Wklęsłe żebro
Etiologia i przyczyny

Pectus excavatum, najczęstsza wrodzona deformacja klatki piersiowej, charakteryzuje się zapadnięciem mostka i przylegających żeber, co wynika z nieprawidłowego rozwoju chrząstki żebrowo-mostkowej. Histologicznie obserwuje się przedwczesne starzenie się chrząstki, obniżony poziom cynku, zmniejszoną aktywność chondrocytów oraz zaburzenia w układzie kolagenu, co skutkuje obniżoną stabilnością biomechaniczną. Etiologia jest wieloczynnikowa, z silnym podłożem genetycznym – 35-53% pacjentów ma krewnych pierwszego stopnia z tą wadą, a potencjalne mutacje zlokalizowano m.in. na chromosomach 5, 15, 17, 18 oraz w genie GAL3ST4 (mutacja g.chr7:99764688G>A). Deformacja często współwystępuje z zespołami tkanki łącznej, takimi jak Marfana (70% pacjentów), Ehlersa-Danlosa, Noonana (75-90%), Loeysa-Dietza, a także z innymi schorzeniami kostno-szkieletowymi jak skolioza czy kifozą.

Etiologia wklęsłego żebra (Pectus excavatum)

Wklęsłe żebro (łac. pectus excavatum) to najczęstsza wrodzona deformacja ściany klatki piersiowej, charakteryzująca się zapadnięciem mostka i przylegających żeber do wewnątrz, co daje charakterystyczny obraz „klatki lejkowatej” lub „zapadniętej klatki piersiowej”. Dokładna przyczyna powstania tej wady nie jest w pełni poznana, ale współczesne badania wskazują na kilka potencjalnych czynników etiologicznych.123

Nieprawidłowy rozwój chrząstki żebrowej

Obecnie dominującą hipotezą dotyczącą etiologii pectus excavatum jest nieprawidłowy rozwój chrząstki łączącej żebra z mostkiem. Badania wskazują, że pierwotny defekt prowadzący do deformacji przedniej ściany klatki piersiowej jest związany ze strukturą i funkcją chrząstki żebrowej.12

Uważa się, że nieprawidłowy wzrost chrząstki żebrowo-mostkowej powoduje nadmierny nacisk na mostek, co prowadzi do jego zapadania się do wewnątrz. W przeciwieństwie do wcześniejszych teorii, współczesne badania sugerują, że chrząstka żebrowa u pacjentów z pectus excavatum nie jest dłuższa, a raczej krótsza w stosunku do długości żeber.123

Histologiczne analizy chrząstki mostkowej u pacjentów z pectus excavatum wykazują oznaki przedwczesnego starzenia się chrząstki, nieprawidłowości w zawartości pierwiastków śladowych (zwłaszcza obniżony poziom cynku) oraz zmniejszoną aktywność chondrocytów. W porównaniu do zdrowych tkanek, chrząstki pacjentów z pectus excavatum wykazują zmniejszoną stabilność biomechaniczną, prawdopodobnie w wyniku zaburzonego układu i rozkładu kolagenu.12

Czynniki genetyczne

Istnieją silne przesłanki wskazujące na genetyczne podłoże pectus excavatum. Około 35-53% osób z tą deformacją ma krewnego pierwszego stopnia z podobną wadą, co sugeruje predyspozycję rodzinną.123

Mimo to, konkretny defekt genetyczny odpowiedzialny za tę wadę nie został jeszcze zidentyfikowany. Badania sugerują, że prawdopodobnie mamy do czynienia z wieloczynnikowym mechanizmem dziedziczenia. Niektóre badania wskazują na potencjalne markery genetyczne związane z tą wadą, w tym mutacje na chromosomach 5, 15, 17 i 18.12

Według niezweryfikowanych jeszcze w społeczności naukowej badań genomowych, mutacja oznaczona jako g.chr7: 99764688G A w genie GAL3ST4 może być odpowiedzialna za dziedziczne przypadki pectus excavatum. Gen ten odpowiada za tworzenie białka utrzymującego prawidłową strukturę szkieletową, a mutacja osłabia produkcję tego białka, szczególnie w połączeniu mostka z żebrami.1

Zespoły genetyczne i choroby współistniejące

Pectus excavatum często występuje w powiązaniu z innymi zaburzeniami genetycznymi i chorobami tkanki łącznej, co dodatkowo wzmacnia hipotezę genetyczną. Najczęściej obserwuje się współwystępowanie z:123

  • Zespołem Marfana (około 70% pacjentów z zespołem Marfana ma pectus excavatum)1
  • Zespołem Ehlersa-Danlosa12
  • Zespołem Noonana (nieprawidłowości mostka występują u około 75-90% pacjentów)1
  • Zespołem Loeysa-Dietza1
  • Zespołem Polanda1
  • Homocystynurią1
  • Neurofibromatozą typu I1
  • Osteogenesis imperfecta (wrodzona łamliwość kości)1
  • Skoliozą (bocznym skrzywieniem kręgosłupa)12
  • Kifozą (nadmiernym zaokrągleniem górnej części pleców)1

Współwystępowanie z tymi zaburzeniami sugeruje, że pectus excavatum może być częścią szerszego spektrum wad dotyczących tkanki łącznej i rozwoju układu kostno-szkieletowego.12

Czynniki rozwojowe

Pectus excavatum jest wadą wrodzoną, która może być obecna już przy urodzeniu, ale często staje się bardziej widoczna w okresie intensywnego wzrostu, szczególnie podczas dojrzewania. To wskazuje na istotną rolę czynników związanych z rozwojem i wzrostem organizmu.12

Niektóre teorie sugerują, że nieprawidłowy nacisk wewnątrzmaciczny podczas rozwoju płodowego może przyczyniać się do powstania tej deformacji. Dodatkowo, w około 35. dniu okresu ciąży żebra zaczynają łączyć się z mostkiem, a u osób z pectus excavatum ten proces zachodzi nieprawidłowo.12

Pectus excavatum może się pogłębiać w okresach gwałtownego wzrostu, co sugeruje, że nierównomierny wzrost różnych elementów klatki piersiowej (żeber, chrząstek i mostka) może nasilać już istniejącą deformację.12

Hipotezy historyczne

Na przestrzeni lat zaproponowano wiele hipotez dotyczących etiologii pectus excavatum, które obecnie mają głównie wartość historyczną:12

  • Nadmierne napięcie przepony podczas rozwoju embrionalnego – pierwsza pisemna wzmianka o tej deformacji pochodzi z 1596 roku, kiedy to Bauhinus zaproponował tę hipotezę.1
  • Nadmierny nacisk przepony powodujący przemieszczenie mostkowe – teoria ta dominowała w pierwszej połowie XX wieku, ale została zakwestionowana, gdy procedury chirurgiczne oparte na tej koncepcji nie przynosiły poprawy.12
  • Sekwela chorób ogólnoustrojowych, takich jak kiła i krzywica – obecnie wiadomo, że pectus excavatum może towarzyszyć krzywicy, ale nie jest jej bezpośrednim skutkiem.1

Inne potencjalne czynniki

Oprócz głównych hipotez, proponowane są również inne potencjalne czynniki przyczyniające się do rozwoju pectus excavatum:1

  • Zmniejszenie ciśnienia wewnątrz klatki piersiowej we wczesnym dzieciństwie, prowadzące do zapadnięcia się mostka1
  • Choroby charakteryzujące się pogorszeniem struktury kolagenu typu 2, który jest głównym materiałem wypełniającym tkankę chrzęstną1
  • Zaburzenia gospodarki mineralnej – badania naukowe wykazują, że problemy z chrząstką żebrową i związane z tym zapadnięcie klatki piersiowej mogą rozwijać się u pacjentów z obniżonym poziomem cynku oraz podwyższonym poziomem wapnia i magnezu1
  • Choroba trzewna – pectus excavatum występuje u około 1% osób ze zdiagnozowaną chorobą trzewną1

Konsekwencje fizjologiczne pectus excavatum

Choć dawniej uważano, że pectus excavatum ma jedynie znaczenie kosmetyczne, współczesne badania wykazały, że w poważnych przypadkach deformacja ta może prowadzić do istotnych zaburzeń funkcjonowania układu krążenia i oddechowego:12

  • Ograniczenie objętości klatki piersiowej, co może uniemożliwiać pełne rozprężanie się płuc1
  • Zmniejszenie pojemności płuc, prowadzące do trudności w tolerowaniu wysiłku fizycznego1
  • Przesunięcie serca w lewą stronę i wywieranie nacisku na serce, co może powodować zaburzenia przepływu krwi i funkcji serca12
  • W ciężkich przypadkach – omdlenia podczas intensywnego wysiłku fizycznego1

Badania wykazały, że po korekcji chirurgicznej ciężkich postaci pectus excavatum poprawie ulega rezerwa oddechowa, tolerancja wysiłku, a w niektórych przypadkach również funkcja serca.12

Podsumowanie wiedzy na temat etiologii

Mimo intensywnych badań, dokładna przyczyna pectus excavatum pozostaje niejasna. Współczesne dane sugerują, że jest to prawdopodobnie zaburzenie wieloczynnikowe, w którym rolę odgrywają zarówno czynniki genetyczne, jak i rozwojowe. Główny defekt wydaje się być związany z nieprawidłowym rozwojem chrząstki żebrowej, co prowadzi do zaburzenia równowagi sił działających na mostek podczas wzrostu.123

Dalsze badania, szczególnie w zakresie genetyki molekularnej, wydają się być najbardziej obiecującą drogą do pełnego zrozumienia mechanizmów powstawania tej wady wrodzonej.12

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Current Concepts in the Etiology and Pathogenesis of Pectus Excavatum in Humans—A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8911421/
    Pectus excavatum (PE) is the most common deformity of the chest wall and is characterized by the posterior depression of the sternum and the lower costal cartilages. To date, the etiology of PE in humans remains enigmatic. Several etiologic hypotheses have been proposed over the past two centuries. However, most of them have been scientifically dismissed and now have only historic value. With no clear consensus over the exact mechanism, most recent studies agree that the primordial defect leading the deformation of the anterior chest wall in PE is related to the costal hyaline cartilage structure and function. Further studies on this subject must be carried out. Genetic studies seem to be the most promising way to understand the exact mechanism of PEs origin and pathogenesis. […] To date, the etiopathogenesis of PE is not fully understood. Several etiologic hypotheses have been proposed in the past two centuries. However, most of them were scientifically dismissed and now have only historic value. With no clear consensus over the exact mechanism, most of the contemporary studies indicate that the origin of the disease is to be found in an ultrastructural disorder of the costal cartilage.
  • #1 Pectus excavatum – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pectus_excavatum
    Pectus excavatum can be present in other conditions too, including Noonan syndrome, Marfan syndrome and LoeysDietz syndrome as well as other connective tissue disorders such as EhlersDanlos syndrome. Many children with spinal muscular atrophy develop pectus excavatum due to their diaphragmatic breathing. […] Researchers are unsure of the cause of pectus excavatum. Some researchers take the stance that it is a congenital disorder (birth defect), but not genetic. Others assume that there is some genetic component. A small sample size test found that in at least some cases, 37% of individuals have an affected first degree family member. […] It was believed for decades that pectus excavatum is caused by an overgrowth of costal cartilage; however, people with pectus excavatum actually tend to have shorter, not longer, costal cartilage relative to rib length.
  • #1 Pectus Excavatum | Thoracic Key
    https://thoracickey.com/pectus-excavatum-2/
    The etiology of pectus excavatum remains unknown. There is a strong familial tendency with up to 43 % of presenting cases with a positive family history; however, the exact genetic link is yet to be elucidated, and the inheritance pattern is likely multifactorial. Pectus excavatum can be a part of many genetic syndromes, the most frequently observed being Marfan Syndrome and Noonan Syndrome; however, less than 1 % of patients with pectus excavatum have an underlying connective tissue disorder. There have been many historical theories regarding the pathogenesis of pectus excavatum including abnormal in utero diaphragmatic development, abnormal embryonic positioning resulting in increased intrauterine pressure on the sternum, and the sequelae of systemic diseases such as syphilis and rickets. Current hypotheses on the etiology of pectus excavatum focus on abnormal metabolism and overgrowth at the sternocostal cartilage resulting in weakness and instability at the joint. Histological analysis of the sternocostal cartilage in patients with pectus excavatum reveals evidence of premature aging of the cartilage, abnormalities in the trace element content, namely decreased zinc, and decreased chondrocyte activity. Relative to control specimen, cartilages from patients with pectus excavatum demonstrate decreased biomechanical stability, which is hypothesized to be the result of disordered arrangement and distribution of collagen.
  • #1 Pectus Excavatum: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17328-pectus-excavatum
    Pectus excavatum is a congenital condition, which means you’re born with it. But people often notice it during their early teen years. […] For many people, their pectus excavatum causes are unknown. But some people get it as part of a connective tissue disease like Marfan syndrome or Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. […] Researchers haven’t found a specific genetic link yet. But they suspect there is one. About 40% to 53% of people with pectus excavatum have a biological family member with the same condition. […] Without a known cause of pectus excavatum, it’s difficult to pin down risk factors. Still, you may be at a higher risk for pectus excavatum if you have this condition in your family or have a syndrome linked to it.
  • #1 Current Concepts in the Etiology and Pathogenesis of Pectus Excavatum in Humans—A Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/5/1241
    Summarizing this section, there is no doubt that the normal structure and function of costal cartilages is deeply disturbed in patients with PE. […] The disease may be inherited in up to 45% of cases and is most likely subject to an autosomal recessive inheritance mechanism. […] The most recent studies suggest that there is no single genic or chromosomal defect responsible for PE and that the disease etiology is most likely multifactorial. Abnormalities of Chromosomes 5, 15, 17, and 18 were related to PE. […] The structure and the physical proprieties of the costal cartilages in patients with PE are severely disturbed.
  • #1 Reddit – The heart of the internet
    https://www.reddit.com/r/PectusExcavatum/comments/47urbl/what_causes_pectus_excavatum/
    Proven to be a congenital mutation for a heterozygous trait. […] Upon genome research of affected individuals, family members of the affected, and individuals with no relation, scientists have narrowed it down to 3 possible genetic variations that could be responsible. […] Of the two missense mutations, one appeared strictly in the genomes of individuals with PE, confirming a correlation. […] The particular mutation is named g.chr7: 99764688G A. […] The mutation is located on the gene known as GAL3ST4. […] This gene is mostly responsible for creating the protein that helps maintain proper skeletal structure, but the mutation causes production of this protein to weaken, most notably giving less strength to the connection between the sternum and ribs and thus causing the chest to sink in. […] THIS DATA IS NOT VERIFIED WITHIN THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY. The data gathered makes this more than 90% likely to be the cause of hereditary PE, but other scientific communities have yet to undergo research on these statistics.
  • #1 Chest Wall Disorder: Pectus Excavatum (for Parents) | Nemours KidsHealth
    https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/pectus-excavatum.html
    Pectus excavatum is when the ribs and sternum (breastbone) grow inward and form a dent in the chest. […] Doctors don’t know exactly what causes pectus excavatum. In some cases, it runs in families. Males have it more often than females. […] Kids who have it may also have another health condition, like: scoliosis, Marfan syndrome, Poland syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (when the tissue connecting body parts is weak). […] Genetic tests can check for these and other related conditions in children with pectus excavatum.
  • #1 7 Proven Causes Of Pectus Excavatum [2024] + Exact Cause
    https://mrpectus.com/pectus-excavatum-causes/
    The exact cause of pectus excavatum, a condition where the chest appears sunken, remains a mystery. […] Many experts believe its linked to a genetic defect that affects how the bones and cartilage in the rib cage grow. […] While the root cause is still being studied, its often thought to run in families, making genetics a key factor. […] Numerous scientific studies reveal a direct connection between pectus excavatum and genetics. […] This study categorizes the pectus excavatum deformity and rib flare posture as primarily genetic. […] The results of these studies unanimously suggest a genetic cause for pectus excavatum. […] Research revealed that 70% of patients with Marfan suffer from pectus excavatum. […] Marfan syndrome is a hereditary disorder that acts on the connective tissue.
  • #1 Pectus Excavatum | Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment
    https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/health/p/pectus-excavatum
    Pectus excavatum is a depression caused when the sternum (breastbone) is abnormally pushed inward. The depression in the chest is due to abnormal growth of the cartilage that attaches the sternum to the ribs. […] While the cause of this abnormality is unknown, the fact that it tends to occur in families suggests that genetics may play a role. […] Excessive growth and structural abnormalities of the cartilage (tough, connective tissue) of the ribs and breastbone are present in pectus excavatum. […] Also, pectus excavatum is seen in some inherited connective tissue disorders such as Marfan syndrome, homocystinuria, and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome.
  • #1 7 Proven Causes Of Pectus Excavatum [2024] + Exact Cause
    https://mrpectus.com/pectus-excavatum-causes/
    Sternal abnormalities in patients with Noonan syndrome are present in about 75% to 90% of all sufferers. […] Like Marfan syndrome, Loeys-Dietz syndrome affects the connective tissue in many body parts. […] Science has proven a direct correlation between EDS and pectus excavatum. […] Pectus excavatum occurs in about 1% of people diagnosed with a Celiac illness. […] As you can see, the pectus excavatum cause is primarily genetic. […] Other reasons are the consequences of rare diseases.
  • #1 Pectus Excavatum – Birth Defect Fact Sheet
    https://birthdefects.org/pectus-excavatum/
    Pectus Excavatum is the most common chest wall deformity seen in children. PE is also called sunken chest or funnel chest. It is a abnormality of the chest characterized by depression of the lower part of the sternum (breastbone) caused by an overgrowth of cartilage between the ribs and the sternum pushing inward. […] The cause of PE is not known, but the tendency to have PE may be found more frequently in some families. PE may also be associated with Polands Syndrome, Marfans Syndrome, scoliosis and other musculoskeletal abnormalities.
  • #1 Pectus excavatum | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
    https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pectus-excavatum?lang=us
    Pectus excavatum, also known as funnel chest or trichterbrust, is a congenital chest wall deformity characterized by concave depression of the sternum, resulting in cosmetic and radiographic alterations. […] Although most are sporadic it can be seen in association with: Marfan syndrome, Noonan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, neurofibromatosis type I, myotonic dystrophy, fetal alcohol syndrome, homocystinuria, osteogenesis imperfecta, congenital scoliosis, Poland syndrome, arterial tortuosity syndrome. […] Although historically most cases were not treated, and early research suggested that even in extreme cases repair does not offer a significant improvement in respiratory function tests, more recently symptomatic improvements in ventilation and perfusion scans, as well as numerous other symptoms, have been described. […] Importantly, and contrary to earlier beliefs, pectus deformities often persist into adulthood and symptoms may become more pronounced.
  • #1 Pectus Excavatum and Carinatum
    https://pediatricsurgery.wustl.edu/patient-care/congenital-and-pediatric-conditions/pectus-excavatum/
    The deformity is thought to be caused by excessive growth of the costal cartilages (ribs), although the reason for this is unknown. […] This overgrowth causes the ribs and cartilages to buckle and pushes the sternum either inward or outward. […] Musculoskeletal abnormalities that are associated with pectus deformities are scoliosis (lateral curvature of the spine), Marfans syndrome (an inheritable disorder of the connective tissue) and Polands syndrome.
  • #1 Pectus Excavatum Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment | Liv Hospital
    https://www.livhospital.com/en/pectus-excavatum
    Pectus excavatum is a congenital condition, meaning it is present at birth, though it often becomes more noticeable during puberty when rapid growth occurs. […] Some theories suggest that abnormal pressure in the womb during fetal development may contribute to the deformity. […] Pectus excavatum is sometimes seen in conjunction with other conditions, such as scoliosis (curvature of the spine), mitral valve prolapse (a heart valve condition), and kyphosis (abnormal rounding of the upper back).
  • #1 Pectus Excavatum – Chest wall deformities | Child Heart Specialist
    https://www.childheartspecialist.com/london/pectus-excavatum/
    Pectus excavatum, also referred to as sunken chest, is a deformity in the structure of the anterior wall of the chest in which there is an abnormal shape of the sternum (the front chest bone) and the rib cage. This anomaly can either be present since birth or it can develop progressively with growth, particularly during the growth spurt typically seen in puberty. […] The exact cause of pectus excavatum is unknown. The condition is thought to affect about 20,000 people in the United Kingdom alone. Whereas there is a clear genetic link in many cases, a clear genetic cause, like a particular mutation is not identified in the majority of children. Pectus excavatum can be associated to some syndromes like Noonan syndrome, Marfan syndrome, and Loeys-Dietz syndrome and it can be seen in other children with connective tissue disorders like Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS).
  • #1 What are the causes of pectus excavatum?
    https://www.pectuslab.com/en/post/what-are-the-causes-of-pectus-excavatum
    Pectus excavatum is characterized by the inward collapse of the front chest wall, potentially negatively affecting both appearance and sometimes physical health. […] One of the primary reasons for pectus excavatum is genetic predisposition. Studies have shown that this condition recurs in families and has a genetic component. […] A fundamental factor in the development of pectus excavatum is the abnormal growth and development of the bones and cartilage that make up the chest wall. Specifically, the excessive growth of the cartilage at the back part of the ribs, which are attached to the breastbone (sternum), can lead to the breastbone being pushed inward, thus creating a depression. […] During the growth phases of children, particularly during puberty, it is common for pectus excavatum to become more pronounced. Rapid growth during this period can make pre-existing structural abnormalities more visible.
  • #1 Current Concepts in the Etiology and Pathogenesis of Pectus Excavatum in Humans—A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8911421/
    The prevailing etiologic hypothesis of the first half of the 20th century was that of the excessive diaphragmatic traction causing the posterior displacement of the sternum. […] The methods of surgical correction of PE were influenced by the etiopathogenic concepts of their time. […] In the second half of the 20th century, the diaphragmatic hypothesis became obsolete, and there was a paradigm shift in the etiopathogenesis of PE. Reports associating PE with collagen diseases such as Marfan syndrome had been available since the turn of the century, and based on this, several authors stated that a growing disturbance in the costal cartilages was the most probable cause for PE. […] The current majoritarian perspective over the ethology of PE identifies an abnormality in the structure, function, and/or physical features of the costal cartilage as the etiologic factor for the chest deformation.
  • #1 Pectus excavatum and carinatum: a narrative review of epidemiology, etiopathogenesis, clinical features, and classification – Janssen – Journal of Thoracic Disease
    https://jtd.amegroups.org/article/view/82552/html
    Pectus excavatum is frequently associated with cardiopulmonary symptoms, while pectus carinatum patients mostly present with cosmetic complaints. […] Nowadays, several theories for the development of pectus excavatum and carinatum have been suggested which focus on intrinsic or extrinsic pathogenic factors, with the leading hypothesis focusing on overgrowth or growth disturbance of costal cartilages. […] Over the years, several hypotheses for the development of pectus excavatum have been proposed. […] The first written account of the deformity dates back to 1596 when Bauhinus documented his observations and proposed hypertension of the diaphragm during embryonic development as the underlying pathophysiologic mechanism. […] A multitude of hypotheses have been introduced since then, which can be divided into intrinsic or extrinsic underlying pathogenic factors.
  • #1 Pectus Excavatum (Sunken Chest)- Causes and Risk Factors
    https://www.drpectus.com/post/causes-of-pectus-excavatum-sunken-chest
    Intrauterine Pressure is stated in the literature that any person’s knee or elbow that puts pressure on the breastbone of the fetus while it is in the womb may cause pectus excavatum. […] Rickets, a prevalent bone disease, arises from a deficiency in vitamin D within the body. […] Pectus excavatum, characterized by the inward depression of the sternum, is among the significant indications of rickets affecting the chest area. […] One of the notable occurrences reported in the literature links the development of pectus excavatum to the reduction of intrathoracic pressure during early childhood. This reduction in pressure can lead to the inward collapse of the sternum bone, resulting in pectus excavatum. […] The presence of pectus excavatum itself has been observed to exert pressure on the lungs, consequently contributing to the development or exacerbation of restrictive lung diseases.
  • #1 Pectus Excavatum (Sunken Chest)- Causes and Risk Factors
    https://www.drpectus.com/post/causes-of-pectus-excavatum-sunken-chest
    Diseases characterized by deterioration in the structure of Type 2 collagen, which is generally the filling material of cartilage tissue, may deteriorate the cartilage structure and lead to collapse of the sternum and may be associated with pectus excavatum. […] Scientific studies show that cartilage rib problems and related funnel chest may develop in patients with decreased zinc levels and increased calcium and magnesium levels. […] Pectus excavatum can often be seen as a component of this syndrome. […] Pectus excavatum can be observed as a component that can be classified as chest wall deformities in patients with Poland’s Syndrome. […] Pectus excavatum is worth one point in the criteria developed to diagnose Marfan syndrome. […] Pectus excavatum may accompany the radial club as a part of Holt-Oram Syndrome. […] Due to rib anomalies, chest wall deformities and pectus excavatum may be observed.
  • #1 Pectus excavatum – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pectus-excavatum/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20355488
    Pectus excavatum is the most common congenital birth defect. One out of 400 babies is born with a chest wall that doesn’t form properly and becomes concave. […] It was once thought that these deformities were all cosmetic and it didn’t affect the patient at all. And now, we’re finding out that people can have very severe heart and lung problems. […] The concave chest was compressing Michelle’s lung, and it shifted her heart to the left. Traditional surgery for adults means major surgery, opening the chest, and remodeling the chest wall. But Dr. Jaroszewski uses a much less invasive technique that was once only used for children. […] Most people who have surgery to correct pectus excavatum are happy with the change in how their chests look. Studies found that to be true no matter which of the two surgeries people had.
  • #1 Pectus Excavatum | UCSF Department of Surgery
    https://surgery.ucsf.edu/condition/pectus-excavatum
    The sunken chest restricts the volume of the chest and keeps the lung from expanding fully. […] Lung capacity may be reduced which can result in children having difficulty tolerating exercise or strenuous activity. […] The sunken chest can also constrict the heart, reducing blood flow and heart function. […] These effects on the heart and lung can be measured and are reversible by correcting the sunken chest. […] It is important to note that these effects on the function of the heart and lung are not life-threatening and that individuals with pectus excavatum can live a full and normal life.
  • #1 Pectus Excavatum | Pectus Clinic
    https://www.pectusclinic.com/conditions/pectus-excavatum/
    Rarely, in severe forms of pectus excavatum patients doing vigorous exercise may complain of feeling faint or actually fainting. […] Following surgical correction studies have demonstrated in severe forms of pectus excavatum pulmonary reserve and exercise tolerance is improved, however this finding is not universal across all studies. […] Again though not universal, some studies have found surgery to correct pectus excavatum can improve cardiac function when carefully measured.
  • #1 Current Concepts in the Etiology and Pathogenesis of Pectus Excavatum in Humans—A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8911421/
    Summarizing these concepts, it may be stated that PE is a disease that is most likely inherited and that the underlying defect leading to the depression of the sternum is present at birth. However, this defect manifests itself later in life, usually during the period of rapid skeletal growth. The primordial defect leading the deformation of the anterior chest wall is related to the costal hyaline cartilage structure and function.
  • #2 Pectus excavatum | Beacon Health System
    https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/diseases-and-conditions/pectus-excavatum?content_id=CON-20248760
    Pectus excavatum is a condition in which the breastbone is sunken into the chest. […] The exact cause of pectus excavatum isn’t clear. […] The exact cause of pectus excavatum isn’t known. Some experts think it has to do with connective tissue called cartilage. Cartilage that connects the breastbone to the ribs may develop in an irregular way. Genes may play a role in this process.
  • #2 Current Concepts in the Etiology and Pathogenesis of Pectus Excavatum in Humans—A Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/5/1241
    Pectus excavatum (PE) is the most common deformity of the chest wall and is characterized by the posterior depression of the sternum and the lower costal cartilages. To date, the etiology of PE in humans remains enigmatic. Several etiologic hypotheses have been proposed over the past two centuries. However, most of them have been scientifically dismissed and now have only historic value. […] With no clear consensus over the exact mechanism, most recent studies agree that the primordial defect leading the deformation of the anterior chest wall in PE is related to the costal hyaline cartilage structure and function. Further studies on this subject must be carried out. Genetic studies seem to be the most promising way to understand the exact mechanism of PE’s origin and pathogenesis. […] To date, the etiopathogenesis of PE is not fully understood. Several etiologic hypotheses have been proposed in the past two centuries. However, most of them were scientifically dismissed and now have only historic value. With no clear consensus over the exact mechanism, most of the contemporary studies indicate that the origin of the disease is to be found in an ultrastructural disorder of the costal cartilage.
  • #2 Pectus Excavatum | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia
    https://www.chop.edu/conditions-diseases/pectus-excavatum
    Pectus excavatum is a congenital chest wall deformity that is caused by growth abnormality of the cartilage that connects the ribs to the breastbone (sternum). […] There is no known cause for pectus excavatum. It can sometimes run in families which suggests genetics may play a role. Pectus excavatum can also be associated with connective tissue disorders such as Marfan syndrome.
  • #2 Pectus Excavatum (Sunken Chest)- Causes and Risk Factors
    https://www.drpectus.com/post/causes-of-pectus-excavatum-sunken-chest
    Diseases characterized by deterioration in the structure of Type 2 collagen, which is generally the filling material of cartilage tissue, may deteriorate the cartilage structure and lead to collapse of the sternum and may be associated with pectus excavatum. […] Scientific studies show that cartilage rib problems and related funnel chest may develop in patients with decreased zinc levels and increased calcium and magnesium levels. […] Pectus excavatum can often be seen as a component of this syndrome. […] Pectus excavatum can be observed as a component that can be classified as chest wall deformities in patients with Poland’s Syndrome. […] Pectus excavatum is worth one point in the criteria developed to diagnose Marfan syndrome. […] Pectus excavatum may accompany the radial club as a part of Holt-Oram Syndrome. […] Due to rib anomalies, chest wall deformities and pectus excavatum may be observed.
  • #2 Pectus Excavatum – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430918/
    Several hypotheses exists regarding the underlying etiology that results in pectus excavatum. The funnel – formed chest has been attributed to a weakness and abnormal flexibility of the sternum, overgrowth of the ribs, and developmental failure of the bony thorax. […] Regardless of the mechanism, the result is depression and dorsal deviation of the sternum and adjacent ribs or costal cartilages of varying degrees. […] Although a specific genetic defect has not been identified, a genetic predisposition is supported by the presence of a positive family history in more than 40% of cases.
  • #2 Reddit – The heart of the internet
    https://www.reddit.com/r/PectusExcavatum/comments/47urbl/what_causes_pectus_excavatum/
    Proven to be a congenital mutation for a heterozygous trait. […] Upon genome research of affected individuals, family members of the affected, and individuals with no relation, scientists have narrowed it down to 3 possible genetic variations that could be responsible. […] Of the two missense mutations, one appeared strictly in the genomes of individuals with PE, confirming a correlation. […] The particular mutation is named g.chr7: 99764688G A. […] The mutation is located on the gene known as GAL3ST4. […] This gene is mostly responsible for creating the protein that helps maintain proper skeletal structure, but the mutation causes production of this protein to weaken, most notably giving less strength to the connection between the sternum and ribs and thus causing the chest to sink in. […] THIS DATA IS NOT VERIFIED WITHIN THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY. The data gathered makes this more than 90% likely to be the cause of hereditary PE, but other scientific communities have yet to undergo research on these statistics.
  • #2 Pectus excavatum – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pectus_excavatum
    Pectus excavatum can be present in other conditions too, including Noonan syndrome, Marfan syndrome and LoeysDietz syndrome as well as other connective tissue disorders such as EhlersDanlos syndrome. Many children with spinal muscular atrophy develop pectus excavatum due to their diaphragmatic breathing. […] Researchers are unsure of the cause of pectus excavatum. Some researchers take the stance that it is a congenital disorder (birth defect), but not genetic. Others assume that there is some genetic component. A small sample size test found that in at least some cases, 37% of individuals have an affected first degree family member. […] It was believed for decades that pectus excavatum is caused by an overgrowth of costal cartilage; however, people with pectus excavatum actually tend to have shorter, not longer, costal cartilage relative to rib length.
  • #2 Differences between Pectus Excavatum and Pectus Carinatum
    https://pectusup.com/en/differences-pectus-excavatum-pectus-carinatum/
    Did you know that Pectus Excavatum and Pectus Carinatum are the most common chest deformities, and both are caused by abnormal growth of the costal cartilage that alters the position of the sternum? […] Pectus excavatum, often referred to as a funnel chest, is a congenital deformity in which the chest appears to be sunken or shaped like a funnel. […] Although this condition is generally present from early childhood, it often becomes more noticeable during growth, particularly in adolescence. […] Pectus Excavatum is 2 to 4 times more common than Pectus Carinatum. […] Pectus Excavatum is diagnosed in 1 out of every 400 births.
  • #2 Pectus excavatum Information | Mount Sinai – New York
    https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/symptoms/pectus-excavatum
    Pectus excavatum occurs while a baby is developing in the womb. It can also develop in a baby after birth. The condition can be mild or severe. […] Pectus excavatum is due to too much growth of the connective tissue that joins the ribs to the breastbone (sternum). This causes the sternum to grow inward. As a result, there is a depression in the chest over the sternum, which may appear quite deep. […] The exact cause is unknown. Pectus excavatum may occur by itself. Or there may be a family history of the condition. Other medical problems linked with this condition include: Marfan syndrome (connective tissue disease), Noonan syndrome (disorder that causes many parts of the body to develop abnormally), Poland syndrome (disorder that causes muscles to not develop fully or at all), Rickets (softening and weakening of the bones), Scoliosis (abnormal curving of the spine).
  • #2 Pectus Excavatum: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment at Medanta
    https://drbelalbinasaf.com/pectus-excavatum.php
    People with certain connective tissue disorders, such as Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, or scoliosis, are more likely to develop pectus excavatum. […] Pectus excavatum is sometimes associated with other congenital conditions, such as Poland syndrome (absence or underdevelopment of chest muscles) and congenital heart defects, though the exact link remains unclear.
  • #2 Current Concepts in the Etiology and Pathogenesis of Pectus Excavatum in Humans—A Systematic Review
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8911421/
    Summarizing these concepts, it may be stated that PE is a disease that is most likely inherited and that the underlying defect leading to the depression of the sternum is present at birth. However, this defect manifests itself later in life, usually during the period of rapid skeletal growth. The primordial defect leading the deformation of the anterior chest wall is related to the costal hyaline cartilage structure and function.
  • #2 Pectus Excavatum: Symptoms, Treatments, and Complications
    https://www.healthline.com/health/pectus-excavatum
    Pectus excavatum is the most common chest wall irregularity in children, according to a 2016 article published in the journal Pediatric Annals. […] However, a specific gene that causes sunken chest hasn’t been discovered. Doctors do know that sunken chest occurs due to a developmental issue during pregnancy. […] Usually about 35 days into the gestation period, the ribs start to fuse with the breastbone. In people with a sunken chest, their breastbone doesn’t fuse as expected, and they develop a sunken chest appearance. […] Men experience sunken chest at a much higher rate than women. […] According to a recent article in the journal Annals of Cardiothoracic Surgery, men are four times more likely to experience sunken chest than women. […] In severe cases, the condition can interfere with how the heart and lungs function.
  • #2 Chest Wall Disorder: Pectus Excavatum – Kidshealth | Akron Children’s
    https://www.akronchildrens.org/kidshealth/en/parents/pectus-excavatum.html
    Pectus excavatum is when the ribs and sternum (breastbone) grow inward and form a dent in the chest. This gives it a concave or caved-in shape, which is why the condition is also called „funnel chest” or „sunken chest.” It can be mild or severe. When its severe, there can be problems with the heart and lungs. […] Doctors don’t know exactly what causes pectus excavatum. In some cases, it runs in families. Males have it more often than females. […] Kids who have it may also have another health condition, like scoliosis, Marfan syndrome, Poland syndrome, or Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (when the tissue connecting body parts is weak). […] Pectus excavatum tends to get worse when kids have growth spurts. When they’ve finished growing, the condition probably won’t change.
  • #2 Current Concepts in the Etiology and Pathogenesis of Pectus Excavatum in Humans—A Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/5/1241
    The prevailing etiologic hypothesis of the first half of the 20th century was that of the excessive diaphragmatic traction causing the posterior displacement of the sternum. […] The first association between PE and collagen diseases was made by Curschmann, in 1936, when reporting a case of arachnodactyly, pectus excavatum, and ectopic lenses. […] The overgrowth of the costal cartilage became the favorite etiologic hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, costal cartilages grow excessively compared with the other components of the thoracic cage, pushing the sternum backwards or, less frequently, forwards, producing pectus carinatum. […] The current majoritarian perspective over the ethology of PE identifies an abnormality in the structure, function, and/or physical features of the costal cartilage as the etiologic factor for the chest deformation.
  • #2 Pectus excavatum and carinatum: a narrative review of epidemiology, etiopathogenesis, clinical features, and classification – Janssen – Journal of Thoracic Disease
    https://jtd.amegroups.org/article/view/82552/html
    In the second half of the 20th century, the diaphragmatic retraction theory was questioned as the procedure proposed by Brown failed to correct the deformity. […] Nowadays leading hypotheses focus on overgrowth or growth disturbances of parts of the anterior thoracic wall. […] Genetic predisposition of pectus excavatum is likely to exist, as up to 54% of pectus excavatum patients have a positive family history. […] The etiology of pectus carinatum is unknown so far, although it has been suggested to have similar origins as pectus excavatum (i.e., overgrowth or growth disturbances of the costal cartilage).
  • #2 Pectus Excavatum | UCSF Department of Surgery
    https://surgery.ucsf.edu/condition/pectus-excavatum
    Pectus excavatum is a congenital disorder which causes the chest to have a sunken or „caved in” appearance. […] The cause of pectus excavatum is not known however it can run in families, with up to 25 percent of affected patients reporting chest wall abnormalities in other family members. […] Pectus excavatum occurs in approximately 1 out of 4001000 children and is three to five times more common in males than females. […] This may be an isolated abnormality or may be found with other malformations including scoliosis, kyphosis, and connective tissue disorders such as Marfan syndrome. […] The deformity usually becomes more severe as the child grows. […] Historically, pectus excavatum was incorrectly considered as only a cosmetic defect. […] However, recent studies have revealed that children with significant defects also suffer from heart and breathing difficulties.
  • #2 Pectus Excavatum | Pectus Clinic
    https://www.pectusclinic.com/conditions/pectus-excavatum/
    The most common chest wall deformity, pectus excavatum or sunken chest is most likely caused by abnormal growth of the costal cartilage junction between the ribs and sternum. […] Most doctors recognize an apparent association between the sunken appearance of the chest and reduction or restriction in lung function as well as physical displacement of the heart causing symptoms such as breathlessness. […] In pectus excavatum the sternum is pushed backwards and the heart which sits behind and slightly to the left of the sternum can be displaced and may affect cardiac function in severe forms. […] The presence of symptoms in patients with pectus excavatum is variable. […] Poor posture, which is often present may be a factor in the development of such pain and breathlessness. […] The psychological impact of the abnormal chest appearance is probably the most important symptom that patients with pectus excavatum complain of.
  • #2 Pectus Excavatum – Chest wall deformities | Child Heart Specialist
    https://www.childheartspecialist.com/london/pectus-excavatum/
    Even though the majority of children with pectus excavatum have no health consequences, except sometimes for the psychological consequence of having an abnormal appearance of the chest, some children and young adults may experience cardiac or respiratory symptoms. […] Whereas the defect was initially considered to be only of cosmetic importance, it has recently become apparent that it can have an impact on the heart and the lung function and the way their heart and the lung interact with each other. […] Several children describe breathlessness and chest tightness when exercising, particularly for high levels of exercise. There has been a considerable deal of research to try to understand what the causes of that are. For example, it is known that children with significant pectus excavatum may have a slight displacement of the heart into the left chest as well a higher pressure applied to the outside surface of the heart. […] There is evidence that treatment of this condition can lead to a significant improvement in the symptoms.
  • #2 Current Concepts in the Etiology and Pathogenesis of Pectus Excavatum in Humans—A Systematic Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/5/1241
    Summarizing this section, there is no doubt that the normal structure and function of costal cartilages is deeply disturbed in patients with PE. […] The disease may be inherited in up to 45% of cases and is most likely subject to an autosomal recessive inheritance mechanism. […] The most recent studies suggest that there is no single genic or chromosomal defect responsible for PE and that the disease etiology is most likely multifactorial. Abnormalities of Chromosomes 5, 15, 17, and 18 were related to PE. […] The structure and the physical proprieties of the costal cartilages in patients with PE are severely disturbed.
  • #3 Pectus Excavatum: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1004953-overview
    Pectus excavatum, also known as sunken or funnel chest, is a congenital chest wall deformity in which several ribs and the sternum grow abnormally, producing a concave, or caved-in, appearance in the anterior chest wall. […] The cause of pectus excavatum is unknown. It probably originates from a genetic defect that results in abnormal musculoskeletal growth. The cartilaginous portion of the rib is very likely the main source of this abnormal growth pattern. Abnormalities of rib morphogenesis and growth are the most likely causes of pectus excavatum and pectus carinatum. In pectus excavatum, the sternum is thought to be pushed in by abnormal growth at the articulation with the ribs and cartilage. Again, the exact mechanism that results in this abnormal growth pattern is not known. Increased work of breathing, as is observed in young patients during exercise or play activity, may contribute to the progression of the pectus deformity, particularly during early the teenage years. However, no scientific evidence supports such a theory.
  • #3 Pectus Excavatum | Columbia Surgery
    https://columbiasurgery.org/conditions-and-treatments/pectus-excavatum
    Pectus excavatum is a relatively common congenital deformity. […] Although its causes are not completely understood, the condition is believed to arise from excessive growth of the cartilage connecting the ribs to the breastbone, which pulls the sternum inward. […] Approximately 40% of people with pectus excavatum have one or more family members with the defect.
  • #3 Pectus Excavatum | Boston Children’s Hospital
    https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/pectus-excavatum
    Pectus excavatum, also known as concave chest or funnel chest, is a chest wall deformity in which a child’s breastbone (sternum) and some of the ribs grow inward. This causes a depression in the middle of the chest. […] There is no known cause for pectus excavatum. While the majority of children with pectus excavatum don’t have a family history, enough do to cause doctors to suspect that genes may play a significant role. Because of this, researchers are investigating a genetic component.
  • #3 Pectus excavatum | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
    https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pectus-excavatum?lang=us
    Pectus excavatum, also known as funnel chest or trichterbrust, is a congenital chest wall deformity characterized by concave depression of the sternum, resulting in cosmetic and radiographic alterations. […] Although most are sporadic it can be seen in association with: Marfan syndrome, Noonan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, neurofibromatosis type I, myotonic dystrophy, fetal alcohol syndrome, homocystinuria, osteogenesis imperfecta, congenital scoliosis, Poland syndrome, arterial tortuosity syndrome. […] Although historically most cases were not treated, and early research suggested that even in extreme cases repair does not offer a significant improvement in respiratory function tests, more recently symptomatic improvements in ventilation and perfusion scans, as well as numerous other symptoms, have been described. […] Importantly, and contrary to earlier beliefs, pectus deformities often persist into adulthood and symptoms may become more pronounced.
  • #3 What are the causes of pectus excavatum?
    https://www.pectuslab.com/en/post/what-are-the-causes-of-pectus-excavatum
    In some cases, pectus excavatum may be associated with genetic disorders such as Marfan Syndrome. Such conditions can cause changes in the general body structure and the skeletal system and may play a role in the emergence of pectus excavatum. […] The causes of pectus excavatum range from genetic factors to abnormalities in the development of bones and cartilage. Although the exact causes cannot be fully determined, genetic predisposition and changes during growth phases play a significant role in the onset of this condition.