Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Etiology and Pathophysiology of Hypoparathyroidism: A Narrative Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10364481/

  The approach utilized a systematic review of the medical literature executed with specifically designed criteria that focused on the etiologies and pathogenesis of hypoparathyroidism. […] Nonsurgical etiologies account for a significant proportion of cases of hypoparathyroidism (~25%), and among them, genetic etiologies are key. […] Approximately 25% of cases arise from genetic or metabolic disorders, autoimmune destruction, or infiltration of the glands. […] The estimated prevalence of hypoparathyroidism is ~23 to 37 cases per 100,000 person-years. […] Postsurgical hypoparathyroidism occurs after inadvertent removal or devascularization of the parathyroid glands during surgery. […] Much of the variation stems from the lack of a single definition of postsurgical hypoparathyroidism, variable timing of biochemical monitoring, incomplete follow-up, different postoperative policies for Ca and vitamin D supplementation, single institutional/surgeon retrospective series, and lack of corroborating intact PTH (iPTH) values.

• #2 Hypoparathyroidism: Causes, presentation and advances in treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/medical-professionals/endocrinology/news/hypoparathyroidism-causes-presentation-and-advances-in-treatment/mac-20430080

  Hypoparathyroidism is a rare endocrine disorder characterized by absent or inappropriately low concentrations of circulating parathyroid hormone (PTH), which leads to hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia and increased fractional excretion of calcium in the urine. […] Roughly 75 percent of cases of hypoparathyroidism are due to anterior neck surgery, typically for thyroid, parathyroid, or other head or neck disorders. Autoimmune hypoparathyroidism may be isolated or associated with autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type I, which is also associated with chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, pernicious anemia and other autoimmune conditions. […] Infiltrative disorders that can cause hypoparathyroidism include iron or copper overload, sarcoidosis, and metastatic malignancy affecting the parathyroid glands. Rare cases have been reported after radioactive iodine 131 (131-I) treatment for thyroid disease. In addition, hypomagnesemia may limit PTH secretion by normal parathyroid glands.

• #3 Hypoparathyroidism: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22672-hypoparathyroidism

  Hypoparathyroidism is a rare but treatable condition that causes low levels of calcium in your blood. It can be caused by damage to your parathyroid glands and certain genetic and autoimmune diseases. […] Causes of hypoparathyroidism include: […] Damage to your parathyroid glands: Approximately 75% of hypoparathyroidism cases are from accidental damage to your parathyroid glands from neck or thyroid surgery. […] Certain genetic conditions: Genetic causes of hypoparathyroidism represent fewer than 10% of cases. The most common genetic cause is DiGeorge syndrome, a chromosomal genetic condition. […] Certain autoimmune diseases: A disease called type 1 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome causes your immune system to attack your parathyroid glands, which causes chronic hypoparathyroidism. […] Low levels of magnesium: Your parathyroid glands need magnesium, a type of electrolyte in your blood, to function properly. Because of this, low levels of magnesium (hypomagnesemia) can cause hypoparathyroidism.

• #4 Hypoparathyroidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoparathyroidism

  Hypoparathyroidism can have the following causes: […] Removal of, or trauma to, the parathyroid glands due to anterior neck surgery (including thyroid surgery) (thyroidectomy), parathyroid surgery (parathyroidectomy). This is the most common cause of hypoparathyroidism, with 78% of cases of hypoparathyroidism arising due to a complication of anterior neck surgery. […] Autoimmune invasion and destruction is the most common non-surgical cause. It can occur as part of autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes. […] Hemochromatosis can lead to iron accumulation and consequent dysfunction of a number of endocrine organs, including the parathyroids. […] Absence or dysfunction of the parathyroid glands is one of the components of chromosome 22q11 microdeletion syndrome (other names: DiGeorge syndrome, Schprintzen syndrome, velocardiofacial syndrome).

• #5 What Causes Hypoparathyroidism?

  https://www.knowhypopara.com/understand-hypoparathyroidism/prevalence-and-etiology/

  Hypoparathyroidism Is a Rare Endocrine DiseaseMost Commonly Resulting From Neck Surgery […] 78% of hypoparathyroidism cases result from damage or removal of the parathyroid glands during neck surgery, according to the population-based Rochester Epidemiology Project.

• #6 Hypoparathyroidism – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hypoparathyroidism/symptoms-causes/syc-20355375

  Hypoparathyroidism occurs when the parathyroid glands don’t produce enough parathyroid hormone. There are four small parathyroid glands in the neck behind the thyroid gland. […] Causes of hypoparathyroidism can include: […] Neck surgery. This is the most common cause of hypoparathyroidism. It develops after accidental damage to or removal of the parathyroid glands during surgery. Neck surgery may be done to treat conditions of the thyroid gland, or to treat throat or neck cancer. […] Autoimmune disease. In some cases, the immune system attacks parathyroid tissues as if they were foreign bodies. In the process, the parathyroid glands stop producing their hormone. […] Hereditary hypoparathyroidism. This form can result from either being born without parathyroid glands or with glands that don’t work properly. Some types of hereditary hypoparathyroidism are associated with deficiencies of other hormone-producing glands.

• #7 Causes of hypopara – Parathyroid UK

  https://parathyroiduk.org/hypoparathyroidism/causes-of-hypopara/

  Hypoparathyroidism is caused by insufficient or inactive parathyroid hormone secretion or, to put it simply, low PTH. There are a number of conditions in which this happens and they all have different causes. […] The most common form of hypoparathyroidism is caused by the surgical removal of, or damage to, the parathyroid glands. […] Hypoparathyroidism can occur following any surgery to the neck (thyroid, parathyroid, laryngeal or oesophogeal) where the parathyroids have been accidentally or intentionally removed or damaged and have lost their blood supply. […] Hypopara can be caused by treatment for thyroid and other cancers eg radioactive iodine thyroid ablation or external beam radiation to neck or use of chemotherapy drugs. […] The term Idiopathic hypoparathyroidism is used to describe a number of very rare conditions which may be autoimmune, congenital or genetically inherited or have no defined cause (such a surgery).

• #8 Hypoparathyroidism – Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/parathyroid-disorders/hypoparathyroidism

  Hypoparathyroidism is a deficiency of parathyroid hormone often caused by an autoimmune disorder or by iatrogenic damage or removal of the parathyroid glands during thyroidectomy or parathyroidectomy. […] Hypoparathyroidism results from a parathyroid hormone (PTH) deficiency, which can be due to […] Removal of or damage to several parathyroid glands during thyroidectomy or parathyroidectomy […] Inherited or autoimmune disorders. […] Idiopathic hypoparathyroidism is uncommon. It can be due to sporadic or inherited conditions in which the parathyroid glands are absent or atrophied. […] Other causes include polyglandular autoimmune failure syndrome, autoimmune hypoparathyroidism associated with mucocutaneous candidiasis, and X-linked recessive idiopathic hypoparathyroidism. […] Pseudohypoparathyroidism is an uncommon group of disorders characterized by target organ resistance to PTH, not by hormone deficiency.

• #9 Causes of hypopara – Parathyroid UK

  https://parathyroiduk.org/hypoparathyroidism/causes-of-hypopara/

  Hypoparathyroidism is caused by insufficient or inactive parathyroid hormone secretion or, to put it simply, low PTH. There are a number of conditions in which this happens and they all have different causes. […] The most common form of hypoparathyroidism is caused by the surgical removal of, or damage to, the parathyroid glands. […] Hypoparathyroidism can occur following any surgery to the neck (thyroid, parathyroid, laryngeal or oesophogeal) where the parathyroids have been accidentally or intentionally removed or damaged and have lost their blood supply. […] Hypopara can be caused by treatment for thyroid and other cancers eg radioactive iodine thyroid ablation or external beam radiation to neck or use of chemotherapy drugs. […] The term Idiopathic hypoparathyroidism is used to describe a number of very rare conditions which may be autoimmune, congenital or genetically inherited or have no defined cause (such a surgery).

• #10 SPECIFIC CAUSES OF HYPOCALCEMIA | Oncohema Key

  https://oncohemakey.com/specific-causes-of-hypocalcemia/

  SPECIFIC CAUSES OF HYPOCALCEMIA Part of CHAPTER 60 HYPOPARATHYROIDISM AND OTHER CAUSES OF HYPOCALCEMIA HYPOPARATHYROIDISM A biochemical state of functional hypoparathyroidism occurs either because of failure of secretion of PTH or, less commonly, failure of PTH action at its target tissues. […] SURGICAL HYPOPARATHYROIDISM Hypoparathyroidism occurs most commonly as a result of parathyroid or thyroid surgery or after radical surgery for laryngeal or esophageal carcinoma. […] Permanent hypoparathyroidism after an initial neck exploration for primary hyperparathyroidism is rare and develops in 1% of patients. […] Hypoparathyroidism may result from direct injury, inadvertent removal, or devascularization of the parathyroid glands. […] IDIOPATHIC HYPOPARATHYROIDISM The term idiopathic hypoparathyroidism describes a heterogeneous group of rare disorders that share in common the deficient secretion of PTH.

• #11 SPECIFIC CAUSES OF HYPOCALCEMIA | Oncohema Key

  https://oncohemakey.com/specific-causes-of-hypocalcemia/

  SPECIFIC CAUSES OF HYPOCALCEMIA Part of CHAPTER 60 HYPOPARATHYROIDISM AND OTHER CAUSES OF HYPOCALCEMIA HYPOPARATHYROIDISM A biochemical state of functional hypoparathyroidism occurs either because of failure of secretion of PTH or, less commonly, failure of PTH action at its target tissues. […] SURGICAL HYPOPARATHYROIDISM Hypoparathyroidism occurs most commonly as a result of parathyroid or thyroid surgery or after radical surgery for laryngeal or esophageal carcinoma. […] Permanent hypoparathyroidism after an initial neck exploration for primary hyperparathyroidism is rare and develops in 1% of patients. […] Hypoparathyroidism may result from direct injury, inadvertent removal, or devascularization of the parathyroid glands. […] IDIOPATHIC HYPOPARATHYROIDISM The term idiopathic hypoparathyroidism describes a heterogeneous group of rare disorders that share in common the deficient secretion of PTH.

• #12 Hypoparathyroidism Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/122207-clinical

  Most people have 4 parathyroid glands; consequently, primary hypoparathyroidism is uncommon. Hypocalcemia from hypoparathyroidism requires all 4 parathyroid glands to be affected. Primary hypoparathyroidism may be permanent or reversible. Permanent primary hypoparathyroidism may be congenital or acquired. […] The most common cause of primary hypoparathyroidism is excision of all parathyroid glands via surgery in the treatment of thyroid, laryngeal, or other neck malignancy. […] The risk of permanent hypoparathyroidism with ongoing hypocalcemia is 7.5% for patients who undergo bilateral near-total thyroidectomy, compared with 2.4% for those who undergo bilateral total thyroidectomy. […] Extensive irradiation to the face, neck, or mediastinum may cause destruction of all 4 parathyroid glands, with ensuing primary hypoparathyroidism and hypocalcemia.

• #13 Hypoparathyroidism: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22672-hypoparathyroidism

  Hypoparathyroidism is a rare but treatable condition that causes low levels of calcium in your blood. It can be caused by damage to your parathyroid glands and certain genetic and autoimmune diseases. […] Causes of hypoparathyroidism include: […] Damage to your parathyroid glands: Approximately 75% of hypoparathyroidism cases are from accidental damage to your parathyroid glands from neck or thyroid surgery. […] Certain genetic conditions: Genetic causes of hypoparathyroidism represent fewer than 10% of cases. The most common genetic cause is DiGeorge syndrome, a chromosomal genetic condition. […] Certain autoimmune diseases: A disease called type 1 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome causes your immune system to attack your parathyroid glands, which causes chronic hypoparathyroidism. […] Low levels of magnesium: Your parathyroid glands need magnesium, a type of electrolyte in your blood, to function properly. Because of this, low levels of magnesium (hypomagnesemia) can cause hypoparathyroidism.

• #14 Types & Causes of HypoPARAthyroidism

  https://www.hypopara.org/what-is-hypoparathyroidism/types-causes

  There are over 25 different types of hypoPARAthyroidism. Each type can be classified as either surgical or non-surgical. […] Symptoms of genetic hypoPARA present in the first few years of life, absent surgical causes. There is often a family history of the condition. Genetic hypoPARA may be part of a syndrome involving other organs or tissues, such as: […] Currently there are 26 identified hypoPARAthyroidism gene mutations: […] Genetic forms of hypoPARAthyroidism include disorders of parathyroid gland formation, parathyroid hormone secretion, and parathyroid gland damage. […] Idiopathic HypoPARAthyroidism means hypoPARAthyroidism where the cause is unknown. A lot of times the cause is unknown because doctors dont think genetic testing is necessary because treatment wont change or is too costly.

• #15 Differences Between Primary and Secondary HypoparathyroidismEnvelope icon

  https://hypoparathyroidismnews.com/health-insights/differences-between-primary-secondary-hypoparathyroidism/

  Hypoparathyroidism is a condition in which the body cannot produce enough parathyroid hormone (PTH) from the parathyroid glands. Depending on what causes the disease, hypoparathyroidism is categorized as primary or secondary. […] Primary hypoparathyroidism, also known as congenital hypoparathyroidism, is when the disease occurs from birth or is inherited. […] There are four main causes of congenital hypoparathyroidism: DiGeorge syndrome, type 1 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome, lack of parathyroid glands at birth, and PTH gene mutations. […] In DiGeorge syndrome the parathyroid glands do not form properly or are smaller than normal, and unable to produce enough PTH. A genetic mutation that causes part of chromosome 22 to be missing leads to DiGeorge syndrome. […] Type 1 polyglandular syndrome develops as the result of an autoimmune response in which the body mistakenly makes antibodies against the parathyroid, thyroid, and adrenal glands.

• #16 Hypoparathyroidism — Knowledge Hub

  https://www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk/genotes/knowledge-hub/hypoparathyroidism/

  Hypoparathyroidism is a rare disease characterised by hypocalcaemia due to deficiency of parathyroid hormone (PTH), usually following surgical removal or damage to the parathyroid glands. It may also have a genetic cause, occurring either as an isolated manifestation or as part of a broader genetic syndrome. […] There are different types of genetic hypoparathyroidism, all of which have variable clinical features and different modes of inheritance, and all of which are caused by variations in a range of genes, as shown in table 1. […] The TBX1 gene is included in the deletion. TBX1 is a transcription factor involved in parathyroid development and is thought to be the gene responsible for the hypoparathyroidism. […] GATA3 is a transcription factor and developmental gene involved in parathyroid gland development.

• #17 Differences Between Primary and Secondary HypoparathyroidismEnvelope icon

  https://hypoparathyroidismnews.com/health-insights/differences-between-primary-secondary-hypoparathyroidism/

  Some babies are born without parathyroid glands, so their body cannot produce PTH. […] In this case, there is a mutation in the gene that provides instructions for making PTH. This results in the inadequate secretion of parathyroid hormone. […] Secondary hypoparathyroidism develops as a result of damage to the parathyroid glands, rendering them unable to secrete enough PTH. The main causes of this damage are neck surgery and radiation therapy to the neck region as part of cancer treatment. […] Low levels of magnesium also can lead to secondary hypoparathyroidism because magnesium is a mineral that is vital to parathyroid gland function. A common cause of low magnesium levels is chronic alcoholism. Other causes include malnutrition, malabsorption, diabetes, chronic diarrhea, certain kidney disorders, and the use of some medications.

• #18 Hypoparathyroidism: Causes, presentation and advances in treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/medical-professionals/endocrinology/news/hypoparathyroidism-causes-presentation-and-advances-in-treatment/mac-20430080

  These defects include gain-of-function mutations affecting the extracellular calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR), which causes autosomal dominant hypocalcemia, and defects affecting the guanine nucleotide-binding protein subunit alpha-11 (G-protein -11). Additional defects include loss-of-function mutations affecting essential transcription factors or the PTH gene. […] The clinical presentation varies widely from mild disease with tingling paresthesias and muscle cramps to more severe disease that may result in bronchospasm, laryngospasm, seizures, QT interval prolongation leading to cardiac dysrhythmias or, in extreme cases, sudden death. […] Other causes may have subtle onset over years before they are finally recognized. […] Several clinical studies have also reported decreased quality of life among patients with hypoparathyroidism.

• #19 Hypoparathyroidism: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/122207-overview

  Hypoparathyroidism is a condition of parathyroid hormone (PTH) deficiency. Primary hypoparathyroidism, the subject of this article, is a state of inadequate PTH activity; this syndrome results from iatrogenic causes or one of many rare diseases. In the absence of adequate PTH activity, the ionized calcium concentration in the extracellular fluid falls below the reference range. […] Patients undergoing parathyroidectomy for parathyroid hyperplasia are at high risk of developing permanent primary hypoparathyroidism. […] Inactivating mutations of the extracellular calcium-sensing receptor lead to hypercalcemia, as observed in familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia (heterozygous mutation) and neonatal severe hyperparathyroidism (homozygous mutation). Conversely, activating mutations of the extracellular calcium-sensing receptor lead to hypocalcemia, as observed in some families with autosomal-dominant hypocalcemia. […] In the absence of PTH, bone resorption, phosphaturic effect, renal distal tubular calcium reabsorption, and 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D-mediated dietary calcium absorption cannot occur. Therefore, the consequence of PTH deficiency is hypocalcemia.

• #20 Hypoparathyroidism: Causes, presentation and advances in treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/medical-professionals/endocrinology/news/hypoparathyroidism-causes-presentation-and-advances-in-treatment/mac-20430080

  These defects include gain-of-function mutations affecting the extracellular calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR), which causes autosomal dominant hypocalcemia, and defects affecting the guanine nucleotide-binding protein subunit alpha-11 (G-protein -11). Additional defects include loss-of-function mutations affecting essential transcription factors or the PTH gene. […] The clinical presentation varies widely from mild disease with tingling paresthesias and muscle cramps to more severe disease that may result in bronchospasm, laryngospasm, seizures, QT interval prolongation leading to cardiac dysrhythmias or, in extreme cases, sudden death. […] Other causes may have subtle onset over years before they are finally recognized. […] Several clinical studies have also reported decreased quality of life among patients with hypoparathyroidism.

• #21 Hypoparathyroidism — Knowledge Hub

  https://www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk/genotes/knowledge-hub/hypoparathyroidism/

  Hypoparathyroidism is a rare disease characterised by hypocalcaemia due to deficiency of parathyroid hormone (PTH), usually following surgical removal or damage to the parathyroid glands. It may also have a genetic cause, occurring either as an isolated manifestation or as part of a broader genetic syndrome. […] There are different types of genetic hypoparathyroidism, all of which have variable clinical features and different modes of inheritance, and all of which are caused by variations in a range of genes, as shown in table 1. […] The TBX1 gene is included in the deletion. TBX1 is a transcription factor involved in parathyroid development and is thought to be the gene responsible for the hypoparathyroidism. […] GATA3 is a transcription factor and developmental gene involved in parathyroid gland development.

• #22 Hypoparathyroidism — Knowledge Hub

  https://www.genomicseducation.hee.nhs.uk/genotes/knowledge-hub/hypoparathyroidism/

  This condition is caused by a variety of PTH gene variants that can lead to aberrant processing or secretion of the hormone or a less biologically active hormone. […] This condition is caused by homozygous loss-of-function or heterozygous dominant negative variants in GCM2, a transcription factor gene that functions as a developmental gene for the parathyroid glands. […] This condition is caused by a complex deletion-insertion near the SOX3 gene, which is a transcription factor involved in parathyroid gland development. […] Although hypoparathyroidism can have a wide variety of potential genetic causes, as outlined in the table above, 22q11.2 deletion syndrome is probably the most common.

• #23 Hypoparathyroidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoparathyroidism

  Magnesium deficiency […] A defect in the calcium receptor leads to a rare congenital form of the disease […] Occasionally due to other hereditary causes (e.g. Barakat syndrome (HDR syndrome) a genetic development disorder resulting in hypoparathyroidism, sensorineural deafness, and kidney disease).

• #24 Hypoparathyroidism Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/hypoparathyroidism

  Hypoparathyroidism is a disorder in which the parathyroid glands in the neck do not produce enough parathyroid hormone (PTH). […] The most common cause of hypoparathyroidism is injury to the parathyroid glands during thyroid or neck surgery. It may also be caused by any of the following: […] Autoimmune attack on the parathyroid glands (common) […] Very low magnesium level in the blood (reversible) […] Radioactive iodine treatment for hyperthyroidism (very rare). […] DiGeorge syndrome is a disease in which hypoparathyroidism occurs because all the parathyroid glands are missing at birth. […] Familial hypoparathyroidism occurs with other endocrine diseases such as adrenal insufficiency in a syndrome called type I polyglandular autoimmune syndrome (PGA I).

• #25 Congenital hypoparathyroidism | ECE2017 | 19th European Congress of Endocrinology | Endocrine Abstracts

  https://www.endocrine-abstracts.org/ea/0049/ea0049s1.1

  The most common causes of hypoparathyroidism in children are the lack of or the impaired development of the parathyroid glands due to genetic/chromosomal alterations and the abnormal signaling of the Ca(2+)-sensing receptor (CaSR). […] Hypoparathyroidism can also be caused by an autoimmune process, mainly in the context of AIRE mutations. […] The main causes of the PTH insufficiency were 22q1.1 deletion (31%), ADH1 (13%), AIRE mutations (10%) and cervical surgery (7%). […] The etiology is still unknown in 23% of the children.

• #26 SPECIFIC CAUSES OF HYPOCALCEMIA | Oncohema Key

  https://oncohemakey.com/specific-causes-of-hypocalcemia/

  SPECIFIC CAUSES OF HYPOCALCEMIA Part of CHAPTER 60 HYPOPARATHYROIDISM AND OTHER CAUSES OF HYPOCALCEMIA HYPOPARATHYROIDISM A biochemical state of functional hypoparathyroidism occurs either because of failure of secretion of PTH or, less commonly, failure of PTH action at its target tissues. […] SURGICAL HYPOPARATHYROIDISM Hypoparathyroidism occurs most commonly as a result of parathyroid or thyroid surgery or after radical surgery for laryngeal or esophageal carcinoma. […] Permanent hypoparathyroidism after an initial neck exploration for primary hyperparathyroidism is rare and develops in 1% of patients. […] Hypoparathyroidism may result from direct injury, inadvertent removal, or devascularization of the parathyroid glands. […] IDIOPATHIC HYPOPARATHYROIDISM The term idiopathic hypoparathyroidism describes a heterogeneous group of rare disorders that share in common the deficient secretion of PTH.

• #27 Hypoparathyroidism: Symptoms and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/hypoparathyroidism-pro

  Hypoparathyroidism may be transient, congenital/genetically inherited or acquired. The most common cause of hypoparathyroidism is anterior neck (thyroid, parathyroid, or head or neck cancer) surgery. […] Neck surgery (thyroid, parathyroid, laryngeal or oesophageal surgery) is the most common cause and includes: Accidental damage to, or accidental removal of, the parathyroid glands. Most likely during thyroid surgery. May be transient or permanent. […] Magnesium deficiency, which can occur in: Chronic alcoholism. […] Isolated idiopathic hypoparathyroidism: PTH deficiency is present but no other associated endocrine or developmental disorders. Usually sporadic but can be familial. May possibly be a form of autoimmune hypoparathyroidism.

• #28 Etiology and Pathophysiology of Hypoparathyroidism: A Narrative Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10364481/

  The parathyroid glands are at risk during thyroid surgery due to their small size, close proximity to the thyroid gland, and delicate blood supply. […] Risk factors for the development of hypoparathyroidism can be divided into patient, disease, and operative factors. […] Approximately 25% of adults with hypoparathyroidism have a developmental, genetic, autoimmune, metabolic, or environmental condition that impairs either the secretion or action of PTH or alters parathyroid gland mass. […] Autoimmune hypoparathyroidism can occur as an isolated endocrinopathy or as a part of the autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type I (APS-1), a genetic disorder caused by mutations in the autoimmune regulator (AIRE) gene. […] Ionizing radiation can have dichotomous effects on parathyroid tissue. […] Hypoparathyroidism can also be caused by either hypermagnesemia or hypomagnesemia. […] Hypoparathyroidism is considered to be idiopathic when extensive evaluation of all potential causes of hypoparathyroidism fail to disclose an etiology.

• #29 Hypoparathyroidism: Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/women/hypoparathyroidism-rare

  Hypoparathyroidism Causes […] Several things can trigger hypoparathyroidism, like: […] Injury or removal of thyroid or parathyroid glands during surgery […] Autoimmune diseases […] Addison’s disease (adrenal gland condition) […] Radiation therapy to your neck or head […] Low levels of magnesium […] Hereditary conditions. […] What caused my hypoparathyroidism? […] Autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 1 (APS-1) is an autoimmune disease where your immune system attacks your parathyroid glands by mistake. This causes them to stop making PTH. Symptoms usually start in childhood and include: Yeast infections all over the body, Skin rashes, Hair loss, Chronic diarrhea or constipation. […] If you dont treat hypoparathyroidism, symptoms can be serious, even life-threatening. Very low levels of calcium (hypocalcemia) can cause seizures, muscle spasms in your throat that can make it hard to breathe, or congestive heart failure. […] Over time, hypoparathyroidism can lead to serious issues, including: Cataracts, Calcium deposits in the brain, Kidney problems such as kidney stones or kidney failure, In children, it can lead to dental issues, poor growth, and delayed mental development.

• #30 Hypoparathyroidism Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/122207-clinical

  Type 1 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (also referred to as HAM syndrome) includes primary hypoparathyroidism that is due to destruction of the parathyroid glands. […] Numerous conditions are described in the literature that result in congenital agenesis or hypoplasia and, therefore, can produce primary hypoparathyroidism with symptomatic hypocalcemia at birth or in the newborn period. […] Hemochromatosis and thalassemia, both of which are associated with iron overload, may result in primary hypoparathyroidism. […] Wilson disease, with copper overload, may also cause primary hypoparathyroidism. […] In addition to hemochromatosis and Wilson disease, parathyroid gland destruction has been reported as a result of metastatic disease, granulomatous disease, amyloidosis, syphilis, and progressive systemic sclerosis. […] The unborn baby of a mother with hypercalcemia has chronic suppression of parathyroid gland function. In the worst circumstances, the parathyroid glands may become atrophic.

• #31 Hypoparathyroidism – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hypoparathyroidism/symptoms-causes/syc-20355375

  Low levels of magnesium in the blood. Low magnesium levels can affect the function of the parathyroid glands. Normal magnesium levels are required for normal production of parathyroid hormone. […] Extensive cancer radiation treatment of the face or neck. Radiation can result in destruction of the parathyroid glands. In rare cases, radioactive iodine treatment for hyperthyroidism may lead to hypoparathyroidism.

• #32 Hypoparathyroidism: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22672-hypoparathyroidism

  Hypoparathyroidism is a rare but treatable condition that causes low levels of calcium in your blood. It can be caused by damage to your parathyroid glands and certain genetic and autoimmune diseases. […] Causes of hypoparathyroidism include: […] Damage to your parathyroid glands: Approximately 75% of hypoparathyroidism cases are from accidental damage to your parathyroid glands from neck or thyroid surgery. […] Certain genetic conditions: Genetic causes of hypoparathyroidism represent fewer than 10% of cases. The most common genetic cause is DiGeorge syndrome, a chromosomal genetic condition. […] Certain autoimmune diseases: A disease called type 1 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome causes your immune system to attack your parathyroid glands, which causes chronic hypoparathyroidism. […] Low levels of magnesium: Your parathyroid glands need magnesium, a type of electrolyte in your blood, to function properly. Because of this, low levels of magnesium (hypomagnesemia) can cause hypoparathyroidism.

• #33 Hypoparathyroidism: Causes, diagnosis, management – McMaster Perspective – Interviews – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/interviews/perspective/336861,hypoparathyroidism-causes-diagnosis-management

  The important point that I really wanted to emphasize to our colleagues is that we need to evaluate why a patient has hypoparathyroidism. […] Granulomatous disease, sarcoidosis—these are conditions that can also result in hypoparathyroidism. […] Magnesium abnormalities can actually cause hypoparathyroidism as well, both excess magnesium and inadequate magnesium, because magnesium binds to the calcium-sensing receptor and turns off PTH. […] If we were to give PTH, we should give PTH so there’s 24-hour PTH availability and the molecule that we have, teriparatide (PTH 1-34), has a 1-hour half-life. […] PTH 1-34, which is what’s available in Canada, is expensive. We’re looking at like CAD $500 a month for once-a-day dosing. […] The only molecule that we do have in Canada is the 1-34 PTH, teriparatide.

• #34 Etiology and Pathophysiology of Hypoparathyroidism: A Narrative Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10364481/

  The parathyroid glands are at risk during thyroid surgery due to their small size, close proximity to the thyroid gland, and delicate blood supply. […] Risk factors for the development of hypoparathyroidism can be divided into patient, disease, and operative factors. […] Approximately 25% of adults with hypoparathyroidism have a developmental, genetic, autoimmune, metabolic, or environmental condition that impairs either the secretion or action of PTH or alters parathyroid gland mass. […] Autoimmune hypoparathyroidism can occur as an isolated endocrinopathy or as a part of the autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type I (APS-1), a genetic disorder caused by mutations in the autoimmune regulator (AIRE) gene. […] Ionizing radiation can have dichotomous effects on parathyroid tissue. […] Hypoparathyroidism can also be caused by either hypermagnesemia or hypomagnesemia. […] Hypoparathyroidism is considered to be idiopathic when extensive evaluation of all potential causes of hypoparathyroidism fail to disclose an etiology.

• #35 Differences Between Primary and Secondary HypoparathyroidismEnvelope icon

  https://hypoparathyroidismnews.com/health-insights/differences-between-primary-secondary-hypoparathyroidism/

  Some babies are born without parathyroid glands, so their body cannot produce PTH. […] In this case, there is a mutation in the gene that provides instructions for making PTH. This results in the inadequate secretion of parathyroid hormone. […] Secondary hypoparathyroidism develops as a result of damage to the parathyroid glands, rendering them unable to secrete enough PTH. The main causes of this damage are neck surgery and radiation therapy to the neck region as part of cancer treatment. […] Low levels of magnesium also can lead to secondary hypoparathyroidism because magnesium is a mineral that is vital to parathyroid gland function. A common cause of low magnesium levels is chronic alcoholism. Other causes include malnutrition, malabsorption, diabetes, chronic diarrhea, certain kidney disorders, and the use of some medications.

• #36 Hypoparathyroidism – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hypoparathyroidism/symptoms-causes/syc-20355375

  Low levels of magnesium in the blood. Low magnesium levels can affect the function of the parathyroid glands. Normal magnesium levels are required for normal production of parathyroid hormone. […] Extensive cancer radiation treatment of the face or neck. Radiation can result in destruction of the parathyroid glands. In rare cases, radioactive iodine treatment for hyperthyroidism may lead to hypoparathyroidism.

• #37 Hypoparathyroidism Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/122207-clinical

  Most people have 4 parathyroid glands; consequently, primary hypoparathyroidism is uncommon. Hypocalcemia from hypoparathyroidism requires all 4 parathyroid glands to be affected. Primary hypoparathyroidism may be permanent or reversible. Permanent primary hypoparathyroidism may be congenital or acquired. […] The most common cause of primary hypoparathyroidism is excision of all parathyroid glands via surgery in the treatment of thyroid, laryngeal, or other neck malignancy. […] The risk of permanent hypoparathyroidism with ongoing hypocalcemia is 7.5% for patients who undergo bilateral near-total thyroidectomy, compared with 2.4% for those who undergo bilateral total thyroidectomy. […] Extensive irradiation to the face, neck, or mediastinum may cause destruction of all 4 parathyroid glands, with ensuing primary hypoparathyroidism and hypocalcemia.

• #38 Hypoparathyroidism – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hypoparathyroidism/symptoms-causes/syc-20355375

  Low levels of magnesium in the blood. Low magnesium levels can affect the function of the parathyroid glands. Normal magnesium levels are required for normal production of parathyroid hormone. […] Extensive cancer radiation treatment of the face or neck. Radiation can result in destruction of the parathyroid glands. In rare cases, radioactive iodine treatment for hyperthyroidism may lead to hypoparathyroidism.

• #39 Hypoparathyroidism Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/hypoparathyroidism

  Hypoparathyroidism is a disorder in which the parathyroid glands in the neck do not produce enough parathyroid hormone (PTH). […] The most common cause of hypoparathyroidism is injury to the parathyroid glands during thyroid or neck surgery. It may also be caused by any of the following: […] Autoimmune attack on the parathyroid glands (common) […] Very low magnesium level in the blood (reversible) […] Radioactive iodine treatment for hyperthyroidism (very rare). […] DiGeorge syndrome is a disease in which hypoparathyroidism occurs because all the parathyroid glands are missing at birth. […] Familial hypoparathyroidism occurs with other endocrine diseases such as adrenal insufficiency in a syndrome called type I polyglandular autoimmune syndrome (PGA I).

• #40 Hypoparathyroidism – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441899/

  Hypoparathyroidism is an uncommon endocrine abnormality in which parathyroid gland dysfunction causes parathyroid hormone deficiency. […] Though there are multiple causes of hypoparathyroidism, unintended excision or iatrogenic injury during head and neck surgery (eg, thyroidectomy) is the most common etiology. […] Though multiple causes of hypoparathyroidism exist, unintended excision or iatrogenic injury during head and neck surgery (eg, thyroidectomy) is the most common etiology. Other causes include the following: Genetic syndromes or mutations (eg, DiGeorge syndrome and autosomal dominant hypocalcemia) […] Autoimmune destruction of parathyroid tissue (eg, type 1 polyglandular autoimmune syndrome) […] Immune checkpoint inhibitors […] Magnesium deficiency or excess […] Infiltration of parathyroid tissue (eg, granulomatous disease, hemochromatosis, and metastatic disease) […] Parathyroid gland radiation injury […] Acute illness or severe burn […] Maternal familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia […] Idiopathic.

• #41 Hypoparathyroidism – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441899/

  Hypoparathyroidism is an uncommon endocrine abnormality in which parathyroid gland dysfunction causes parathyroid hormone deficiency. […] Though there are multiple causes of hypoparathyroidism, unintended excision or iatrogenic injury during head and neck surgery (eg, thyroidectomy) is the most common etiology. […] Though multiple causes of hypoparathyroidism exist, unintended excision or iatrogenic injury during head and neck surgery (eg, thyroidectomy) is the most common etiology. Other causes include the following: Genetic syndromes or mutations (eg, DiGeorge syndrome and autosomal dominant hypocalcemia) […] Autoimmune destruction of parathyroid tissue (eg, type 1 polyglandular autoimmune syndrome) […] Immune checkpoint inhibitors […] Magnesium deficiency or excess […] Infiltration of parathyroid tissue (eg, granulomatous disease, hemochromatosis, and metastatic disease) […] Parathyroid gland radiation injury […] Acute illness or severe burn […] Maternal familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia […] Idiopathic.

• #42 Hypoparathyroidism Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/122207-clinical

  Type 1 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (also referred to as HAM syndrome) includes primary hypoparathyroidism that is due to destruction of the parathyroid glands. […] Numerous conditions are described in the literature that result in congenital agenesis or hypoplasia and, therefore, can produce primary hypoparathyroidism with symptomatic hypocalcemia at birth or in the newborn period. […] Hemochromatosis and thalassemia, both of which are associated with iron overload, may result in primary hypoparathyroidism. […] Wilson disease, with copper overload, may also cause primary hypoparathyroidism. […] In addition to hemochromatosis and Wilson disease, parathyroid gland destruction has been reported as a result of metastatic disease, granulomatous disease, amyloidosis, syphilis, and progressive systemic sclerosis. […] The unborn baby of a mother with hypercalcemia has chronic suppression of parathyroid gland function. In the worst circumstances, the parathyroid glands may become atrophic.

• #43 Hypoparathyroidism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoparathyroidism

  Hypoparathyroidism can have the following causes: […] Removal of, or trauma to, the parathyroid glands due to anterior neck surgery (including thyroid surgery) (thyroidectomy), parathyroid surgery (parathyroidectomy). This is the most common cause of hypoparathyroidism, with 78% of cases of hypoparathyroidism arising due to a complication of anterior neck surgery. […] Autoimmune invasion and destruction is the most common non-surgical cause. It can occur as part of autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes. […] Hemochromatosis can lead to iron accumulation and consequent dysfunction of a number of endocrine organs, including the parathyroids. […] Absence or dysfunction of the parathyroid glands is one of the components of chromosome 22q11 microdeletion syndrome (other names: DiGeorge syndrome, Schprintzen syndrome, velocardiofacial syndrome).

• #44 Hypoparathyroidism Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/122207-clinical

  Type 1 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (also referred to as HAM syndrome) includes primary hypoparathyroidism that is due to destruction of the parathyroid glands. […] Numerous conditions are described in the literature that result in congenital agenesis or hypoplasia and, therefore, can produce primary hypoparathyroidism with symptomatic hypocalcemia at birth or in the newborn period. […] Hemochromatosis and thalassemia, both of which are associated with iron overload, may result in primary hypoparathyroidism. […] Wilson disease, with copper overload, may also cause primary hypoparathyroidism. […] In addition to hemochromatosis and Wilson disease, parathyroid gland destruction has been reported as a result of metastatic disease, granulomatous disease, amyloidosis, syphilis, and progressive systemic sclerosis. […] The unborn baby of a mother with hypercalcemia has chronic suppression of parathyroid gland function. In the worst circumstances, the parathyroid glands may become atrophic.

• #45 Hypoparathyroidism: Causes, presentation and advances in treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/medical-professionals/endocrinology/news/hypoparathyroidism-causes-presentation-and-advances-in-treatment/mac-20430080

  Hypoparathyroidism is a rare endocrine disorder characterized by absent or inappropriately low concentrations of circulating parathyroid hormone (PTH), which leads to hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia and increased fractional excretion of calcium in the urine. […] Roughly 75 percent of cases of hypoparathyroidism are due to anterior neck surgery, typically for thyroid, parathyroid, or other head or neck disorders. Autoimmune hypoparathyroidism may be isolated or associated with autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type I, which is also associated with chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, pernicious anemia and other autoimmune conditions. […] Infiltrative disorders that can cause hypoparathyroidism include iron or copper overload, sarcoidosis, and metastatic malignancy affecting the parathyroid glands. Rare cases have been reported after radioactive iodine 131 (131-I) treatment for thyroid disease. In addition, hypomagnesemia may limit PTH secretion by normal parathyroid glands.

• #46 Hypoparathyroidism: Causes, diagnosis, management – McMaster Perspective – Interviews – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/interviews/perspective/336861,hypoparathyroidism-causes-diagnosis-management

  The important point that I really wanted to emphasize to our colleagues is that we need to evaluate why a patient has hypoparathyroidism. […] Granulomatous disease, sarcoidosis—these are conditions that can also result in hypoparathyroidism. […] Magnesium abnormalities can actually cause hypoparathyroidism as well, both excess magnesium and inadequate magnesium, because magnesium binds to the calcium-sensing receptor and turns off PTH. […] If we were to give PTH, we should give PTH so there’s 24-hour PTH availability and the molecule that we have, teriparatide (PTH 1-34), has a 1-hour half-life. […] PTH 1-34, which is what’s available in Canada, is expensive. We’re looking at like CAD $500 a month for once-a-day dosing. […] The only molecule that we do have in Canada is the 1-34 PTH, teriparatide.

• #47 Hypoparathyroidism Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/122207-clinical

  Type 1 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (also referred to as HAM syndrome) includes primary hypoparathyroidism that is due to destruction of the parathyroid glands. […] Numerous conditions are described in the literature that result in congenital agenesis or hypoplasia and, therefore, can produce primary hypoparathyroidism with symptomatic hypocalcemia at birth or in the newborn period. […] Hemochromatosis and thalassemia, both of which are associated with iron overload, may result in primary hypoparathyroidism. […] Wilson disease, with copper overload, may also cause primary hypoparathyroidism. […] In addition to hemochromatosis and Wilson disease, parathyroid gland destruction has been reported as a result of metastatic disease, granulomatous disease, amyloidosis, syphilis, and progressive systemic sclerosis. […] The unborn baby of a mother with hypercalcemia has chronic suppression of parathyroid gland function. In the worst circumstances, the parathyroid glands may become atrophic.

• #48 Hypoparathyroidism: Causes, presentation and advances in treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/medical-professionals/endocrinology/news/hypoparathyroidism-causes-presentation-and-advances-in-treatment/mac-20430080

  Hypoparathyroidism is a rare endocrine disorder characterized by absent or inappropriately low concentrations of circulating parathyroid hormone (PTH), which leads to hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia and increased fractional excretion of calcium in the urine. […] Roughly 75 percent of cases of hypoparathyroidism are due to anterior neck surgery, typically for thyroid, parathyroid, or other head or neck disorders. Autoimmune hypoparathyroidism may be isolated or associated with autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type I, which is also associated with chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, pernicious anemia and other autoimmune conditions. […] Infiltrative disorders that can cause hypoparathyroidism include iron or copper overload, sarcoidosis, and metastatic malignancy affecting the parathyroid glands. Rare cases have been reported after radioactive iodine 131 (131-I) treatment for thyroid disease. In addition, hypomagnesemia may limit PTH secretion by normal parathyroid glands.

• #49 Hypoparathyroidism Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/122207-clinical

  Type 1 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (also referred to as HAM syndrome) includes primary hypoparathyroidism that is due to destruction of the parathyroid glands. […] Numerous conditions are described in the literature that result in congenital agenesis or hypoplasia and, therefore, can produce primary hypoparathyroidism with symptomatic hypocalcemia at birth or in the newborn period. […] Hemochromatosis and thalassemia, both of which are associated with iron overload, may result in primary hypoparathyroidism. […] Wilson disease, with copper overload, may also cause primary hypoparathyroidism. […] In addition to hemochromatosis and Wilson disease, parathyroid gland destruction has been reported as a result of metastatic disease, granulomatous disease, amyloidosis, syphilis, and progressive systemic sclerosis. […] The unborn baby of a mother with hypercalcemia has chronic suppression of parathyroid gland function. In the worst circumstances, the parathyroid glands may become atrophic.

• #50 Hypoparathyroidism Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/122207-clinical

  Type 1 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (also referred to as HAM syndrome) includes primary hypoparathyroidism that is due to destruction of the parathyroid glands. […] Numerous conditions are described in the literature that result in congenital agenesis or hypoplasia and, therefore, can produce primary hypoparathyroidism with symptomatic hypocalcemia at birth or in the newborn period. […] Hemochromatosis and thalassemia, both of which are associated with iron overload, may result in primary hypoparathyroidism. […] Wilson disease, with copper overload, may also cause primary hypoparathyroidism. […] In addition to hemochromatosis and Wilson disease, parathyroid gland destruction has been reported as a result of metastatic disease, granulomatous disease, amyloidosis, syphilis, and progressive systemic sclerosis. […] The unborn baby of a mother with hypercalcemia has chronic suppression of parathyroid gland function. In the worst circumstances, the parathyroid glands may become atrophic.

• #51 Hypoparathyroidism: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://patient.info/hormones/thyroid-and-parathyroid-glands/hypoparathyroidism

  DiGeorge’s syndrome is a congenital condition that some babies are born with. The parathyroid glands do not develop properly while the baby is growing in the womb. People with this syndrome have hypoparathyroidism. […] Transient hypoparathyroidism occurs most commonly in babies who are born too early (prematurely). It can also occur in otherwise healthy babies born at the normal time.

• #52 Hypoparathyroidism – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441899/

  Hypoparathyroidism is an uncommon endocrine abnormality in which parathyroid gland dysfunction causes parathyroid hormone deficiency. […] Though there are multiple causes of hypoparathyroidism, unintended excision or iatrogenic injury during head and neck surgery (eg, thyroidectomy) is the most common etiology. […] Though multiple causes of hypoparathyroidism exist, unintended excision or iatrogenic injury during head and neck surgery (eg, thyroidectomy) is the most common etiology. Other causes include the following: Genetic syndromes or mutations (eg, DiGeorge syndrome and autosomal dominant hypocalcemia) […] Autoimmune destruction of parathyroid tissue (eg, type 1 polyglandular autoimmune syndrome) […] Immune checkpoint inhibitors […] Magnesium deficiency or excess […] Infiltration of parathyroid tissue (eg, granulomatous disease, hemochromatosis, and metastatic disease) […] Parathyroid gland radiation injury […] Acute illness or severe burn […] Maternal familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia […] Idiopathic.

• #53 Hypoparathyroidism – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441899/

  Hypoparathyroidism is an uncommon endocrine abnormality in which parathyroid gland dysfunction causes parathyroid hormone deficiency. […] Though there are multiple causes of hypoparathyroidism, unintended excision or iatrogenic injury during head and neck surgery (eg, thyroidectomy) is the most common etiology. […] Though multiple causes of hypoparathyroidism exist, unintended excision or iatrogenic injury during head and neck surgery (eg, thyroidectomy) is the most common etiology. Other causes include the following: Genetic syndromes or mutations (eg, DiGeorge syndrome and autosomal dominant hypocalcemia) […] Autoimmune destruction of parathyroid tissue (eg, type 1 polyglandular autoimmune syndrome) […] Immune checkpoint inhibitors […] Magnesium deficiency or excess […] Infiltration of parathyroid tissue (eg, granulomatous disease, hemochromatosis, and metastatic disease) […] Parathyroid gland radiation injury […] Acute illness or severe burn […] Maternal familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia […] Idiopathic.

• #54 Congenital hypoparathyroidism | ECE2017 | 19th European Congress of Endocrinology | Endocrine Abstracts

  https://www.endocrine-abstracts.org/ea/0049/ea0049s1.1

  The most common causes of hypoparathyroidism in children are the lack of or the impaired development of the parathyroid glands due to genetic/chromosomal alterations and the abnormal signaling of the Ca(2+)-sensing receptor (CaSR). […] Hypoparathyroidism can also be caused by an autoimmune process, mainly in the context of AIRE mutations. […] The main causes of the PTH insufficiency were 22q1.1 deletion (31%), ADH1 (13%), AIRE mutations (10%) and cervical surgery (7%). […] The etiology is still unknown in 23% of the children.

• #55 Types & Causes of HypoPARAthyroidism

  https://www.hypopara.org/what-is-hypoparathyroidism/types-causes

  PseudohypoPARAthyroidism is characterized by an inability of the body to respond to parathyroid hormone (PTH). This is termed resistance to PTH. […] Surgical hypoPARAthyroidism is acquired after neck surgery. Neck surgery could be because a patient had Thyroid Cancer (ThyCA), hyperparathyroidism, parathyroid adenoma(s) or Graves disease. […] Pediatric hypoPARAthyroidism is the same disease as in adults at the basic level in the fact that it means the patient has both low calcium levels and low or no PTH levels at the same time. However, unlike adults with hypoPARA, the majority of children with the disease are non surgical. Rarely would it be the result of a neck surgery although it could be the result of a neck injury.

• #56 Causes of HypoparathyroidismEnvelope icon

  https://hypoparathyroidismnews.com/causes-of-hypoparathyroidism/

  In the case of autoimmune hypoparathyroidism, the immune system wrongly attacks the parathyroid glands, and the damage affects PTH production. […] Hypoparathyroidism can also be a congenital disease, meaning that babies are born without parathyroid glands, or the glands exist but are not able to produce PTH. […] Temporary hypoparathyroidism can occur, for example, in infants whose mothers have excessive levels of calcium in the blood due to hyperparathyroidism (too much PTH), which prevents PTH production in the fetus. […] This disease type is caused by genetic mutations in one of several genes, and these are inherited, meaning they are passed from parents to children. […] Mutations in the calcium-sensing receptor (CASR) gene is one such example. […] Idiopathic hypoparathyroidism is very rare, occurring in approximately 0.02% of all patients. […] In contrast to hypoparathyroidism, people with pseudohypoparathyroidism have normal levels of PTH but the body is unable to respond to this hormone due to genetic mutations.

• #57 Hypoparathyroidism – Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/parathyroid-disorders/hypoparathyroidism

  Type Ia pseudohypoparathyroidism is caused by a mutation in the stimulatory Gs-alpha1 protein of the adenylyl cyclase complex (GNAS1). […] Type Ib pseudohypoparathyroidism is less well known. […] Type II pseudohypoparathyroidism is even less common than type I. […] Hypoparathyroidism is further characterized by high serum phosphate and normal alkaline phosphatase. […] Hypoparathyroidism that does not respond adequately to calcium and vitamin D supplementation may require treatment with recombinant parathyroid hormone (rhPTH), which also may decrease the risk of long-term hypoparathyroidism complications.

• #58 Pseudohypoparathyroidism: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000364.htm

  Pseudohypoparathyroidism (PHP) is a genetic disorder in which the body fails to respond to parathyroid hormone. […] A related condition is hypoparathyroidism, in which the body does not make enough parathyroid hormone. […] PHP is caused by abnormal genes. There are different types of PHP. All forms are rare and are usually diagnosed in childhood. […] Type 1a is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. That means only one parent needs to pass you the variant gene for you to have the condition. […] Type 1b involves resistance to PTH only in the kidneys. […] Type 2 also involves low blood calcium and high blood phosphate levels. People with this form do not have the physical traits common to people with Type 1a. The genetic abnormality that causes it is not known.

• #59 Pseudohypoparathyroidism: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000364.htm

  Pseudohypoparathyroidism (PHP) is a genetic disorder in which the body fails to respond to parathyroid hormone. […] A related condition is hypoparathyroidism, in which the body does not make enough parathyroid hormone. […] PHP is caused by abnormal genes. There are different types of PHP. All forms are rare and are usually diagnosed in childhood. […] Type 1a is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. That means only one parent needs to pass you the variant gene for you to have the condition. […] Type 1b involves resistance to PTH only in the kidneys. […] Type 2 also involves low blood calcium and high blood phosphate levels. People with this form do not have the physical traits common to people with Type 1a. The genetic abnormality that causes it is not known.

• #60 Pseudohypoparathyroidism: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000364.htm

  Pseudohypoparathyroidism (PHP) is a genetic disorder in which the body fails to respond to parathyroid hormone. […] A related condition is hypoparathyroidism, in which the body does not make enough parathyroid hormone. […] PHP is caused by abnormal genes. There are different types of PHP. All forms are rare and are usually diagnosed in childhood. […] Type 1a is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. That means only one parent needs to pass you the variant gene for you to have the condition. […] Type 1b involves resistance to PTH only in the kidneys. […] Type 2 also involves low blood calcium and high blood phosphate levels. People with this form do not have the physical traits common to people with Type 1a. The genetic abnormality that causes it is not known.

• #61 Etiology and Pathophysiology of Hypoparathyroidism: A Narrative Review

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10364481/

  The approach utilized a systematic review of the medical literature executed with specifically designed criteria that focused on the etiologies and pathogenesis of hypoparathyroidism. […] Nonsurgical etiologies account for a significant proportion of cases of hypoparathyroidism (~25%), and among them, genetic etiologies are key. […] Approximately 25% of cases arise from genetic or metabolic disorders, autoimmune destruction, or infiltration of the glands. […] The estimated prevalence of hypoparathyroidism is ~23 to 37 cases per 100,000 person-years. […] Postsurgical hypoparathyroidism occurs after inadvertent removal or devascularization of the parathyroid glands during surgery. […] Much of the variation stems from the lack of a single definition of postsurgical hypoparathyroidism, variable timing of biochemical monitoring, incomplete follow-up, different postoperative policies for Ca and vitamin D supplementation, single institutional/surgeon retrospective series, and lack of corroborating intact PTH (iPTH) values.

• #62 Hypoparathyroidism: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22672-hypoparathyroidism

  Hypoparathyroidism is a rare but treatable condition that causes low levels of calcium in your blood. It can be caused by damage to your parathyroid glands and certain genetic and autoimmune diseases. […] Causes of hypoparathyroidism include: […] Damage to your parathyroid glands: Approximately 75% of hypoparathyroidism cases are from accidental damage to your parathyroid glands from neck or thyroid surgery. […] Certain genetic conditions: Genetic causes of hypoparathyroidism represent fewer than 10% of cases. The most common genetic cause is DiGeorge syndrome, a chromosomal genetic condition. […] Certain autoimmune diseases: A disease called type 1 autoimmune polyglandular syndrome causes your immune system to attack your parathyroid glands, which causes chronic hypoparathyroidism. […] Low levels of magnesium: Your parathyroid glands need magnesium, a type of electrolyte in your blood, to function properly. Because of this, low levels of magnesium (hypomagnesemia) can cause hypoparathyroidism.

• #63 Investigating the etiology of non-surgical hypoparathyroidism: insights from a sponsored genetic testing program | ECE2024 | 26th European Congress of Endocrinology | Endocrine Abstracts

  https://www.endocrine-abstracts.org/ea/0099/ea0099p446

  Hypoparathyroidism is most frequently caused by damage to or removal of the parathyroid glands but can also be associated with genetic etiologies. […] Genetic forms of hypoparathyroidism can present as isolated or as part of a syndrome and include disorders of parathyroid gland formation, parathyroid hormone secretion, and damage to the parathyroid gland through autoimmunity. […] Genetic testing should be considered for all patients with non-surgical hypoparathyroidism as identified variants in known genes can inform medical management of patients. […] Genetic testing may uncover the underlying etiology of nonsurgical hypoparathyroidism and can help confirm clinical diagnosis, guide medical treatment, identify affected family members, and assist in determining eligibility for participation in clinical studies.

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