV-HAP carries a greater than 8.4 times the risk of inpatient mortality and 8 times the risk of need for mechanical ventilation. […] In discussing the epidemiology of NV-HAP, a brief review of health care-associated pneumonia (HCAP) is warranted. […] General antibiotic coverage for NV-HAP aligns with that of VAP and includes antimicrobials targeted against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Acinetobacter, and Enterobacteriaceae.

• #29 PNEUMONIA | Overview and Epidemiology

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7150323/

  The majority (up to 80%) of patients with CAP are treated as an outpatient with a mortality rate of less than 1% in these patients. […] Admission to an intensive care unit (ICU) also varies dramatically by country and individual hospital. […] Nursing home-acquired pneumonia (HAP) is the most common form of HCAP. […] Hospital-acquired pneumonia occurs in about 510 per 1000 hospitalized patients and complicates the course of as many as 20% of patients undergoing surgery. […] Among nosocomial infections, pneumonia has the highest morbidity and mortality.

• #30 Bacterial Pneumonia: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/300157-overview

  The most common etiologies of CAP in the nonintensive care unit (ICU) inpatient setting, in descending order of frequency, are as follows: S pneumoniae, M pneumoniae, C pneumoniae, H influenzae, Legionella species, aspiration, and respiratory viruses. […] Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) notably develops in approximately 9-27% of all intubated patients and carries a mortality rate of 30-60%. […] Native Americans (19.2 deaths per 100,000) and Black Americans (17.1 deaths per 100,000 population) are more likely to die from pneumonia compared with White Americans (15.9 deaths per 100,000 population). […] Advanced age increases the incidence of and the mortality from pneumonia. Comorbidity and a diminished immune response and defense against aspiration increase the risk for bacterial pneumonia. For individuals aged 65 years and older, pneumonia and influenza were the sixth leading cause of death in 2005. Close to 90% of deaths due to pneumonia and influenza occurred in this age group.

• #31 Analysis of Hospital-Acquired Infections in a Chinese Specialized Reha | IDR

  https://www.dovepress.com/analysis-of-hospital-acquired-infections-in-a-chinese-specialized-reha-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-IDR

  Effective surveillance and monitoring of HAIs are crucial for implementing timely infection control measures and improving patient outcomes. Surveillance systems enable healthcare providers to identify infection trends, evaluate the effectiveness of preventive strategies, and allocate resources efficiently. Despite advancements in infection control practices, the incidence of HAIs remains a persistent issue, underscoring the need for continuous monitoring and research. This is especially pertinent in specialized settings like rehabilitation hospitals, where the unique patient population and treatment modalities may influence infection dynamics differently compared to general medical wards. […] Several studies have explored the epidemiology of HAIs in various healthcare settings, highlighting key risk factors such as the use of invasive devices, antibiotic resistance, and inadequate hand hygiene. However, there is a paucity of research focusing specifically on HAIs within rehabilitation hospitals in China, a country with a rapidly expanding healthcare infrastructure and a growing population of elderly patients. The unique challenges faced by Chinese rehabilitation hospitals, including resource constraints, varying levels of infection control practices, and diverse patient demographics, necessitate targeted studies to understand and mitigate HAIs effectively.

• #32

  https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2025-DON550

  Chinas reported levels of acute respiratory infections, including hMPV, are within the expected range for the winter season with no unusual outbreak patterns reported. […] WHO advises Member States to maintain surveillance for respiratory pathogens through an integrated approach, considering country context, priorities, resources and capacities.

• #33

  https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2025-DON550

  In many countries conduct routine surveillance for acute respiratory infections and common respiratory pathogens. […] Some countries conduct routine surveillance and report trends for other commonly circulating respiratory pathogens, such as hMPV, and report such information on a routine basis. […] China has an established sentinel surveillance system for ILI and severe acute respiratory infections (SARI), including hMPV, and conducts routine virological surveillance for common respiratory pathogens with detailed reports published weekly on the China Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website. […] According to the most recent surveillance data on acute respiratory infections shared by the China CDC with data up to 29 December 2024, there has been an upward trend of common acute respiratory infections, including those due to seasonal influenza viruses, RSV and hMPV as expected for this time of year during the Northern Hemisphere winter.

• #34

  https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2025-DON550

  In many countries conduct routine surveillance for acute respiratory infections and common respiratory pathogens. […] Some countries conduct routine surveillance and report trends for other commonly circulating respiratory pathogens, such as hMPV, and report such information on a routine basis. […] China has an established sentinel surveillance system for ILI and severe acute respiratory infections (SARI), including hMPV, and conducts routine virological surveillance for common respiratory pathogens with detailed reports published weekly on the China Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website. […] According to the most recent surveillance data on acute respiratory infections shared by the China CDC with data up to 29 December 2024, there has been an upward trend of common acute respiratory infections, including those due to seasonal influenza viruses, RSV and hMPV as expected for this time of year during the Northern Hemisphere winter.

• #35 Epidemiology and surveillance implications of community-acquired pneumonia in children

  https://www.e-cep.org/journal/view.php?number=20125555562

  The introduction of routine childhood vaccination against both Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b has dramatically reduced the diseases caused by these pathogens. […] The Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Agency established and has operated a nationwide respiratory infectious disease monitoring network since 2015 that monitors respiratory infectious diseases and identifies the causative pathogen. […] In conclusion, it is necessary to continue nationwide monitoring of respiratory CAP pathogens, molecular diagnoses, biological changes of pathogens, and antibiotic resistance.

• #36 Analysis of national surveillance of respiratory pathogens for community-acquired pneumonia in children and adolescents | BMC Infectious Diseases | Full Text

  https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-022-07263-z

  This study will identify the pathogens that cause respiratory infections and analyze the current status of antibiotic resistance to provide scientific evidence for management policies of domestic respiratory infections. […] In addition, this nationwide network system can help to search for a novel pathogen and monitor new respiratory infections such as COVID-19 and provide early national strategies in preparation for a new epidemic.

• #37 Surveillance for Hospitalized Acute Respiratory Infection in Guatemala | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0083600

  Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are an important cause of illness and death worldwide, yet data on the etiology of ARI and the population-level burden in developing countries are limited. Surveillance for ARI was conducted at two hospitals in Guatemala. […] The International Emerging Infections Program of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in collaboration with the Guatemala Ministry of Public Health and Welfare and the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala (UVG) conducts surveillance for hospitalized ARI in two sites in Guatemala. The surveillance is aimed at measuring the burden of hospitalized ARI in the catchment area and characterizing ARI etiology. […] These surveillance data demonstrate the importance of hospitalized ARI as a public health problem in Guatemala, and also highlight the dynamic and complex nature of ARI. We found that, at a minimum, 128 of every 100,000 persons and nearly 2 of every 100 children 1 year old are hospitalized for acute respiratory infection each year in the surveillance catchment areas.

• #38 Annual reporting on surveillance of acute respiratory infections in the Netherlands, winter 2023/2024 – Acute respiratory infections, influenza-like illness, bronchiolitis in children, and pneumonia | RIVM

  https://www.rivm.nl/en/respiratory-infections/annual-reporting-on-surveillance-of-acute-respiratory-infections/acute-respiratory-infections

  This page describes the surveillance of respiratory infections and their causes in the Netherlands during the respiratory season 2023/2024. […] The definition for ILI falls within the ARI syndrome but is more specifically focused on symptoms that may indicate an influenza virus infection, such as fever. […] The incidence of ARI and ILI in the general population, as reported in Infectieradar, peaked at the end of 2023. […] During the respiratory season of 2023/2024, among Infectieradar participants with self-reported ARI who sent a self-test specimen to the RIVM, rhinovirus was the most commonly found across all age groups. […] The total number of ILI patients in nursing homes during the respiratory season 2023/2024 was higher than in the previous four seasons and the five pre-COVID-19 seasons.

• #39 Evolving to Better Metrics for Nonventilator Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia: Is Electronic Surveillance the Answer? – SHEA

  https://shea-online.org/evolving-to-better-metrics-for-nonventilator-hospital-acquired-pneumonia-is-electronic-surveillance-the-answer/

  Traditional surveillance methods involve manual chart review and subjective implementation of multidimensional definitions which are error-prone, time-consuming, and susceptible to assessment bias. […] Ji and colleagues propose surveillance definitions for nonventilator hospital acquired pneumonia (NV-HAP) using structured data from electronic health records (EHRs) rather than manual review of EHRs. […] Among 311,484 admissions across 4 hospitals during a 3-year period, incidence rates (per 100 admissions) ranged from 3.4 events for worsening oxygenation alone to 0.6 event for worsening oxygenation, at least 3 days of new antibiotics, fever, abnormal white blood cell count, and performance of chest imaging. […] However, the study found that the 2 tertiary care hospitals had higher incidence rates of NV-HAP compared to the 2 community hospitals. […] While the proposed definitions for NV-HAP offer a novel yet practical framework for performing surveillance, we have a limited understanding of the sensitivity and specificity of these definitions and whether they capture truly preventable events.

• #40 Evolving to Better Metrics for Nonventilator Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia: Is Electronic Surveillance the Answer? – SHEA

  https://shea-online.org/evolving-to-better-metrics-for-nonventilator-hospital-acquired-pneumonia-is-electronic-surveillance-the-answer/

  Traditional surveillance methods involve manual chart review and subjective implementation of multidimensional definitions which are error-prone, time-consuming, and susceptible to assessment bias. […] Ji and colleagues propose surveillance definitions for nonventilator hospital acquired pneumonia (NV-HAP) using structured data from electronic health records (EHRs) rather than manual review of EHRs. […] Among 311,484 admissions across 4 hospitals during a 3-year period, incidence rates (per 100 admissions) ranged from 3.4 events for worsening oxygenation alone to 0.6 event for worsening oxygenation, at least 3 days of new antibiotics, fever, abnormal white blood cell count, and performance of chest imaging. […] However, the study found that the 2 tertiary care hospitals had higher incidence rates of NV-HAP compared to the 2 community hospitals. […] While the proposed definitions for NV-HAP offer a novel yet practical framework for performing surveillance, we have a limited understanding of the sensitivity and specificity of these definitions and whether they capture truly preventable events.

• #41 Pneumonia | Knowledge Repository

  https://knowledgerepository.syndromicsurveillance.org/tags/pneumonia?page=1

  Hospital syndromic surveillance data may be a useful tool in detecting increases in influenza-like-illness (ILI) and for monitoring seasonal trends or pandemic activity on a local level. […] Hospital acquired infections are a major cause of morbidity, mortality and increased resource utilization. […] The NYC Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (DOHMH) uses ED syndromic surveillance to monitor near real-time trends in pneumonia visits. […] An unexpected increase in the number of hospital admissions for pneumonia or severe respiratory infections could be a signal of a change in the virulence of the influenza viruses or other respiratory pathogens circulating in the community, or an alert of an emerging pathogen which warrants further public health investigation. […] To develop a forecasting model for weekly emergency department admissions due to pneumonia using information from hospital-based, community-based and laboratory-based surveillance systems.

• #42 Pneumonia | Knowledge Repository

  https://knowledgerepository.syndromicsurveillance.org/tags/pneumonia?page=1

  Hospital syndromic surveillance data may be a useful tool in detecting increases in influenza-like-illness (ILI) and for monitoring seasonal trends or pandemic activity on a local level. […] Hospital acquired infections are a major cause of morbidity, mortality and increased resource utilization. […] The NYC Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (DOHMH) uses ED syndromic surveillance to monitor near real-time trends in pneumonia visits. […] An unexpected increase in the number of hospital admissions for pneumonia or severe respiratory infections could be a signal of a change in the virulence of the influenza viruses or other respiratory pathogens circulating in the community, or an alert of an emerging pathogen which warrants further public health investigation. […] To develop a forecasting model for weekly emergency department admissions due to pneumonia using information from hospital-based, community-based and laboratory-based surveillance systems.

• #43 Enhanced Surveillance for Pneumonia | Yale School of Public Health

  https://ysph.yale.edu/emerging-infections-program/projects/completed/enhanced-pneumonia-surveillance-eps/

  The Enhanced Pneumonia Surveillance (EPS) project is a population-based project that is established to gather demographic and epidemiologic data on hospitalized patients admitted with pneumonia at two hospitals located in New Haven County, Connecticut. […] Characterize the demographic and epidemiologic characteristics of pneumonia admissions […] Better understand the burden of hospital admissions due to pneumonia […] Calculate rates of pneumonia admissions on a statewide basis […] Active surveillance is conducted on admission logs received from infection control and hospital information system personnel at the surveillance hospitals to identify potential cases. […] Between March 1, 2004 through April 31, 2005, 36,857 patients were admitted to these hospitals from the 7-town catchment area. Of these 1,826 (5%) met the studys inclusion criteria and were classified as patients hospitalized due to severe pneumonia.

• #44 Enhanced Surveillance for Pneumonia | Yale School of Public Health

  https://ysph.yale.edu/emerging-infections-program/projects/completed/enhanced-pneumonia-surveillance-eps/

  The Enhanced Pneumonia Surveillance (EPS) project is a population-based project that is established to gather demographic and epidemiologic data on hospitalized patients admitted with pneumonia at two hospitals located in New Haven County, Connecticut. […] Characterize the demographic and epidemiologic characteristics of pneumonia admissions […] Better understand the burden of hospital admissions due to pneumonia […] Calculate rates of pneumonia admissions on a statewide basis […] Active surveillance is conducted on admission logs received from infection control and hospital information system personnel at the surveillance hospitals to identify potential cases. […] Between March 1, 2004 through April 31, 2005, 36,857 patients were admitted to these hospitals from the 7-town catchment area. Of these 1,826 (5%) met the studys inclusion criteria and were classified as patients hospitalized due to severe pneumonia.

• #45 Enhanced surveillance for severe pneumonia, Thailand 2010–2015 | BMC Public Health | Full Text

  https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-019-6774-5

  During 5 years of surveillance, the system strengthened the overall ability of the Thailand MOPH to identify pathogens causing severe pneumonia and demonstrated the significance of RSV as a cause of fatal and non-fatal pneumonia cases, in both adults and children. […] Despite its low sensitivity, the SevPn surveillance system has built a network and platform that has bolstered Thailands ability to detect emerging infectious diseases.

• #46 Epidemiology and surveillance implications of community-acquired pneumonia in children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9742763/

  The identification of the causative pathogens of community-acquired pneumonia and appropriate treatment and prevention can reduce mortality and the socioeconomic burden by reducing the medical expenses. […] Therefore, it is important to sustain a monitoring system for respiratory infectious diseases including pneumonia.

• #47 Epidemiology and surveillance implications of community-acquired pneumonia in children

  https://www.e-cep.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3345/cep.2022.00374

  Improved healthcare access, vaccination programs, living conditions, and nutrition are key to further reducing CAP mortality rates. […] The introduction of routine childhood vaccination against both Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b has dramatically reduced the diseases caused by these pathogens. […] The frequency and mortality rate of pneumonia, including Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia, have rapidly decreased since 2014. […] The national pneumococcal vaccination program caused a serotype replacement phenomenon. […] The introduction of routine childhood vaccination against Haemophilus influenzae type b has dramatically reduced the diseases caused by these pathogens. […] The identification of the causative pathogens of community-acquired pneumonia and appropriate treatment and prevention can reduce mortality and the socioeconomic burden by reducing the medical expenses. […] Therefore, it is necessary to continue nationwide monitoring of respiratory CAP pathogens, molecular diagnoses, biological changes of pathogens, and antibiotic resistance.

• #48 Epidemiology and surveillance implications of community-acquired pneumonia in children

  https://www.e-cep.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3345/cep.2022.00374

  Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is the single largest infectious cause of hospitalization and death in children worldwide. […] Therefore, it is necessary to elucidate the epidemiology and causative pathogens of CAP. […] Therefore, we will perform continuous national surveillance and monitor the epidemiology of respiratory pathogens in Korea and worldwide. The surveillance of these respiratory infections can play a role in monitoring the emergence of new infectious diseases such as SARS-CoV-2. […] Pneumonia is the single largest infectious cause of death in children worldwide. Pneumonia killed 740,180 children younger than 5 years in 2019, accounting for 14% of all deaths of children under 5 years old and 22% of all deaths in children aged 15 years worldwide. […] The epidemiology of child pneumonia varies widely among different regions of the world related to the prevalence of risk factors and causative pathogens.

• #49 Analysis of national surveillance of respiratory pathogens for community-acquired pneumonia in children and adolescents | BMC Infectious Diseases | Full Text

  https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-022-07263-z

  This study will identify the pathogens that cause respiratory infections and analyze the current status of antibiotic resistance to provide scientific evidence for management policies of domestic respiratory infections. […] In addition, this nationwide network system can help to search for a novel pathogen and monitor new respiratory infections such as COVID-19 and provide early national strategies in preparation for a new epidemic.

• #50 Original ArticleReal-time Surveillance of Pneumonia and Influenza Mortalities via the National Death Certificate System – Taiwan Centers for Disease Control

  https://www.cdc.gov.tw/En/EpidemicTheme/Detail/hQ4XhaZAzUmNe2ksY4tjMA?archiveId=OTg3aKgFKvIU2i_O0j65dQ

  After the outbreak of 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) in April of 2009, Taiwan CDC and the Department of Health Office of Statistics cooperated to establish a real-time pneumonia and influenza mortality surveillance system, utilizing daily mortality reports sent by the Office of Statistics. The goal was to achieve close surveillance of the epidemics and to respond in an appropriate and timely fashion. […] At present, this surveillance system has been incorporated into the CDC influenza surveillance network. Joining with 3 other systems, they are expected to attain complete surveillance of the evolving influenza epidemic, in order to provide real-time monitoring and early warning.

• #51 Overview of community-acquired pneumonia in adults – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overview-of-community-acquired-pneumonia-in-adults

  The comorbidity that places patients at highest risk for CAP hospitalization is chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), with an annual incidence of 5832 per 100,000 in the United States. Other comorbidities associated with an increased incidence of CAP include other forms of chronic lung disease (eg, bronchiectasis, asthma), chronic heart disease (particularly congestive heart failure), stroke, diabetes mellitus, malnutrition, and immunocompromising conditions. […] Both the distribution of pathogens that cause CAP and our knowledge of these pathogens are evolving. Key observations that have changed our understanding of CAP and influenced our approach to management include: Decline in S. pneumoniae incidence – Although S. pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is the most commonly detected bacterial cause of CAP in most studies, the overall incidence of pneumococcal pneumonia is decreasing. […] Knowledge of antimicrobial resistance patterns and risk factors for infection with antimicrobial-resistant pathogens help inform the selection of antibiotics for empiric CAP treatment.

• #52 Nonventilator Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia: Epidemiology, Prevention, and Where It Is Now

  https://www.contagionlive.com/view/nonventilator-hospital–acquired-pneumonia-epidemiology-prevention-and-where-it-is-now

  Hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP), also known as nosocomial pneumonia, occurs in patients who have been hospitalized for more than 48 hours. […] The Society of Healthcare Epidemiology (SHEA) review from 2022 shows HAP as the most common hospital-acquired infection, affecting nearly 1 in every 100 patients and 1 in every 10 ventilated patients. […] NV-HAP carries a greater than 8.4 times the risk of inpatient mortality and 8 times the risk of need for mechanical ventilation. […] In discussing the epidemiology of NV-HAP, a brief review of health care-associated pneumonia (HCAP) is warranted. […] General antibiotic coverage for NV-HAP aligns with that of VAP and includes antimicrobials targeted against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Acinetobacter, and Enterobacteriaceae.

• #53 Epidemiology and surveillance implications of community-acquired pneumonia in children

  https://www.e-cep.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3345/cep.2022.00374

  Improved healthcare access, vaccination programs, living conditions, and nutrition are key to further reducing CAP mortality rates. […] The introduction of routine childhood vaccination against both Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b has dramatically reduced the diseases caused by these pathogens. […] The frequency and mortality rate of pneumonia, including Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia, have rapidly decreased since 2014. […] The national pneumococcal vaccination program caused a serotype replacement phenomenon. […] The introduction of routine childhood vaccination against Haemophilus influenzae type b has dramatically reduced the diseases caused by these pathogens. […] The identification of the causative pathogens of community-acquired pneumonia and appropriate treatment and prevention can reduce mortality and the socioeconomic burden by reducing the medical expenses. […] Therefore, it is necessary to continue nationwide monitoring of respiratory CAP pathogens, molecular diagnoses, biological changes of pathogens, and antibiotic resistance.

• #54 Epidemiology and surveillance implications of community-acquired pneumonia in children

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9742763/

  The identification of the causative pathogens of community-acquired pneumonia and appropriate treatment and prevention can reduce mortality and the socioeconomic burden by reducing the medical expenses. […] Therefore, it is important to sustain a monitoring system for respiratory infectious diseases including pneumonia.

• #55 Epidemiology and surveillance implications of community-acquired pneumonia in children

  https://www.e-cep.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3345/cep.2022.00374

  Improved healthcare access, vaccination programs, living conditions, and nutrition are key to further reducing CAP mortality rates. […] The introduction of routine childhood vaccination against both Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b has dramatically reduced the diseases caused by these pathogens. […] The frequency and mortality rate of pneumonia, including Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia, have rapidly decreased since 2014. […] The national pneumococcal vaccination program caused a serotype replacement phenomenon. […] The introduction of routine childhood vaccination against Haemophilus influenzae type b has dramatically reduced the diseases caused by these pathogens. […] The identification of the causative pathogens of community-acquired pneumonia and appropriate treatment and prevention can reduce mortality and the socioeconomic burden by reducing the medical expenses. […] Therefore, it is necessary to continue nationwide monitoring of respiratory CAP pathogens, molecular diagnoses, biological changes of pathogens, and antibiotic resistance.

• #56 Surveillance of community-acquired pneumonia in critically ill patients – Lam – Journal of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine

  https://jeccm.amegroups.org/article/view/4906

  CAP is an important cause of admission to our ICU with significant mortality. […] Etiological organisms could be identified in about 60% of CAP. […] Streptococcus pneumoniae was the most common bacterial agent and most viral infections were caused by influenza A. […] Atypical bacteria accounted for only a minority of CAP. […] Pneumococcal and influenza immunization may be effective to reduce the incidence and severity of CAP.

• #57 Surveillance of community-acquired pneumonia in critically ill patients – Lam – Journal of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine

  https://jeccm.amegroups.org/article/view/4906/html

  In this study, we aimed to investigate the epidemiology, causative agents and outcomes of severe community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in Hong Kong. […] Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is a common cause for hospital admission. It was estimated that the annual incidence rate of CAP in adults was about 2.6 per 1,000 inhabitants with annual mortality rates about 0.1 per 1,000 inhabitants. […] The causative agents of pneumonia were identified in 60% of cases in the present study. Streptococcus pneumoniae was the most common bacterial pathogen of CAP in our cohort, contributing to about 15% of the CAP. […] In our study, pneumococcus and influenza were major causes of severe CAP. It was suggested that people infected by influenza may be prone to bacterial chest infection. […] Pneumococcal and influenza immunizations may be effective to reduce the incidence of CAP. Such vaccine should be provided to the high risk group so that it may improve the outcome of severe chest infection.

• #58 Epidemiology and surveillance implications of community-acquired pneumonia in children

  https://www.e-cep.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3345/cep.2022.00374

  Improved healthcare access, vaccination programs, living conditions, and nutrition are key to further reducing CAP mortality rates. […] The introduction of routine childhood vaccination against both Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b has dramatically reduced the diseases caused by these pathogens. […] The frequency and mortality rate of pneumonia, including Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia, have rapidly decreased since 2014. […] The national pneumococcal vaccination program caused a serotype replacement phenomenon. […] The introduction of routine childhood vaccination against Haemophilus influenzae type b has dramatically reduced the diseases caused by these pathogens. […] The identification of the causative pathogens of community-acquired pneumonia and appropriate treatment and prevention can reduce mortality and the socioeconomic burden by reducing the medical expenses. […] Therefore, it is necessary to continue nationwide monitoring of respiratory CAP pathogens, molecular diagnoses, biological changes of pathogens, and antibiotic resistance.

• #59

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s15010-024-02314-w

  In order to target preventive measures like vaccines or drug prophylaxis and to potentially address modifiable immunosuppressive conditions in patients at risk, such information is key. […] Our large, population-based study demonstrated that 6% of an adult German population showed episodes of immunosuppression within 4 years. […] Apart from age and level of long-term care, immunosuppression was the most relevant risk factor related to CAP and CAP-associated mortality. […] This is particularly relevant for CAP associated with rare pathogens in which HIV infection, solid organ transplantation and prescription of high dose systemic steroids are dominant risk factors.

• #60 Surveillance for Hospitalized Acute Respiratory Infection in Guatemala | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0083600

  Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are an important cause of illness and death worldwide, yet data on the etiology of ARI and the population-level burden in developing countries are limited. Surveillance for ARI was conducted at two hospitals in Guatemala. […] The International Emerging Infections Program of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in collaboration with the Guatemala Ministry of Public Health and Welfare and the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala (UVG) conducts surveillance for hospitalized ARI in two sites in Guatemala. The surveillance is aimed at measuring the burden of hospitalized ARI in the catchment area and characterizing ARI etiology. […] These surveillance data demonstrate the importance of hospitalized ARI as a public health problem in Guatemala, and also highlight the dynamic and complex nature of ARI. We found that, at a minimum, 128 of every 100,000 persons and nearly 2 of every 100 children 1 year old are hospitalized for acute respiratory infection each year in the surveillance catchment areas.

• #61 Surveillance for Hospitalized Acute Respiratory Infection in Guatemala | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0083600

  Taking into account the reported healthcare utilization patterns, the true burden of hospitalized ARI may be more than twice the incidence observed in this study, as suggested by the estimated adjusted incidence. […] The relative contribution of the respiratory pathogens that were studied varied by age group, season and study year. […] The findings of this study are subject to several limitations. […] Despite the limitations, our findings provide insight into the burden and etiology of hospitalized ARI in Guatemala, including differences across age groups and over time.

• #62 Pneumonia in Children Statistics – UNICEF DATA

  https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/pneumonia/

  Pneumonia is an ARI of the lungs. Globally, less than two thirds (62 per cent) of children with symptoms of ARI were taken to a health care provider in 2023. […] In sub-Saharan Africa, where the most pneumonia deaths occur, only around 50 per cent of children with ARI symptoms are taken for care. […] There are additional risks to children’s health and well-being posed by the COVID-19 pandemic and related disruptions to health systems and the lives of families. […] The Integrated Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Pneumonia and Diarrhoea (GAPPD) sets forth an integrated framework of key interventions proven to effectively protect children’s health, prevent disease and appropriately treat children who fall ill with diarrhoea and symptoms of pneumonia. […] The treatment for most types of serious ARI is often antibiotics, which typically cost less than 50 cents for a full treatment. However, not all children with ARI symptoms should receive antibiotics. According to the WHO and UNICEF Integrated Management of Childhood Illness guidelines, only those cases classified by a health worker as pneumonia or severe ARI should be treated with antibiotics.

• #63

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00144995

  Risk factors for pneumonia were analysed in a large population of critically ill patients, collected in two prospective multicentre pneumonia studies in Italy. The incidence of pneumonia in the 1475 selected patients was 15% (220 cases). Pneumonia was found to be an independent highly significant risk factor for death in critically ill patients (OR = 3.88; p0.0001). […] Multivariate analysis of seven risk factors for pneumonia showed a significantly higher risk in patients with neuromuscular disease (OR = 3.8, p0.002), impairment of airway reflexes at admission (OR = 2.93, p0.0001), and 24h respiratory assistance (OR=3.05, p0.0001). […] Impairment of airway reflexes at admission to the emergency room or intensive care unit identifies the population who will experience 3/4 of the overall lower respiratory tract infections. Rapid recognition of at-risk patients seems clinically important and may improve awareness programs and preventive approaches.

• #64 Nonventilator Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia: Epidemiology, Prevention, and Where It Is Now

  https://www.contagionlive.com/view/nonventilator-hospital–acquired-pneumonia-epidemiology-prevention-and-where-it-is-now

  The pathophysiology of HAP necessitates exposure to a pathogen, which can occur via aspiration of gastric contents, exposure to contaminated aerosols (as in the case of Legionella), or hematogenously (as in septic embolization). […] Prevention of NV-HAP depends on identification of at-risk populations and mitigation of risk factors, with particular emphasis on avoiding aspiration events. […] Apart from mitigation of inpatient risk factors, it is important to consider NV-HAP prevention prior to hospitalization. […] Given the frequency of NV-HAP and its impact on mortality and morbidity, future directions should be focused on prompt diagnosis and treatment of NV-HAP.

• #65 Pneumonia in Children Statistics – UNICEF DATA

  https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/pneumonia/

  Mortality due to childhood pneumonia is strongly linked to poverty-related factors such as undernutrition, lack of safe drinking water and sanitation, indoor and outdoor air pollution as well as inadequate access to health care. An estimated 18 million more health workers are needed by 2030 to prevent, diagnose and treat pneumonia as well as to reach the Sustainable Development Goal targets on universal health coverage. […] Around half of childhood pneumonia deaths are associated with air pollution. The effects of indoor air pollution kill more children globally than outdoor air pollution. […] Early care-seeking for children with acute respiratory infection (ARI) symptoms from a health care provider is known to reduce mortality, yet population-based survey data indicate that there has been slow progress in care-seeking behaviour for children with ARI.

• #66 PNEUMONIA | Overview and Epidemiology

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7150323/

  Pneumonia remains a common and serious illness despite the availability of potent antimicrobials and effective vaccines. […] In the US, pneumonia is the seventh leading cause of death and the number one cause of death from infection. […] A similar annual rate of approximately 5060 cases per 100000 is probably the case in most developed countries. […] However, data regarding its incidence are suboptimal because pneumonia is not a notifiable disease. […] The overall incidence of cases of CAP is approximately 1012 per 1000 persons per year; however, this varies considerably with age, sex, race, and socioeconomic condition. […] The incidence of CAP is highest among the oldest and youngest members of the population. […] Approximately 4 million cases of CAP are estimated to occur annually in the US, resulting in 600000 hospitalizations per year.

• #67 Pneumonia in Children Statistics – UNICEF DATA

  https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/pneumonia/

  Pneumonia is an ARI of the lungs. Globally, less than two thirds (62 per cent) of children with symptoms of ARI were taken to a health care provider in 2023. […] In sub-Saharan Africa, where the most pneumonia deaths occur, only around 50 per cent of children with ARI symptoms are taken for care. […] There are additional risks to children’s health and well-being posed by the COVID-19 pandemic and related disruptions to health systems and the lives of families. […] The Integrated Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Pneumonia and Diarrhoea (GAPPD) sets forth an integrated framework of key interventions proven to effectively protect children’s health, prevent disease and appropriately treat children who fall ill with diarrhoea and symptoms of pneumonia. […] The treatment for most types of serious ARI is often antibiotics, which typically cost less than 50 cents for a full treatment. However, not all children with ARI symptoms should receive antibiotics. According to the WHO and UNICEF Integrated Management of Childhood Illness guidelines, only those cases classified by a health worker as pneumonia or severe ARI should be treated with antibiotics.

• #68 Enhanced Surveillance for Pneumonia | Yale School of Public Health

  https://ysph.yale.edu/emerging-infections-program/projects/completed/enhanced-pneumonia-surveillance-eps/

  The highest rates were observed in the fall and winter months, and among those =65 years of age. […] Risk of hospital admission for pneumonia among non-ECF residents varied by season while risk for ECF residents was similar regardless of season. […] ECF residents and those = 65 years of age were significantly more likely to die of their hospitalized pneumonia than non-ECF residents (p-value 0.001). […] A potential pathogen was identified in only 28% of hospitalized pneumonia cases. […] Continued surveillance is warranted to document trends over time. […] Efforts to improve pathogen detection among hospitalized pneumonia cases are needed to better understand hospitalized pneumonia epidemiology.

• #69 Evolving to Better Metrics for Nonventilator Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia: Is Electronic Surveillance the Answer? – SHEA

  https://shea-online.org/evolving-to-better-metrics-for-nonventilator-hospital-acquired-pneumonia-is-electronic-surveillance-the-answer/

  Traditional surveillance methods involve manual chart review and subjective implementation of multidimensional definitions which are error-prone, time-consuming, and susceptible to assessment bias. […] Ji and colleagues propose surveillance definitions for nonventilator hospital acquired pneumonia (NV-HAP) using structured data from electronic health records (EHRs) rather than manual review of EHRs. […] Among 311,484 admissions across 4 hospitals during a 3-year period, incidence rates (per 100 admissions) ranged from 3.4 events for worsening oxygenation alone to 0.6 event for worsening oxygenation, at least 3 days of new antibiotics, fever, abnormal white blood cell count, and performance of chest imaging. […] However, the study found that the 2 tertiary care hospitals had higher incidence rates of NV-HAP compared to the 2 community hospitals. […] While the proposed definitions for NV-HAP offer a novel yet practical framework for performing surveillance, we have a limited understanding of the sensitivity and specificity of these definitions and whether they capture truly preventable events.

• #70 Enhanced Surveillance for Pneumonia | Yale School of Public Health

  https://ysph.yale.edu/emerging-infections-program/projects/completed/enhanced-pneumonia-surveillance-eps/

  The highest rates were observed in the fall and winter months, and among those =65 years of age. […] Risk of hospital admission for pneumonia among non-ECF residents varied by season while risk for ECF residents was similar regardless of season. […] ECF residents and those = 65 years of age were significantly more likely to die of their hospitalized pneumonia than non-ECF residents (p-value 0.001). […] A potential pathogen was identified in only 28% of hospitalized pneumonia cases. […] Continued surveillance is warranted to document trends over time. […] Efforts to improve pathogen detection among hospitalized pneumonia cases are needed to better understand hospitalized pneumonia epidemiology.

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