Hemoroidy
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Hemoroidy, będące fizjologicznymi poduszeczkami naczyniowymi kanału odbytu, stają się patologicznym stanem w wyniku ich powiększenia i przemieszczenia dystalnego. Patogeneza choroby hemoroidalnej opiera się na dezintegracji tkanki łącznej podtrzymującej poduszeczki, co prowadzi do ich ślizgania się i wypadania. Kluczowe zmiany obejmują nieprawidłowe rozszerzenie anastomoz tętniczo-żylnych, przewlekłe przekrwienie, zastój, neowaskularyzację oraz reakcję zapalną z udziałem mediatorów takich jak TNF-α, TGF-β i metaloproteinazy macierzy (MMP). Dysregulacja napięcia naczyniowego, zwiększona ekspresja syntetazy tlenku azotu oraz zmiany w składzie kolagenu i mikroRNA również odgrywają istotną rolę w patomechanizmie. Objawy kliniczne wynikają głównie z powiększonych hemoroidów wewnętrznych, manifestujących się krwawieniem jasnoczerwonym, świądem, podrażnieniem oraz bólem okołoodbytowym spowodowanym skurczem zwieracza przy wypadaniu guzków.

Hemoroidy – Patogeneza

Hemoroidy (guzki krwawnicze) stanowią normalną strukturę anatomiczną kanału odbytu, które stają się chorobą, gdy dochodzi do ich objawowego powiększenia i przemieszczenia w kierunku dystalnym. Dokładna patogeneza choroby hemoroidalnej nie jest w pełni poznana, mimo wielu badań prowadzonych w tym kierunku. Kluczowe znaczenie w rozwoju hemoroidów mają zmiany w strukturach anatomicznych kanału odbytu oraz szereg mechanizmów patofizjologicznych.123

Struktura anatomiczna hemoroidów

Poduszeczki hemoroidalne są prawidłowymi strukturami anorektalnymi i występują u wszystkich osób, o ile wcześniej nie przeprowadzono interwencji chirurgicznej. Stanowią one klastry tkanki naczyniowej, mięśni gładkich i tkanki łącznej wyściełanej przez prawidłowy nabłonek kanału odbytu.123

Hemoroidy mają trzy główne komponenty strukturalne:123

  1. Wyściółkę, która może być śluzówką lub anodermą
  2. Podścielisko (stroma) z naczyniami krwionośnymi, mięśniami gładkimi i tkanką łączną podporową
  3. System kotwiczący tkanki łącznej, który mocuje hemoroidy do zwieracza wewnętrznego i połączonej warstwy podłużnej

W zależności od lokalizacji względem linii grzebieniastej, hemoroidy dzielą się na:12

  • Hemoroidy wewnętrzne – znajdują się powyżej linii grzebieniastej, wywodzą się z ektodermy embrionalnej, pokryte są nabłonkiem walcowatym kanału odbytu, unerwione przez nerwy trzewne (nie są wrażliwe na ból)
  • Hemoroidy zewnętrzne – znajdują się poniżej linii grzebieniastej, wywodzą się z ektodermy embrionalnej, pokryte są nabłonkiem płaskim, unerwione przez nerwy somatyczne (są wrażliwe na ból)
  • Hemoroidy mieszane – będące połączeniem hemoroidów wewnętrznych i zewnętrznych

Anatomia naczyniowa hemoroidów

Hemoroidy są tworzone przez poduszeczki naczyniowe, które zawierają sieć drobnych żył i tętnic, zlokalizowanych w kanale odbytu. Stanowią one kompleks anastomoz tętniczo-żylnych z otaczającą tkanką łączną.12

Aigner i wsp. zidentyfikowali strukturę podobną do zwieracza, utworzoną przez pogrubioną tunica media zawierającą 5-15 warstw komórek mięśni gładkich, znajdującą się między splotem naczyniowym w przestrzeni podśluzówkowej strefy przejściowej odbytu w prawidłowych preparatach anorektum.1

Mechanizmy patofizjologiczne rozwoju hemoroidów

Istnieje kilka teorii dotyczących patofizjologii rozwoju hemoroidów. Obecnie najszerzej akceptowana jest teoria ślizgającego się kanału odbytu (teoria poduszeczek), która postuluje nieprawidłowe ślizganie się poduszeczek przez kanał odbytu jako główne wydarzenie patofizjologiczne.123

Wcześniejsza teoria żylaków, sugerująca że hemoroidy są po prostu żylakami, została uznana za błędną, gdyż obecnie globalnie akceptuje się, że hemoroidy nie są żylakami.1

Teoria ślizgającego się kanału odbytu

Zgodnie z tą teorią, hemoroidy rozwijają się, gdy tkanki podporowe poduszeczek odbytowych ulegają dezintegracji lub pogorszeniu. Proces ślizgania się poduszeczek odbytowych jest najważniejszą cechą patofizjologiczną choroby.123

System kotwiczący i podtrzymujący tkanki łącznej pogarsza się wraz z wiekiem. Hemoroidy nie tylko uwypuklają się, ale także opadają do światła kanału. Staje się to widoczne w trzeciej dekadzie życia, z indywidualnymi różnicami. Żyły stają się rozszerzone, tracąc swoje podparcie.123

Opadła luźna wyściółka staje się bardziej wrażliwa na nacisk spowodowany wysiłkiem i urazy spowodowane stolcem. Może dojść do zastoju w żyłach, tworzenia się skrzepów i obrzęków lub erozji wyściółki z krwawieniem. Hemoroidy stają się wtedy objawowe.12

Dysregulacja napięcia naczyniowego

Na podstawie histologicznych znalezisk nieprawidłowego rozszerzenia żylnego i zniekształcenia w hemoroidach, dysregulacja napięcia naczyniowego może odgrywać rolę w rozwoju hemoroidów.12

W hemoroidach stwierdzono znaczący wzrost syntetazy tlenku azotu, enzymu, który syntetyzuje tlenek azotu z L-argininy. Te nieprawidłowe znaleziska utrzymywały się nawet po chirurgicznym usunięciu hemoroidów, potwierdzając związek między nadmiernym unaczynieniem a rozwojem hemoroidów.1

Zmiany patologiczne w tkance hemoroidalnej

Poduszeczki odbytowe pacjentów z hemoroidami wykazują znaczące zmiany patologiczne. Kluczowe znaczenie ma nieprawidłowe rozszerzenie i zniekształcenie kanałów naczyniowych, wraz z destrukcyjnymi zmianami w tkance łącznej wspierającej w obrębie poduszeczki odbytowej.12

Zaobserwowano poważną reakcję zapalną obejmującą ścianę naczyniową i otaczającą tkankę łączną w preparatach hemoroidalnych, wraz z towarzyszącym owrzodzeniem błony śluzowej, niedokrwieniem i zakrzepicą.12

Badano również kilka enzymów lub mediatorów związanych z degradacją tkanek wspierających w poduszeczkach odbytowych. Niedawno w tkance hemoroidalnej stwierdzono zwiększoną gęstość mikronaczyniową, co sugeruje, że neowaskularyzacja może być innym ważnym zjawiskiem choroby hemoroidalnej.12

Mechanizm rozwoju objawów

Hemoroidy powodują objawy, gdy stają się powiększone, zapalne, zakrzepowe lub wypadnięte. Większość objawów wynika z powiększonych hemoroidów wewnętrznych. Nieprawidłowe puchnięcie poduszeczek odbytowych powoduje rozszerzenie i przepełnienie splotów tętniczo-żylnych. Prowadzi to do rozciągnięcia mięśni podtrzymujących i ostatecznie do wypadania tkanki odbytnicy przez kanał odbytu.1

Obrzęknięta błona śluzowa odbytu jest łatwo traumatyzowana, prowadząc do krwawienia z odbytu, które zazwyczaj ma jasnoczerwoną barwę ze względu na wysoką zawartość tlenu we krwi w obrębie anastomoz tętniczo-żylnych.12

Hemoroidy wewnętrzne nie mogą powodować bólu skórnego, ponieważ znajdują się powyżej linii grzebieniastej i nie są unerwione przez nerwy skórne. Mogą jednak krwawić, wypadać, a w wyniku odkładania się substancji drażniącej na wrażliwą skórę okołoodbytową, powodować świąd i podrażnienie okołoodbytowe.1

Hemoroidy wewnętrzne mogą wywoływać ból okołoodbytowy przez wypadanie i powodowanie skurczu kompleksu zwieracza wokół hemoroidów. Ten skurcz powoduje dyskomfort, gdy wypadnięte hemoroidy są odsłonięte.1

Czynniki przyczyniające się do rozwoju hemoroidów

Etiologia hemoroidów jest zwykle wieloczynnikowa. Głównymi czynnikami przyczyniającymi się są:123

  • Wrodzona lub genetyczna predyspozycja (np. dziedziczne problemy jelitowe/rektalne)123
  • Zwiększone ciśnienie wewnątrzbrzuszne z powodu:
    • Przewlekłego parcia podczas wypróżniania123
    • Ciąży123
    • Zaparć123
    • Długotrwałego siedzenia, szczególnie na toalecie123
    • Otyłości123
    • Podnoszenia ciężkich przedmiotów12
  • Starzenie się – wraz z wiekiem tkanki wspierające żyły w odbytnicy i odbycie mogą osłabnąć i rozciągnąć się123
  • Zaburzenia motoryki jelitowej (przewlekła biegunka)12
  • Dieta uboga w błonnik123
  • Palenie tytoniu – potencjalnie poprzez promowanie systemowego stanu zapalnego i wpływ na metabolizm kolagenu12
  • Pozycja w czasie defekacji – pozycja siedząca nie pozwala na wyprostowanie kąta anorektowego, co wymaga większego wysiłku i zwiększonego ciśnienia wewnątrzbrzusznego1

Patogeneza na poziomie molekularnym

Najnowsze badania wskazują na molekularne mechanizmy rozwoju hemoroidów:123

  • Zaburzenia składu kolagenu mogą przyczyniać się do patogenezy hemoroidów1
  • Metaloproteinazy macierzy (MMP) w patogenezie choroby hemoroidalnej – nadekspresja MMP może degradować białka zewnątrzkomórkowe, prowadząc do niszczenia tkanek i następujący po tym rozpad tkanki podporowej poduszeczki odbytowej123
  • MikroRNA (miRNA) mogą odgrywać kluczową rolę w patogenezie hemoroidów1
  • Czynnik martwicy nowotworów (TNF-α) – zwiększona ekspresja tego białka zapalnego jest obserwowana w tkance hemoroidalnej1
  • Transformujący czynnik wzrostu (TGF-β) – ważny czynnik wzrostu, który odgrywa rolę w stymulowaniu fibroblastów do proliferacji w miofibroblasty wyrażające α-aktynę mięśni gładkich (SMA) w obszarze rany, zwiększając syntezę fibronektyny i odkładanie kolagenu w fazie proliferacji1

Zmiany patologiczne w hemoroidach

Proces patologiczny hemoroidów charakteryzuje się obecnością objawów zapalnych, takich jak uszkodzenie tkanki, przekrwienie naczyń krwionośnych, krwawienie i migracja komórek zapalnych.1

Zmiany naczyniowe

Główne zmiany naczyniowe w hemoroidach to:1234

  • Nieprawidłowe rozszerzenie żylne – chroniczny wzrost ciśnienia wewnątrzbrzusznego, w połączeniu z brakiem zastawek w żyłach odbytnicy, może ograniczać odpływ żylny z zatok podczas defekacji, powodując nieprawidłowe rozszerzenie anastomoz tętniczkowo-żylnych wewnętrznego splotu hemoroidalnego
  • Przekrwienie i zastój – kombinacja przekrwienia zatok, uwięźnięcie i przewlekły proces zapalny wewnątrz guzka prowadzi ostatecznie do zastoju krwi wewnątrz zatok
  • Nadmierne przekrwienie guzków pogłębia uwięźnięcie i zaciskanie (błędne koło)
  • Neowaskularyzacja – zwiększona gęstość mikronaczyniowa w tkance hemoroidalnej

Zmiany w tkance łącznej

W hemoroidach obserwuje się również:1234

  • Dezintegrację tkanki łącznej podtrzymującej poduszeczki hemoroidalne
  • Proces degeneracyjny we włóknach kolagenowych i tkankach włóknistoelastycznych
  • Zniekształcenie i pęknięcie podśluzówkowego mięśnia odbytu
  • Zmniejszenie całkowitej ilości mięśni gładkich w błonie podśluzowej tkanki hemoroidalnej w porównaniu z normalnymi kontrolami – stopień rozszerzenia hemoroidów był odwrotnie proporcjonalny do ilości mięśni gładkich

Zmiany zapalne

Proces zapalny w hemoroidach obejmuje:123

  • Reakcję zapalną obejmującą ścianę naczyniową i otaczającą tkankę łączną
  • Owrzodzenie błony śluzowej
  • Niedokrwienie i zakrzepicę
  • Uwalnianie reaktywnych form tlenu
  • Uwalnianie mediatorów zapalnych
  • Aktywację ostrych komórek zapalnych
  • Aktywację enzymu MMP-9, który może degradować macierz zewnątrzkomórkową i prowadzić do owrzodzenia

Znaczenie kliniczne patologii hemoroidów

Zrozumienie patogenezy hemoroidów ma istotne implikacje kliniczne, które mogą pomóc w poprawie leczenia tej częstej dolegliwości:12

Cele terapeutyczne

Na podstawie zrozumienia patogenezy hemoroidów, można zidentyfikować następujące cele terapeutyczne:123

  • Regulacja napięcia naczyniowego – wydaje się, że dysregulacja napięcia naczyniowego i hiperplazja naczyniowa mogą odgrywać ważną rolę w rozwoju hemoroidów i mogą być potencjalnym celem leczenia medycznego
  • Zmniejszenie przekrwienia żylnego – flebotoniki, heterogenna grupa doustnych leków pochodzących z flawonoidów, mają zwiększać napięcie żylne i wytrzymałość ścian naczyń krwionośnych oraz zwiększać drenaż żylny i limfatyczny, normalizować przepuszczalność naczyń włosowatych i zmniejszać stan zapalny w poduszeczkach hemoroidalnych
  • Redukcja stanu zapalnegoleki przeciwzapalne mogą zmniejszyć objawy hemoroidów
  • Wzmocnienie tkanki łącznej – celem jest wzmocnienie zdegradowanej tkanki łącznej, która powinna kotwić poduszeczki hemoroidalne

Diozmin wykazuje wieloaspektowy mechanizm działania, który obejmuje poprawę napięcia żylnego, zwiększenie drenażu limfatycznego, ochronę mikrokrążenia w łożysku włośniczkowym, hamowanie reakcji zapalnych i zmniejszanie przepuszczalności naczyń włosowatych. Diozmin wywiera swój efekt flebotoniczmy poprzez przedłużenie działania naczynioskurczowego noradrenaliny na ścianę żyły, zwiększa napięcie żylne, a tym samym zmniejsza rozszerzalność i zastój.1

Nowe podejścia terapeutyczne

Na podstawie najnowszych badań nad patogenezą hemoroidów, rozwijane są nowe podejścia terapeutyczne:123

  • Komórki macierzyste mezenchymalne (MSC) – mają obiecujące właściwości regeneracyjne w naprawie tkanek i odpowiedziach przeciwzapalnych; badania wykazały, że MSC skutecznie hamują stan zapalny, wykazują lepsze właściwości przeciwzapalne niż sam diozmin-hesperydyna i wykazują potencjalny efekt synergistyczny w terapii skojarzonej, podkreślając ich rolę w zmniejszaniu obrzęku, nacieku komórek zapalnych i aktywności MMP-9 oraz zwiększaniu ekspresji TGF-β podczas choroby hemoroidalnej
  • Leki zwiotczające zwieracz odbytu – celowo działają na mięsień zwieracza odbytu, zmniejszając skurcze i łagodząc nacisk na tkanki hemoroidalne, co zapewnia szybką ulgę w bólu; trimebutyna zmniejsza motorykę jelit i skutecznie łagodzi napięcie zwieracza odbytu, co czyni ją idealną do leczenia hemoroidów1
  • Skleroterapia – obejmuje wstrzyknięcie środka sklerotyzującego do warstwy podśluzówkowej wystającego guzka hemoroidalnego lub do otaczającej tkanki tętnic, które go zaopatrują; środek wywołuje dyskretną reakcję zapalną, która prowadzi do zwłókniałej zmiany strukturalnej tkanki łącznej podśluzówkowej, co w konsekwencji zapewnia fiksację hemoroidu do ściany odbytnicy; dodatkowo obliteracja łożyska naczyniowego w węźle hemoroidalnym i w jego pobliżu może prowadzić do kurczenia się hemoroidów1
  • Zabiegi dopplerowskie – podwiązanie tętnicy hemoroidalnej sterowane dopplerem polega na użyciu sondy dopplerowskiej do znalezienia i podwiązania poszczególnych tętnic hemoroidalnych12
  • Naturalne produkty – główny mechanizm działania naturalnych produktów na hemoroidy może być związany z promowaniem procesu krzepnięcia, tłumieniem odpowiedzi zapalnych, hamowaniem wzrostu patogennych bakterii okołoodbytowych i promowaniem gojenia się urazów tkanek1

Podejście synergistyczne

Zrozumienie złożonej patogenezy hemoroidów sugeruje, że najbardziej skuteczne podejście terapeutyczne powinno uwzględniać wiele mechanizmów jednocześnie:12

  • Leczenie wielokierunkowe – adresowanie zarówno zaburzeń naczyniowych, jak i degradacji tkanki łącznej
  • Terapia skojarzona – łączenie różnych modalności leczenia, które działają poprzez różne mechanizmy, aby osiągnąć lepsze wyniki
  • Indywidualizacja leczenia – dostosowanie terapii do specyficznych mechanizmów patogennych dominujących u danego pacjenta

Badania genetyczne rzucają nowe światło na przyczyny hemoroidów. Wyniki wskazują, że ciężka choroba hemoroidalna jest przynajmniej częściowo przypisywana genetycznie uwarunkowanej dysfunkcji mięśni jelit i tkanki łącznej, co może prowadzić do nowych celów terapeutycznych w przyszłości.1

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Hemorrhoids: From basic pathophysiology to clinical management
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3342598/
    This review discusses the pathophysiology, epidemiology, risk factors, classification, clinical evaluation, and current non-operative and operative treatment of hemorrhoids. […] The abnormal dilatation and distortion of the vascular channel, together with destructive changes in the supporting connective tissue within the anal cushion, is a paramount finding of hemorrhoids. […] It appears that the dysregulation of the vascular tone and vascular hyperplasia might play an important role in hemorrhoidal development, and could be a potential target for medical treatment. […] The exact pathophysiology of hemorrhoidal development is poorly understood. […] Today, the theory of sliding anal canal lining is widely accepted. […] Hemorrhoids develop when the supporting tissues of the anal cushions disintegrate or deteriorate.
  • #1 Hemorrhoids: Background, Anatomy, Etiology and Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/775407-overview
    Hemorrhoids are present in healthy individuals. […] Hemorrhoidal symptoms have historically been treated with dietary modifications, incantations, voodoo, quackery, and application of a hot poker. […] Hemorrhoids are classified by their anatomic origin within the anal canal and by their position relative to the dentate line; thus, they are categorized into internal and external hemorrhoids. […] External hemorrhoids develop from ectoderm and are covered by squamous epithelium, whereas internal hemorrhoids are derived from embryonic endoderm and lined with the columnar epithelium of anal mucosa. […] Hemorrhoidal venous cushions are a normal part of the human anorectum and arise from subepithelial connective tissue within the anal canal. […] Mixed hemorrhoids are confluent internal and external hemorrhoids.
  • #1
    https://journals.lww.com/dcrjournal/abstract/1984/27070/the_pathogenesis_of_hemorrhoids.2.aspx
    The structure of the anal canal was examined in histology slides. Hemorrhoids are normal features of the human anatomy. They are pads that bulge into the lumen. Hemorrhoids have three parts: 1) the lining, which can be mucosa or anoderm; 2) the stroma with blood vessels, smooth muscle, and supporting connective tissue; and 3) the anchoring connective tissue system, which secures the hemorrhoids to the internal sphincter and the conjoined longitudinal coat. The anchoring and supporting connective tissue system deteriorates with aging. The hemorrhoids not only bulge, but descend into the lumen. This becomes observable in the third decade of life, with individual differences. The veins become distended as they lose their support. The descended loose lining becomes more sensitive to pressure from straining and to trauma from the stool. There can be a stasis in the veins, with clot formations and swelling or erosions of the lining, with bleeding. The hemorrhoids become symptomatic.
  • #1 Hemorrhoids: Background, Anatomy, Etiology and Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/775407-overview
    Hemorrhoids are swollen blood vessels in the lower rectum. They are among the most common causes of anal pathology, and subsequently are blamed for virtually any anorectal complaint by patients and medical professionals alike. […] Hemorrhoidal venous cushions are normal structures of the anorectum and are anatomically present unless a previous intervention has taken place. Because of their rich vascular supply, highly sensitive location, and tendency to engorge and prolapse, hemorrhoidal venous cushions are common causes of anal pathology. […] Symptoms can range from mildly bothersome, such as pruritus, to quite concerning, such as rectal bleeding. […] Hemorrhoids generally cause symptoms when they become enlarged, inflamed, thrombosed, or prolapsed. […] Most symptoms arise from enlarged internal hemorrhoids. Abnormal swelling of the anal cushions causes dilatation and engorgement of the arteriovenous plexuses. This leads to stretching of the suspensory muscles and eventual prolapse of rectal tissue through the anal canal.
  • #1 Hemorrhoids: From basic pathophysiology to clinical management
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3342598/
    In hemorrhoids, nitric oxide synthase, an enzyme which synthesizes nitric oxide from L-arginine, was reported to increase significantly. […] These abnormal findings still remained after surgical removal of the hemorrhoids, confirming the association between hypervascularization and the development of hemorrhoids. […] Aigner et al identified a sphincter-like structure, formed by a thickened tunica media containing 5-15 layers of smooth muscle cells, between the vascular plexus within the subepithelial space of the anal transitional zone in normal anorectal specimens. […] A major drawback of hemorrhoidectomy is postoperative pain. […] Recent evidence has suggested that hemorrhoidal specimens can be exempt from pathological examination if no malignancy is suspected.
  • #1 Pathophysiology of internal hemorrhoids
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6479658/
    Hemorrhoidal disease is a fairly common and debilitating clinical entity. […] Despite numerous efforts, the true etiopathogenesis of hemorrhoidal disease still remains elusive. […] The pathophysiology of internal hemorrhoids is still not fully understood. Many functional, histopathological and anatomical findings have been accumulated during the last decades, but the relation between them remains obscure. […] Four theories have been developed regarding the pathophysiology of hemorrhoids. First, the varicose vein theory has been shown to be faulty, as it is now globally accepted that hemorrhoids are not varicosities. […] The globally accepted theory is that of the sliding anal canal, or cushion theory, which postulates the abnormal slippage of cushions through the anal canal as the major pathophysiological event.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02555533
    The structure of the anal canal was examined in histology slides. Hemorrhoids are normal features of the human anatomy. They are pads that bulge into the lumen. Hemorrhoids have three parts: 1) the lining, which can be mucosa or anoderm; 2) the stroma with blood vessels, smooth muscle, and supporting connective tissue; and 3) the anchoring connective tissue system, which secures the hemorrhoids to the internal sphincter and the conjoined longitudinal coat. The anchoring and supporting connective tissue system deteriorates with aging. […] The hemorrhoids not only bulge, but descend into the lumen. This becomes observable in the third decade of life, with individual differences. The veins become distended as they lose their support. The descended loose lining becomes more sensitive to pressure from straining and to trauma from the stool. There can be a stasis in the veins, with clot formations and swelling or erosions of the lining, with bleeding. The hemorrhoids become symptomatic.
  • #1 Hemorrhoids: From basic pathophysiology to clinical management
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3342598/
    The anal cushions of patients with hemorrhoids show significant pathological changes. […] In addition to the above findings, a severe inflammatory reaction involving the vascular wall and surrounding connective tissue has been demonstrated in hemorrhoidal specimens, with associated mucosal ulceration, ischemia and thrombosis. […] Several enzymes or mediators involving the degradation of supporting tissues in the anal cushions have been studied. […] Recently, increased microvascular density was found in hemorrhoidal tissue, suggesting that neovascularization might be another important phenomenon of hemorrhoidal disease. […] Based on the histological findings of abnormal venous dilatation and distortion in hemorrhoids, dysregulation of the vascular tone might play a role in hemorrhoidal development.
  • #1 Hemorrhoids: Background, Anatomy, Etiology and Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/775407-overview
    The engorged anal mucosa is easily traumatized, leading to rectal bleeding that is typically bright red due to high blood oxygen content within the arteriovenous anastomoses. […] Internal hemorrhoids cannot cause cutaneous pain, because they are above the dentate line and are not innervated by cutaneous nerves. However, they can bleed, prolapse, and, as a result of the deposition of an irritant onto the sensitive perianal skin, cause perianal itching and irritation. […] Internal hemorrhoids can produce perianal pain by prolapsing and causing spasm of the sphincter complex around the hemorrhoids. […] This spasm results in discomfort while the prolapsed hemorrhoids are exposed. […] Internal hemorrhoids most commonly cause painless bleeding with bowel movements. The covering epithelium is damaged by the hard bowel movement, and the underlying veins bleed.
  • #1 Natural Products with Potential Effects on Hemorrhoids: A Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/29/11/2673
    Hemorrhoid disease is defined as the symptomatic enlargement and distal displacement of the normal anal cushions. The main symptoms of hemorrhoids include bleeding, inflammation, pain, infection, pruritus, ulceration, prolapse, and mucus exudation. […] Hemorrhoid disease represents a complex ailment for which the pathogenic mechanisms remain unclear. The etiology of hemorrhoids is typically multifactorial. Predominant contributing factors include human physiological structure, dietary habits, lack of physical exercise, and defecatory behaviors. These factors collectively increase intra-abdominal pressure during bowel movements, adversely affecting blood flow in the anal and rectal vessels, which may lead to swelling, bleeding, and the development of hemorrhoids. Additionally, inflammatory responses, dysbiosis of the intestinal microbiota, and perianal infectious abscesses can also indirectly contribute to the onset of hemorrhoids.
  • #1 Hemorrhoids – Pathogenesis and Clinical Findings | Calgary Guide
    https://calgaryguide.ucalgary.ca/hemorrhoids-pathogenesis-and-clinical-findings/hemorrhoids-pathogenesis-and-clinical-findings/
    INTERNAL Hemorrhoids Found proximal to the dentate line Visceral innervation Behavioural or Genetic Predisposition I.e. hereditary bowel/rectal problems or shared habits and practices (unclear mechanism) Increased Intra-Abdominal Pressure I.e. pregnancy, constipation, chronic straining, lifting, cirrhosis […] Supporting tissues of anal cushions weaken, disintegrate, or deteriorate […] Inflammatory reaction occurs, involving vascular wall and connective tissue […] Cushion epithelium erodes via damage from compression […] External Hemorrhoids Found distal to the dentate line Somatic innervation Somatic nerve receptors activated […] Inflammation creates prothrombotic state Hemorrhoids
  • #1 Still a Case of “No Pain, No Gain”? An Updated and Critical Review of the Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Management Options for Hemorrhoids in 2020
    https://coloproctol.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3393/ac.2020.05.04
    Fragmentation of Treitzs muscle may be caused by shearing forces incurred during prolonged and repeated downward stress, often observed with straining at defaecation. Accordingly, risk factors for haemorrhoids are those associated with excessive straining and/or increased intra-abdominal pressure (i.e., constipation, hard stools, pregnancy). […] Human civilisation has adopted the sitting rather than squatting position during defaecation, which does not permit the straightening of the anorectal angle and thus necessitates greater effort and exaggerated intraabdominal pressure for passage of stool. […] To this end, time spent during defaecation has been linked to the development of haemorrhoids, with one study identifying that patients with proctoscopically confirmed haemorrhoids spent more time during defaecation and reading on the toilet than controls. This has led to the recommendation to limit time spent defaecating to no more than 5 minutes per day.
  • #1 Hemorrhoids – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hemorrhoids/symptoms-causes/syc-20360268
    Hemorrhoids are swollen veins in your lower rectum. […] Hemorrhoids can develop from increased pressure in the lower rectum due to: straining during bowel movements, sitting for long periods of time, especially on the toilet, having chronic diarrhea or constipation, being obese, being pregnant, having anal intercourse, eating a low-fiber diet, regularly lifting heavy items. […] As people age, the risk of hemorrhoids increases. That’s because the tissues that support the veins in the rectum and anus can weaken and stretch. This also can happen during pregnancy because the baby’s weight puts pressure on the anal region. […] Complications of hemorrhoids are rare but may include: anemia, strangulated hemorrhoid, blood clot.
  • #1 Hemorrhoids | PPT
    https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/hemorrhoids-2/34022523
    Haemorrhoids are normal anal cushions that can become symptomatic due to straining, constipation, pregnancy, obesity and other factors. […] They are classified based on their location relative to the dentate line. […] Haemorrhoidal venous cushions are normal structures of anorectum and universally present in all persons unless previous intervention has taken place. […] Straining and constipation. Pregnancy. Obesity. Prolonged sitting. Portal hypertension and anorectal varices. Chronic diarrhea. familial Colon malignancy. Loss of rectal muscle tone. Spinal cord injury. Rectal surgery. High socioeconomic status. Episiotomy. Anal intercourse. IBD Hemorrhoids STRAINING AND CONSTIPATION Low fibre diet Less bulky stools Straining at defecation Increased intraanal pressure Decreased venous return Enlarged hemorrhoidal venous cushions
  • #1 Risk factors for hemorrhoidal disease among healthy young and middle-aged Korean adults | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-03838-z
    Hemorrhoidal disease is a highly prevalent anorectal condition causing substantial discomfort, disability, and decreased quality of life. […] The prevalence of hemorrhoidal disease was 16.6%, and it was higher in females than in males (17.2 vs. 16.3%; P0.001). […] In the adjusted analyses, older age, female sex, smoking, overweight, and being hypertensive were independently associated with the presence of hemorrhoidal disease. […] The association of excess adiposity with the prevalence of hemorrhoidal disease differed by sex and parity. […] In this study of healthy Korean adults participating in a health screening program with a complete colonoscopic examination, increasing age, female sex, smoking, presence of hypertension, history of childbirth, and presence of fresh blood in stools, constipation, narrow caliber stool, or tenesmus were associated with hemorrhoidal disease.
  • #1 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathophysiology of Hemorrhoids | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1007/978-3-319-53357-5_2
    The understanding of anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology of hemorrhoids is fundamental to selecting an appropriate treatment of hemorrhoids, improving treatment outcomes, developing novel methods for managing hemorrhoids, and preventing recurrent diseases. […] This chapter deals with some essential knowledge and current views of applied anatomy, anorectal physiology, and pathophysiology of hemorrhoids which includes four main concepts of hemorrhoid formation: sliding anal cushions (loss of fixation network), vascular abnormality (dysregulation of vascular tone, high arterial blood flow, venous hypertension of anorectal vascular plexus, vascular hyperplasia, and neovascularization), rectal redundancy, and an increased pressure on anorectal vascular plexus. […] Abnormalities in collagen composition may contribute to the pathogenesis of hemorrhoids: morphometric analysis. […] Matrix metalloproteinases in pathogenesis of hemorrhoidal disease. […] Hemorrhoids and matrix metalloproteinases: a multicenter study on the predictive role of biomarkers.
  • #1 Inflammatory bowel disease and risk for hemorrhoids: a Mendelian randomization analysis | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-66940-y
    The longstanding theory of varicose veins posits that hemorrhoids are associated with varicosities in the anal canal. […] Currently, the widely accepted theory involves the downward displacement of the anal cushion. […] Currently, various enzymes and mediators implicated in the degradation of supportive tissue in the anal pad have been identified. […] Some studies have found that miRNAs play a key role in the pathogenesis of IBD and hemorrhoids. […] The overexpression of MMPs can degrade extracellular proteins, leading to tissue destruction and the subsequent breakdown of the supportive tissue of the anal pad. […] This process facilitates the downward displacement of the anal pad, ultimately resulting in the formation of hemorrhoids. […] We suspect that gut microbiome alterations caused by IBD may also contribute to the development of hemorrhoids in IBD patients. […] In conclusion, high-quality evidence substantiating this hypothetical mechanism linking IBD to hemorrhoids remains elusive.
  • #1
    https://www.archivesofmedicalscience.com/Synergistic-therapeutic-approach-for-hemorrhoids-integrating-mesenchymal-stem-cells,183465,0,2.html
    Previous studies reported that the MSCs derived from adipose tissue or bone marrow have shown promising results in the treatment of perianal fistulas, and the secretome of MSCs has been found to restore tissue expression in hemorrhoid rats. […] The pathological process of hemorrhoids is characterized by the presence of inflammatory signs, such as tissue damage, blood vessel congestion, bleeding, and migration of inflammatory cells. […] The mechanism of MSCs reducing the inflammation in hemorrhoids was observed under TNF- protein expression. The presence of MSCs dramatically reduced the TNF- protein expression. […] Transforming growth factor (TGF)- is an important growth factor that plays a role in stimulating fibroblasts to proliferate into myofibroblasts that express -smooth muscle actin (SMA) in the wound area, increasing fibronectin synthesis and collagen deposition in the proliferation phase.
  • #1
    https://ojs.bbwpublisher.com/index.php/JCNR/article/view/2280
    With the efficient development of social economy, as well as the acceleration of the pace of life, the incidence of hemorrhoids remains high all year round, occupying a relatively high incidence of anorectal diseases. […] Understanding the pathogenesis of hemorrhoids can give a deeper understanding of the nature of the disease, and it will help improve the accuracy of clinical diagnosis and treatment, which in turn is beneficial to the improvement of the cure rate. […] The Mechanism and Significance of Elastic Fiber Degeneration and Angiogenesis in Hemorrhoid Tissue.
  • #1 The Role of Diosmin in Hemorrhoids Management – Walter Bushnell Healthcare Foundation
    https://wbhf.walterbushnell.com/publications/bush-beats/item/387-the-role-of-diosmin-in-hemorrhoids-management
    Diosmin exhibits a multifaceted mechanism of action, which includes improvement of venous tone, increased lymphatic drainage, protection of capillary bed microcirculation, inhibition of inflammatory reactions, and reduced capillary permeability. Diosmin exerts its phlebotonic effect by prolonging the vasoconstrictor effect of norepinephrine on vein wall, enhances venous tone, and thus reduces distensibility and stasis. […] Overall, these multifaceted actions of diosmin possibly converge to provide maximal benefit to individuals with hemorrhoids.
  • #1
    https://www.archivesofmedicalscience.com/Synergistic-therapeutic-approach-for-hemorrhoids-integrating-mesenchymal-stem-cells,183465,0,2.html
    Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have promising regenerative properties in tissue repair and anti-inflammatory responses. This study aimed to investigate the effects of MSCs and their combination with micronized purified flavonoid fraction (MPFF) in a croton oil-induced hemorrhoids model on tissue edema, inflammation, and underlying molecular mechanisms. […] The etiology of hemorrhoids has been the subject of numerous studies, leading to a lack of a targeted therapeutic approach. Hemorrhoids are vascular cushions in the submucosal layer of the anal canal. Hemorrhoids become symptomatic when they swell, become inflamed, or cause pain, especially when they prolapse into the anal canal. […] Damage to the supporting connective tissue of hemorrhoids can result in inadequate fixation of anal cushions, leading to their prolapse into the anal canal. Prolapsed anal cushions, when entrapped by the anal sphincter muscle, can undergo strangulation, resulting in stasis or impaired blood flow to the anal cushions. This condition can trigger inflammation in the vascular wall and anal cushions surrounding tissue, marked by the release of reactive oxygen species, release of inflammatory mediators, activation of acute inflammatory cells, and MMP-9 enzyme, which can degrade the extracellular matrix and lead to ulceration.
  • #1 Anal Sphincter Relaxants for Hemorrhoid Treatment | Vinmec
    https://www.vinmec.com/eng/blog/anal-muscle-relaxant-to-treat-hemorrhoids-en
    Hemorrhoids occur when veins in the rectum or anus become swollen and inflamed. […] Chronic constipation is the most common cause of hemorrhoids. […] Anal sphincter relaxants specifically target the anal sphincter muscle. By relaxing this muscle, they reduce spasms and alleviate pressure on hemorrhoidal tissues, providing quick pain relief. […] Trimebutine reduces bowel motility and effectively alleviates anal sphincter tension, making it ideal for hemorrhoid treatment.
  • #1 Mechanism of action – Aethoxysklerol Sclerotherapy treatment of varicose veins and hemorrhoids
    https://www.aethoxysklerol-international.com/mechanism-of-action/
    Sclerotherapy of hemorrhoidal disease involves the injection of a sclerosing agent into the submucosal layer of the protuding hemorrhoidal node or into the surrounding tissue of the arteries which supply it. […] The sclerosing agent provokes a discrete inflammatory reaction which results in a scarred structural change of submucosal connective tissue, which consequently achieves fixation of the hemorrhoid to the anorrectal wall. […] In addition, the obliteration of the vascular bed in and near the hemorrhoidal node may lead to shrinkage of the hemorrhoids. This results in rapid disappearance of symptoms after treatment.
  • #1 Hemorrhoids: The Definitive Guide to Medical and Surgical Treatment
    https://consultqd.clevelandclinic.org/hemorrhoids-the-definitive-guide-to-medical-and-surgical-treatment
    Hemorrhoids are the distal prolapse of the arteriovenous bundle, muscle fibers and surrounding connective tissue as an envelope below the dentate line in the anal canal. They usually present with painless rectal bleeding. […] Phlebotonics are thought to increase venous and lymphatic drainage, normalize capillary permeability and decrease inflammation in the hemorrhoidal cushions. […] Although phlebotonics give better results than placebo in the short-term management of hemorrhoids, there is a paucity of long-term data. […] Surgery is the most effective and strongly recommended treatment for patients with high-grade internal hemorrhoids (grades III and IV), external and mixed hemorrhoids, and recurrent hemorrhoids. […] The recurrence rate after excisional hemorrhoidectomy is significantly lower than with any other approach. […] Doppler-guided hemorrhoidal artery ligation involves using a Doppler probe to find and ligate individual hemorrhoidal arteries. […] Overall, it has the potential to become a favored treatment.
  • #1 Natural Products with Potential Effects on Hemorrhoids: A Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/29/11/2673
    The mechanisms of anti-inflammatory natural products primarily involve regulating inflammatory signaling pathways, acting on inflammation receptors, and controlling the biosynthesis of inflammatory mediators (pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory factors). […] The primary pathogens in the perianal region are bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus. […] The healing of tissue damage following hemorrhoid rupture is a complex physiological process, which can be broadly divided into four stages: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. […] Overall, the natural product promotion of tissue healing encompasses a broad spectrum of actions. […] In summary, the main mechanism of natural products’ effects on hemorrhoids may be associated with promoting the coagulation process, suppressing inflammatory responses, inhibiting the growth of perianal pathogenic bacteria, and promoting the healing of tissue injuries.
  • #1
    https://www.archivesofmedicalscience.com/Synergistic-therapeutic-approach-for-hemorrhoids-integrating-mesenchymal-stem-cells,183465,0,2.html
    This research concluded that MSCs effectively curbed inflammation, exhibited better anti-inflammatory properties than diosmin-hesperidin alone, and demonstrated a potential synergistic effect in combination therapy, emphasizing their role in reducing edema, inflammatory cell infiltration, and MMP-9 activity, and enhancing TGF- expression during hemorrhoidal disease.
  • #1 Large genetic study sheds light on the causes of hemorrhoids | Karolinska Institutet
    https://news.ki.se/large-genetic-study-sheds-light-on-the-causes-of-hemorrhoids
    Hemorrhoids are blood-filled cushions at the end of the gastrointestinal tract that control defecation. […] The study, which is published in the journal Gut, also reveals links to other gastrointestinal diseases. […] Science has yet to explain why only certain people develop them, or provide clues as to the molecular pathogenesis of the disease. […] The study’s results indicate that severe hemorrhoidal disease is at least partly attributable to a genetically caused dysfunction of the intestinal muscle and connective tissue. […] The results identify hitherto unknown causes of a common health problem, says the study’s first author Tenghao Zheng, researcher at the Department of Medicine, Solna, Karolinska Institutet.
  • #2 Hemorrhoids: From basic pathophysiology to clinical management
    https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v18/i17/2009.htm
    Hemorrhoids are defined as the symptomatic enlargement and distal displacement of the normal anal cushions. […] The abnormal dilatation and distortion of the vascular channel, together with destructive changes in the supporting connective tissue within the anal cushion, is a paramount finding of hemorrhoids. […] It appears that the dysregulation of the vascular tone and vascular hyperplasia might play an important role in hemorrhoidal development, and could be a potential target for medical treatment. […] The exact pathophysiology of hemorrhoidal development is poorly understood. […] Today, the theory of sliding anal canal lining is widely accepted. […] Hemorrhoids develop when the supporting tissues of the anal cushions disintegrate or deteriorate. […] The anal cushions of patients with hemorrhoids show significant pathological changes.
  • #2 Hemorrhoids | PPT
    https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/hemorrhoids-2/34022523
    Haemorrhoids are normal anal cushions that can become symptomatic due to straining, constipation, pregnancy, obesity and other factors. […] They are classified based on their location relative to the dentate line. […] Haemorrhoidal venous cushions are normal structures of anorectum and universally present in all persons unless previous intervention has taken place. […] Straining and constipation. Pregnancy. Obesity. Prolonged sitting. Portal hypertension and anorectal varices. Chronic diarrhea. familial Colon malignancy. Loss of rectal muscle tone. Spinal cord injury. Rectal surgery. High socioeconomic status. Episiotomy. Anal intercourse. IBD Hemorrhoids STRAINING AND CONSTIPATION Low fibre diet Less bulky stools Straining at defecation Increased intraanal pressure Decreased venous return Enlarged hemorrhoidal venous cushions
  • #2 The pathogenesis of Hemorrhoids
    https://www.periodicos.capes.gov.br/index.php/acervo/buscador.html?task=detalhes&id=W2076752163
    The structure of the anal canal was examined in histology slides. Hemorrhoids are normal features of the human anatomy. They are pads that bulge into the lumen. Hemorrhoids have three parts: 1) the lining, which can be mucosa or anoderm; 2) the stroma with blood vessels, smooth muscle, and supporting connective tissue; and 3) the anchoring connective tissue system, which secures the hemorrhoids to the internal sphincter and the conjoined longitudinal coat. The anchoring and supporting connective tissue system deteriorates with aging. […] The hemorrhoids not only bulge, but descend into the lumen. This becomes observable in the third decade of life, with individual differences. The veins become distended as they lose their support. The descended loose lining becomes more sensitive to pressure from straining and to trauma from the stool. There can be a stasis in the veins, with clot formations and swelling, or erosions of the lining, with bleeding. The hemorrhoids become symptomatic.
  • #2 Hemorrhoids | PPT
    https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/hemorrhoids-2/34022523
    They are clusters of vascular tissue, smooth muscle and connective tissue lined by normal epithelium of anal canal. […] Depending on anal origin within analcanal and relation to dentate line haemorrhoids divided in to I. internal haemorroids. II. external haemorrhoids. III. mixed haemorrhoids. […] INTERNAL Lie above dentate line. Develops from embryonic endoderm. Covered by columnar epithelium of anal canal. Not supplied by somatic sensory nerves.so cannot cause pain. EXTERNAL Lie below dentate line. Develops from embryonic ectoderm. Covered by sqamous epithelium. Innervated by cutaneous nerves that supply perianal area. […] GRADE I painless bleeding, no prolapse. GRADE II prolapse on defecation that reduces spontaneously. GRADE III prolapse that has to be reduced mannually. GRADE IV permanent prolapse.
  • #2 Hemorrhoids: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis – UpToDate
    http://www.uptodate.com/contents/overview-of-hemorrhoids
    Hemorrhoids are normal vascular structures in the anal canal, arising from a channel of arteriovenous connective tissues that drains into the superior and inferior hemorrhoidal veins. […] The cardinal features of hemorrhoidal disease include bleeding, anal pruritus, prolapse, and pain due to thrombosis. […] Hemorrhoids arise from a plexus or cushion of dilated arteriovenous channels and connective tissue. […] Hemorrhoidal veins are normal anatomic structures located in the submucosal layer in the lower rectum and may be external or internal based upon whether they are below or above the dentate line. […] Internal hemorrhoids arise from the superior hemorrhoidal cushion. […] Internal hemorrhoids are proximal to or above the dentate line. […] The overlying columnar epithelium is viscerally innervated; therefore, these hemorrhoids are not sensitive to pain, touch, or temperature. […] Tissues above the dentate line receive visceral innervation, which is less sensitive to pain and irritation.
  • #2 Pathophysiology of internal hemorrhoids
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6479658/
    Hemorrhoidal disease is a fairly common and debilitating clinical entity. […] Despite numerous efforts, the true etiopathogenesis of hemorrhoidal disease still remains elusive. […] The pathophysiology of internal hemorrhoids is still not fully understood. Many functional, histopathological and anatomical findings have been accumulated during the last decades, but the relation between them remains obscure. […] Four theories have been developed regarding the pathophysiology of hemorrhoids. First, the varicose vein theory has been shown to be faulty, as it is now globally accepted that hemorrhoids are not varicosities. […] The globally accepted theory is that of the sliding anal canal, or cushion theory, which postulates the abnormal slippage of cushions through the anal canal as the major pathophysiological event.
  • #2
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02555533
    The structure of the anal canal was examined in histology slides. Hemorrhoids are normal features of the human anatomy. They are pads that bulge into the lumen. Hemorrhoids have three parts: 1) the lining, which can be mucosa or anoderm; 2) the stroma with blood vessels, smooth muscle, and supporting connective tissue; and 3) the anchoring connective tissue system, which secures the hemorrhoids to the internal sphincter and the conjoined longitudinal coat. The anchoring and supporting connective tissue system deteriorates with aging. […] The hemorrhoids not only bulge, but descend into the lumen. This becomes observable in the third decade of life, with individual differences. The veins become distended as they lose their support. The descended loose lining becomes more sensitive to pressure from straining and to trauma from the stool. There can be a stasis in the veins, with clot formations and swelling or erosions of the lining, with bleeding. The hemorrhoids become symptomatic.
  • #2 Hemorrhoids: From basic pathophysiology to clinical management
    https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v18/i17/2009.htm
    A severe inflammatory reaction involving the vascular wall and surrounding connective tissue has been demonstrated in hemorrhoidal specimens, with associated mucosal ulceration, ischemia and thrombosis. […] Several enzymes or mediators involving the degradation of supporting tissues in the anal cushions have been studied. […] Recently, increased microvascular density was found in hemorrhoidal tissue, suggesting that neovascularization might be another important phenomenon of hemorrhoidal disease. […] Based on the histological findings of abnormal venous dilatation and distortion in hemorrhoids, dysregulation of the vascular tone might play a role in hemorrhoidal development.
  • #2 Hemorrhoids pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Hemorrhoids_pathophysiology
    Hemorrhoids develop due to a combination of genetic predisposition (weak rectal veins) and certain diet and defecation habits. […] Internal hemorrhoids are located above the dentate line and they occur due to dilatation of the superior hemorrhoidal plexus. […] The first step in the pathogenesis of either type of hemorrhoids is weakening of the surrounding connective tissue and vein wall. All the risk factors (old age, pregnancy, portal hypertension, etc) lead to aggravating this weakness or add more pressure from within the vein. […] Increased tone of the internal anal sphincter causing the feces to press the hemorrhoid against the muscle and thus decreasing venous return and aggravating the symptoms. […] The arteriovenous anastomosis may play a role in the development of hemorrhoids. This is supported by the fact that some hemorrhoids improve after ligating the connecting arteries. […] The redundant bulging mucosa is easily injured causing bleeding. The blood is usually bright red reflecting high oxygen content due to the proximity of AV anastomosis.
  • #2 Management of hemorrhoids – Walter Bushnell Healthcare Foundation
    https://wbhf.walterbushnell.com/publications/bush-beats/item/7-management-of-hemorrhoids
    Hemorrhoids are common human afflictions known since the dawn of history, defined as the symptomatic enlargement and distal displacement of the normal anal cushions. […] The pathophysiology of hemorrhoidal development, cause of enlargement and symptoms is debatable; various theories and etiologies have been proposed. […] Studies implicate intrinsic weakness of the blood vessel wall, heredity, increased intra-abdominal pressure from many causes, including prolonged forceful Valsalva during defecation or resistance training, obstruction of venous outflow secondary to pregnancy or pelvic masses, and constipated stool in the rectal ampulla are possible contributing factors. […] It appears that the dysregulation of the vascular tone and vascular hyperplasia might play an important role in hemorrhoidal development, and could be a potential target for medical treatment.
  • #2 Still a Case of “No Pain, No Gain”? An Updated and Critical Review of the Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Management Options for Hemorrhoids in 2020
    https://coloproctol.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3393/ac.2020.05.04
    Fragmentation of Treitzs muscle may be caused by shearing forces incurred during prolonged and repeated downward stress, often observed with straining at defaecation. Accordingly, risk factors for haemorrhoids are those associated with excessive straining and/or increased intra-abdominal pressure (i.e., constipation, hard stools, pregnancy). […] Human civilisation has adopted the sitting rather than squatting position during defaecation, which does not permit the straightening of the anorectal angle and thus necessitates greater effort and exaggerated intraabdominal pressure for passage of stool. […] To this end, time spent during defaecation has been linked to the development of haemorrhoids, with one study identifying that patients with proctoscopically confirmed haemorrhoids spent more time during defaecation and reading on the toilet than controls. This has led to the recommendation to limit time spent defaecating to no more than 5 minutes per day.
  • #2 Hemorrhoids – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hemorrhoids/symptoms-causes/syc-20360268
    Hemorrhoids are swollen veins in your lower rectum. […] Hemorrhoids can develop from increased pressure in the lower rectum due to: straining during bowel movements, sitting for long periods of time, especially on the toilet, having chronic diarrhea or constipation, being obese, being pregnant, having anal intercourse, eating a low-fiber diet, regularly lifting heavy items. […] As people age, the risk of hemorrhoids increases. That’s because the tissues that support the veins in the rectum and anus can weaken and stretch. This also can happen during pregnancy because the baby’s weight puts pressure on the anal region. […] Complications of hemorrhoids are rare but may include: anemia, strangulated hemorrhoid, blood clot.
  • #2 Hemorrhoids – McConnell Colorectal CenterMcConnell Colorectal Center
    https://www.azcolorectal.com/treatments/hemorrhoids/
    Hemorrhoids or hemorrhoidal cushions are normal part of the body […] Hemorrhoids swell predominantly because of diarrhea. Chronic diarrhea it is recognized as abnormal by the anus. Over time the hemorrhoids will get larger to prevent the diarrhea from leaking out. […] The hemorrhoids serve a protective function to the anal canal. When the hemorrhoids swell they swell internally above a junction between two tissue planes, the mucous of the rectum and the skin of the anus. […] The hemorrhoids serve as the guardians of this innovation. The hemorrhoids are positioned above the dentate line and mechanically if the diarrhea is coming down the curtain at a rapid speed the hemorrhoids serve as a bump at the bottom of the curtain so the diarrhea would not hit the stage or the dentate line or the crypts.
  • #2 Risk factors for hemorrhoidal disease among healthy young and middle-aged Korean adults | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-03838-z
    The association between adiposity and the prevalence of hemorrhoidal disease was complex and differed by sex and parity. […] Smoking was also associated with an increased prevalence of hemorrhoidal disease, possibly by promoting systemic inflammation and by its effects on collagen metabolism. […] The association of excess adiposity with hemorrhoidal disease is controversial. […] Constipation can cause hemorrhoidal disease by increasing intra-abdominal pressure, resulting in hemorrhoidal plexus engorgement, and in excessive straining during defecation leading to shearing forces on the anal cushions.
  • #2 Inflammatory bowel disease and risk for hemorrhoids: a Mendelian randomization analysis | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-66940-y
    The longstanding theory of varicose veins posits that hemorrhoids are associated with varicosities in the anal canal. […] Currently, the widely accepted theory involves the downward displacement of the anal cushion. […] Currently, various enzymes and mediators implicated in the degradation of supportive tissue in the anal pad have been identified. […] Some studies have found that miRNAs play a key role in the pathogenesis of IBD and hemorrhoids. […] The overexpression of MMPs can degrade extracellular proteins, leading to tissue destruction and the subsequent breakdown of the supportive tissue of the anal pad. […] This process facilitates the downward displacement of the anal pad, ultimately resulting in the formation of hemorrhoids. […] We suspect that gut microbiome alterations caused by IBD may also contribute to the development of hemorrhoids in IBD patients. […] In conclusion, high-quality evidence substantiating this hypothetical mechanism linking IBD to hemorrhoids remains elusive.
  • #2 Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathophysiology of Hemorrhoids | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1007/978-3-319-53357-5_2
    The understanding of anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology of hemorrhoids is fundamental to selecting an appropriate treatment of hemorrhoids, improving treatment outcomes, developing novel methods for managing hemorrhoids, and preventing recurrent diseases. […] This chapter deals with some essential knowledge and current views of applied anatomy, anorectal physiology, and pathophysiology of hemorrhoids which includes four main concepts of hemorrhoid formation: sliding anal cushions (loss of fixation network), vascular abnormality (dysregulation of vascular tone, high arterial blood flow, venous hypertension of anorectal vascular plexus, vascular hyperplasia, and neovascularization), rectal redundancy, and an increased pressure on anorectal vascular plexus. […] Abnormalities in collagen composition may contribute to the pathogenesis of hemorrhoids: morphometric analysis. […] Matrix metalloproteinases in pathogenesis of hemorrhoidal disease. […] Hemorrhoids and matrix metalloproteinases: a multicenter study on the predictive role of biomarkers.
  • #2
    https://www.archivesofmedicalscience.com/Synergistic-therapeutic-approach-for-hemorrhoids-integrating-mesenchymal-stem-cells,183465,0,2.html
    Previous studies reported that the MSCs derived from adipose tissue or bone marrow have shown promising results in the treatment of perianal fistulas, and the secretome of MSCs has been found to restore tissue expression in hemorrhoid rats. […] The pathological process of hemorrhoids is characterized by the presence of inflammatory signs, such as tissue damage, blood vessel congestion, bleeding, and migration of inflammatory cells. […] The mechanism of MSCs reducing the inflammation in hemorrhoids was observed under TNF- protein expression. The presence of MSCs dramatically reduced the TNF- protein expression. […] Transforming growth factor (TGF)- is an important growth factor that plays a role in stimulating fibroblasts to proliferate into myofibroblasts that express -smooth muscle actin (SMA) in the wound area, increasing fibronectin synthesis and collagen deposition in the proliferation phase.
  • #2 Hemorrhoids: A range of treatments | Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine
    https://www.ccjm.org/content/86/9/612
    Hemorrhoids are the distal prolapse of the arteriovenous bundle, muscle fibers, and surrounding connective tissue as an envelope below the dentate line in the anal canal. […] The diagnosis of hemorrhoids relies on the history and physical examination rather than on laboratory testing or imaging studies. […] Phlebotonics are thought to increase venous and lymphatic drainage, normalize capillary permeability, and decrease inflammation in the hemorrhoidal cushions. […] Although phlebotonics give better results than placebo in the short-term management of hemorrhoids, there is a paucity of long-term data. […] Doppler-guided hemorrhoidal artery ligation involves using a Doppler probe to find and ligate individual hemorrhoidal arteries. […] Overall, surgery is associated with more adverse effects than office-based treatments or medical management. […] The recurrence rate after excisional hemorrhoidectomy is significantly lower than with any other approach.
  • #2 The Role of Diosmin in Hemorrhoids Management – Walter Bushnell Healthcare Foundation
    https://wbhf.walterbushnell.com/publications/bush-beats/item/387-the-role-of-diosmin-in-hemorrhoids-management
    Diosmin exhibits a multifaceted mechanism of action, which includes improvement of venous tone, increased lymphatic drainage, protection of capillary bed microcirculation, inhibition of inflammatory reactions, and reduced capillary permeability. Diosmin exerts its phlebotonic effect by prolonging the vasoconstrictor effect of norepinephrine on vein wall, enhances venous tone, and thus reduces distensibility and stasis. […] Overall, these multifaceted actions of diosmin possibly converge to provide maximal benefit to individuals with hemorrhoids.
  • #3 Pathophysiology of internal hemorrhoids
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6479658/
    Hemorrhoidal disease is a fairly common and debilitating clinical entity. […] Despite numerous efforts, the true etiopathogenesis of hemorrhoidal disease still remains elusive. […] The pathophysiology of internal hemorrhoids is still not fully understood. Many functional, histopathological and anatomical findings have been accumulated during the last decades, but the relation between them remains obscure. […] Four theories have been developed regarding the pathophysiology of hemorrhoids. First, the varicose vein theory has been shown to be faulty, as it is now globally accepted that hemorrhoids are not varicosities. […] The globally accepted theory is that of the sliding anal canal, or cushion theory, which postulates the abnormal slippage of cushions through the anal canal as the major pathophysiological event.
  • #3 Hemorrhoids – Anorectal Diseases – Intestinal Diseases – Gastrointestinal Diseases – Gastroenterology – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine
    https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.4.23.3.
    Hemorrhoids are vascular cushions in the anal canal, formed by the submucosa containing blood vessels (arteries and veins), smooth muscle, and connective tissue. […] Hemorrhoids are classified as internal or external hemorrhoids depending on their location relative to the dentate line (above or below the dentate line, respectively). Mixed hemorrhoids have both components. […] Phlebotonics are a heterogenous group of orally dosed medications derived from flavonoids that are thought to increase venous tone and strength of blood vessel walls.
  • #3
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02555533
    The structure of the anal canal was examined in histology slides. Hemorrhoids are normal features of the human anatomy. They are pads that bulge into the lumen. Hemorrhoids have three parts: 1) the lining, which can be mucosa or anoderm; 2) the stroma with blood vessels, smooth muscle, and supporting connective tissue; and 3) the anchoring connective tissue system, which secures the hemorrhoids to the internal sphincter and the conjoined longitudinal coat. The anchoring and supporting connective tissue system deteriorates with aging. […] The hemorrhoids not only bulge, but descend into the lumen. This becomes observable in the third decade of life, with individual differences. The veins become distended as they lose their support. The descended loose lining becomes more sensitive to pressure from straining and to trauma from the stool. There can be a stasis in the veins, with clot formations and swelling or erosions of the lining, with bleeding. The hemorrhoids become symptomatic.
  • #3 Hemorrhoids: From basic pathophysiology to clinical management
    https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v18/i17/2009.htm
    Hemorrhoids are defined as the symptomatic enlargement and distal displacement of the normal anal cushions. […] The abnormal dilatation and distortion of the vascular channel, together with destructive changes in the supporting connective tissue within the anal cushion, is a paramount finding of hemorrhoids. […] It appears that the dysregulation of the vascular tone and vascular hyperplasia might play an important role in hemorrhoidal development, and could be a potential target for medical treatment. […] The exact pathophysiology of hemorrhoidal development is poorly understood. […] Today, the theory of sliding anal canal lining is widely accepted. […] Hemorrhoids develop when the supporting tissues of the anal cushions disintegrate or deteriorate. […] The anal cushions of patients with hemorrhoids show significant pathological changes.
  • #3 Pathophysiology of internal hemorrhoids
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6479658/
    A chronic rise in intraabdominal pressure, in combination with the absence of valves within rectal veins, can limit venous drainage from sinusoids during defecation, resulting in abnormal dilatation of the arteriolar-venular anastomoses of the internal hemorrhoidal plexus. […] The final result is the persistence of the prolapsed anal cushions outside the anus after defecation. […] The sliding down process of anal cushions is the most crucial pathophysiologic feature of the disease. […] The combination of sinusoidal congestion, strangulation and chronic inflammatory process inside the nodule results ultimately in blood stagnation inside sinusoids. […] The hyper-congested nodules then further exacerbate the incarceration and strangulation (vicious cycle).
  • #3 Hemorrhoids – 10 Things GI Doctors Want You to Know
    https://www.arshadmalikmd.com/blog/196965-hemorrhoids-10-things-gi-doctors-want-you-to-know
    The length of time youre stuck with a hemorrhoid is dependent on a few factors. […] Unfortunately, if your hemorrhoid issue is more severe, making these changes is not going to be enough (although it may make pooping slightly more comfortable). […] Hemorrhoids can be caused by: Chronic constipation can cause you to strain, but even when you do pass stools, they can be very hard and dehydrated, putting pressure on the delicate tissues of your anus. […] The action of straining hard on the toilet can cause pressure in the anal area. […] Obesity and sitting down for long periods of time are both risk factors for hemorrhoids, as it bears increased pressure on the anus. […] As you become older, the tissues supporting the blood supply to the anus weaken and begin to stretch, making you more susceptible to developing hemorrhoids. […] As the pregnancy progresses, the weight of the baby puts pressure on the anal region, making hemorrhoids more likely.
  • #3 Hemorrhoids – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hemorrhoids/symptoms-causes/syc-20360268
    Hemorrhoids are swollen veins in your lower rectum. […] Hemorrhoids can develop from increased pressure in the lower rectum due to: straining during bowel movements, sitting for long periods of time, especially on the toilet, having chronic diarrhea or constipation, being obese, being pregnant, having anal intercourse, eating a low-fiber diet, regularly lifting heavy items. […] As people age, the risk of hemorrhoids increases. That’s because the tissues that support the veins in the rectum and anus can weaken and stretch. This also can happen during pregnancy because the baby’s weight puts pressure on the anal region. […] Complications of hemorrhoids are rare but may include: anemia, strangulated hemorrhoid, blood clot.
  • #3 Large genetic study sheds light on the causes of hemorrhoids | Karolinska Institutet
    https://news.ki.se/large-genetic-study-sheds-light-on-the-causes-of-hemorrhoids
    Hemorrhoids are blood-filled cushions at the end of the gastrointestinal tract that control defecation. […] The study, which is published in the journal Gut, also reveals links to other gastrointestinal diseases. […] Science has yet to explain why only certain people develop them, or provide clues as to the molecular pathogenesis of the disease. […] The study’s results indicate that severe hemorrhoidal disease is at least partly attributable to a genetically caused dysfunction of the intestinal muscle and connective tissue. […] The results identify hitherto unknown causes of a common health problem, says the study’s first author Tenghao Zheng, researcher at the Department of Medicine, Solna, Karolinska Institutet.
  • #3 Management of hemorrhoids – Walter Bushnell Healthcare Foundation
    https://wbhf.walterbushnell.com/publications/bush-beats/item/7-management-of-hemorrhoids
    Hemorrhoids are common human afflictions known since the dawn of history, defined as the symptomatic enlargement and distal displacement of the normal anal cushions. […] The pathophysiology of hemorrhoidal development, cause of enlargement and symptoms is debatable; various theories and etiologies have been proposed. […] Studies implicate intrinsic weakness of the blood vessel wall, heredity, increased intra-abdominal pressure from many causes, including prolonged forceful Valsalva during defecation or resistance training, obstruction of venous outflow secondary to pregnancy or pelvic masses, and constipated stool in the rectal ampulla are possible contributing factors. […] It appears that the dysregulation of the vascular tone and vascular hyperplasia might play an important role in hemorrhoidal development, and could be a potential target for medical treatment.
  • #3 Risk factors for hemorrhoidal disease among healthy young and middle-aged Korean adults | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-03838-z
    The association between adiposity and the prevalence of hemorrhoidal disease was complex and differed by sex and parity. […] Smoking was also associated with an increased prevalence of hemorrhoidal disease, possibly by promoting systemic inflammation and by its effects on collagen metabolism. […] The association of excess adiposity with hemorrhoidal disease is controversial. […] Constipation can cause hemorrhoidal disease by increasing intra-abdominal pressure, resulting in hemorrhoidal plexus engorgement, and in excessive straining during defecation leading to shearing forces on the anal cushions.
  • #3 Hemorrhoids | PPT
    https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/hemorrhoids-2/34022523
    Haemorrhoids are normal anal cushions that can become symptomatic due to straining, constipation, pregnancy, obesity and other factors. […] They are classified based on their location relative to the dentate line. […] Haemorrhoidal venous cushions are normal structures of anorectum and universally present in all persons unless previous intervention has taken place. […] Straining and constipation. Pregnancy. Obesity. Prolonged sitting. Portal hypertension and anorectal varices. Chronic diarrhea. familial Colon malignancy. Loss of rectal muscle tone. Spinal cord injury. Rectal surgery. High socioeconomic status. Episiotomy. Anal intercourse. IBD Hemorrhoids STRAINING AND CONSTIPATION Low fibre diet Less bulky stools Straining at defecation Increased intraanal pressure Decreased venous return Enlarged hemorrhoidal venous cushions
  • #3 Risk factors for hemorrhoidal disease among healthy young and middle-aged Korean adults | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-03838-z
    Hemorrhoidal disease is a highly prevalent anorectal condition causing substantial discomfort, disability, and decreased quality of life. […] The prevalence of hemorrhoidal disease was 16.6%, and it was higher in females than in males (17.2 vs. 16.3%; P0.001). […] In the adjusted analyses, older age, female sex, smoking, overweight, and being hypertensive were independently associated with the presence of hemorrhoidal disease. […] The association of excess adiposity with the prevalence of hemorrhoidal disease differed by sex and parity. […] In this study of healthy Korean adults participating in a health screening program with a complete colonoscopic examination, increasing age, female sex, smoking, presence of hypertension, history of childbirth, and presence of fresh blood in stools, constipation, narrow caliber stool, or tenesmus were associated with hemorrhoidal disease.
  • #3 Hemorrhoid Disease and the Role of the Gastroenterologist
    https://www.gastroendonews.com/Review-Articles/Article/01-19/Hemorrhoid-Disease-and-the-Role-of-the-Gastroenterologist/53852?sub=14EBB94819BEDF16889AE192D84D5D7F12BAB184E7D2270C73D794B269D
    Risk factors for symptomatic hemorrhoids include low consumption of dietary fiber, chronic straining, excessive time on the toilet, constipation, diarrhea, pregnancy, and family history. The underlying pathophysiology likely involves a multifactorial process of venous dilation, arteriovenous distention, downward protrusion of congested anal cushions, and progressive stretching and collapse of the support structure of the cushions over time. This constellation of factors culminates in prolapse beyond the anal verge. […] Internal hemorrhoids that remain prolapsed develop ischemia or thrombosis. It is in this setting that internal hemorrhoids become painful or pruritic. More often encountered is painless bleeding which occurs when the submucosal sinusoids are disrupted. The bleeding is bright red from the presinusoidal arterioles.
  • #3
    https://www.archivesofmedicalscience.com/Synergistic-therapeutic-approach-for-hemorrhoids-integrating-mesenchymal-stem-cells,183465,0,2.html
    Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have promising regenerative properties in tissue repair and anti-inflammatory responses. This study aimed to investigate the effects of MSCs and their combination with micronized purified flavonoid fraction (MPFF) in a croton oil-induced hemorrhoids model on tissue edema, inflammation, and underlying molecular mechanisms. […] The etiology of hemorrhoids has been the subject of numerous studies, leading to a lack of a targeted therapeutic approach. Hemorrhoids are vascular cushions in the submucosal layer of the anal canal. Hemorrhoids become symptomatic when they swell, become inflamed, or cause pain, especially when they prolapse into the anal canal. […] Damage to the supporting connective tissue of hemorrhoids can result in inadequate fixation of anal cushions, leading to their prolapse into the anal canal. Prolapsed anal cushions, when entrapped by the anal sphincter muscle, can undergo strangulation, resulting in stasis or impaired blood flow to the anal cushions. This condition can trigger inflammation in the vascular wall and anal cushions surrounding tissue, marked by the release of reactive oxygen species, release of inflammatory mediators, activation of acute inflammatory cells, and MMP-9 enzyme, which can degrade the extracellular matrix and lead to ulceration.
  • #3 Hemorrhoids: From basic pathophysiology to clinical management
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3342598/
    The anal cushions of patients with hemorrhoids show significant pathological changes. […] In addition to the above findings, a severe inflammatory reaction involving the vascular wall and surrounding connective tissue has been demonstrated in hemorrhoidal specimens, with associated mucosal ulceration, ischemia and thrombosis. […] Several enzymes or mediators involving the degradation of supporting tissues in the anal cushions have been studied. […] Recently, increased microvascular density was found in hemorrhoidal tissue, suggesting that neovascularization might be another important phenomenon of hemorrhoidal disease. […] Based on the histological findings of abnormal venous dilatation and distortion in hemorrhoids, dysregulation of the vascular tone might play a role in hemorrhoidal development.
  • #3
    https://journals.lww.com/dcrjournal/abstract/1984/27070/the_pathogenesis_of_hemorrhoids.2.aspx
    The structure of the anal canal was examined in histology slides. Hemorrhoids are normal features of the human anatomy. They are pads that bulge into the lumen. Hemorrhoids have three parts: 1) the lining, which can be mucosa or anoderm; 2) the stroma with blood vessels, smooth muscle, and supporting connective tissue; and 3) the anchoring connective tissue system, which secures the hemorrhoids to the internal sphincter and the conjoined longitudinal coat. The anchoring and supporting connective tissue system deteriorates with aging. The hemorrhoids not only bulge, but descend into the lumen. This becomes observable in the third decade of life, with individual differences. The veins become distended as they lose their support. The descended loose lining becomes more sensitive to pressure from straining and to trauma from the stool. There can be a stasis in the veins, with clot formations and swelling or erosions of the lining, with bleeding. The hemorrhoids become symptomatic.
  • #3 The Role of Diosmin in Hemorrhoids Management – Walter Bushnell Healthcare Foundation
    https://wbhf.walterbushnell.com/publications/bush-beats/item/387-the-role-of-diosmin-in-hemorrhoids-management
    Diosmin exhibits a multifaceted mechanism of action, which includes improvement of venous tone, increased lymphatic drainage, protection of capillary bed microcirculation, inhibition of inflammatory reactions, and reduced capillary permeability. Diosmin exerts its phlebotonic effect by prolonging the vasoconstrictor effect of norepinephrine on vein wall, enhances venous tone, and thus reduces distensibility and stasis. […] Overall, these multifaceted actions of diosmin possibly converge to provide maximal benefit to individuals with hemorrhoids.
  • #3
    https://www.archivesofmedicalscience.com/Synergistic-therapeutic-approach-for-hemorrhoids-integrating-mesenchymal-stem-cells,183465,0,2.html
    This research concluded that MSCs effectively curbed inflammation, exhibited better anti-inflammatory properties than diosmin-hesperidin alone, and demonstrated a potential synergistic effect in combination therapy, emphasizing their role in reducing edema, inflammatory cell infiltration, and MMP-9 activity, and enhancing TGF- expression during hemorrhoidal disease.
  • #4 Pathophysiology of internal hemorrhoids
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6479658/
    A chronic rise in intraabdominal pressure, in combination with the absence of valves within rectal veins, can limit venous drainage from sinusoids during defecation, resulting in abnormal dilatation of the arteriolar-venular anastomoses of the internal hemorrhoidal plexus. […] The final result is the persistence of the prolapsed anal cushions outside the anus after defecation. […] The sliding down process of anal cushions is the most crucial pathophysiologic feature of the disease. […] The combination of sinusoidal congestion, strangulation and chronic inflammatory process inside the nodule results ultimately in blood stagnation inside sinusoids. […] The hyper-congested nodules then further exacerbate the incarceration and strangulation (vicious cycle).
  • #4 Distribution of Smooth Muscles in Hemorrhoids.
    https://www.jpatholtm.org/journal/view.php?number=1158
    Hemorrhoids are one of the commonest disorders specific to the human. However, the pathogenesis is not well understood so far. […] In conclusion, the total amount of smooth muscles in the submucosa of hemorrhoid tissue was reduced than those of the normal controls. The degree of hemorrhoidal dilation was inversely related to the amount of smooth muscles. However, causal relation between diminution of submucosal smooth muscles and venous dilation remains to be clarified.