Ependymoma
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Ependymoma to nowotwór OUN o zróżnicowanym pochodzeniu komórkowym, obejmującym komórki glejowe promieniste (RGCs) oraz dojrzałe komórki ependymalne, co zależy od lokalizacji anatomicznej guza. Molekularne profile ependymoma różnią się istotnie: ependymoma nadnamiotowe często wykazują fuzję ZFTA::RELA (około 70% przypadków) z aktywacją szlaku NF-κB i niekorzystnym rokowaniem, podczas gdy fuzja YAP1 wiąże się z lepszym prognozą. Ependymoma tylnego dołu czaszki dzielą się na podtypy PF-A i PF-B, z których PF-A charakteryzuje się ekspresją EZHIP, niskim poziomem metylacji H3K27me3 oraz zyskiem chromosomu 1q, co koreluje z gorszym przeżyciem. W ependymoma rdzenia kręgowego często obserwuje się amplifikację MYCN oraz mutacje NF2, co wiąże się z agresywnym przebiegiem choroby. Kluczowe zmiany genetyczne obejmują delecję 22q12.3-22q13.33, amplifikację 1q21.1-32.1, a także mutacje i fuzje genowe specyficzne dla lokalizacji guza. Indeks proliferacyjny Ki-67 >7% stanowi istotny marker złośliwości.

Patogeneza ependymoma – wprowadzenie

Ependymoma to nowotwór ośrodkowego układu nerwowego (OUN), który tradycyjnie uważano za wywodzący się z komórek ependymalnych wyściełających układ komorowy mózgu i kanał centralny rdzenia kręgowego. Współczesne badania wskazują jednak, że komórki macierzyste tych nowotworów mogą mieć bardziej złożone pochodzenie. Mimo podobnego obrazu histologicznego, ependymoma wykazują znaczne zróżnicowanie biologiczne i kliniczne w zależności od lokalizacji anatomicznej i profilu molekularnego, co ma istotne znaczenie w patogenezie i rokowaniu tych guzów 123.

Komórki pochodzenia ependymoma

Przez długi czas uważano, że ependymoma powstają w wyniku transformacji nowotworowej normalnych komórek ependymalnych. Jednak badania przeprowadzone w ostatnich latach dostarczyły dowodów, że prawdopodobnym źródłem tych nowotworów są komórki glejowe promieniste (radial glial cells, RGCs). RGCs są multipotencjalnymi, samoodnawiającymi się komórkami progenitorowymi w mózgu, które mogą różnicować się w neurony i komórki glejowe 45.

Badania przeprowadzone przez Taylora i wsp. wykazały, że RGCs są komórkami macierzystymi ependymoma, stanowiącymi „korzenie” tego nowotworu. Sekwencjonowanie RNA na poziomie pojedynczych komórek we wszystkich głównych grupach molekularnych ependymoma ujawniło hierarchiczną populację komórkową, obejmującą niezróżnicowane komórki macierzyste układu nerwowego, komórki glejowe promieniste i bardziej zróżnicowane komórki w kierunku linii ependymalnych, astrocytarnych i neuronalnych 67.

Interesującym odkryciem jest fakt, że proporcja komórek niezróżnicowanych lub mniej zróżnicowanych koreluje z gorszym rokowaniem i zwiększonym ryzykiem nawrotu guza. Nieprawidłowe komórki glejowe promieniste są potencjalnymi komórkami pochodzenia ependymoma nadnamiotowego, z charakterystyczną fuzją ZFTA::RELA, podczas gdy ependymoma tylnego dołu czaszki wywodzi się z komórek o fenotypie zbliżonym do neuronalnych komórek macierzystych 8.

Różnice w pochodzeniu w zależności od lokalizacji

Badania wskazują na różne mechanizmy powstawania ependymoma w zależności od lokalizacji anatomicznej:

  • Ependymoma nadnamiotowe (supratentorial) – wywodzą się prawdopodobnie z nieprawidłowych komórek glejowych promienistych z fuzjami ZFTA::RELA 910
  • Ependymoma tylnego dołu czaszki (posterior fossa) – pochodzą z komórek o fenotypie podobnym do neuronalnych komórek macierzystych 11
  • Ependymoma rdzenia kręgowego – prawdopodobnie wywodzą się z dojrzałych komórek ependymalnych, co potwierdzają badania transkryptomiczne na poziomie pojedynczych komórek 1213

Ependymoma pozamózgowe, występujące bardzo rzadko, mogą wynikać z zaburzeń migracji pierwotnych komórek germinalnych lub z pozostałości ependymalnych uwięzionych w procesie regresji i fizjologicznego zamknięcia kanału centralnego, co dotyczy szczególnie ependymoma okolicy krzyżowo-guzicznej 14.

Molekularne mechanizmy kancerogenezy w ependymoma

Proces kancerogenezy ependymoma to złożony, wieloetapowy mechanizm obejmujący inicjację, promocję i progresję. Obejmuje aktywację onkogenów, inaktywację genów supresorowych nowotworów oraz zjawiska epigenetyczne zmieniające ekspresję genów 15.

Aberracje chromosomowe w ependymoma

Nieprawidłowości chromosomowe odgrywają istotną rolę w powstawaniu i progresji ependymoma, przy czym profil tych zaburzeń różni się w zależności od lokalizacji anatomicznej guza 1617:

  • Delecja regionu chromosomu 22q12.3-22q13.33, obejmująca geny RAC2 i CBY1, występuje w około 38% ependymoma wewnątrzczaszkowych 1819
  • Zysk (amplifikacja) chromosomu 1q, szczególnie region 1q21.1-32.1, jest często wykrywany w dziecięcych ependymoma wewnątrzczaszkowych i jest związany z większą agresywnością guza oraz gorszym rokowaniem 202122
  • W ependymoma rdzenia kręgowego często obserwuje się zysk chromosomu 7 oraz utratę materiału genetycznego na chromosomach 6q, 4q, 10 i 2q 23
  • Ependymoma śluzowo-brodawkowate (myxopapillary) wykazują utratę materiału genetycznego w regionie 13q14-q31 oraz jednoczesny zysk na chromosomach 9 i 18 24

Fuzje genowe i mutacje genów

Istotną rolę w patogenezie ependymoma odgrywają specyficzne fuzje genowe i mutacje, które różnią się w zależności od lokalizacji anatomicznej guza 2526:

  • Ependymoma nadnamiotowe:
    • Fuzja ZFTA-RELA (wcześniej nazywana C11orf95-RELA) – występuje w około 70% przypadków ependymoma nadnamiotowych i powstaje w wyniku zjawiska chromotripsji (chromothripsis) na chromosomie 11, prowadząc do konstytutywnej aktywacji szlaku NF-κB. Jest związana z niekorzystnym rokowaniem 272829
    • Fuzja YAP1 – występuje w mniejszości przypadków ependymoma nadnamiotowych, częściej u młodszych pacjentów, i wiąże się z lepszym rokowaniem. YAP1 jest głównym efektorem szlaku sygnałowego Hippo, który ulega deregulacji w różnych nowotworach 3031
  • Ependymoma tylnego dołu czaszki:
    • PF-A (posterior fossa grupa A) – najczęstsza i najbardziej agresywna podgrupa, występująca u małych dzieci. Nie wykazuje powtarzalnych mutacji somatycznych, ale charakteryzuje się specyficznym profilem metylacji DNA 32
    • PF-B (posterior fossa grupa B) – występuje u starszych dzieci i nastolatków, wykazuje częste zyski i straty materiału genetycznego na dużą skalę, ale ma korzystniejsze rokowanie kliniczne 33
  • Ependymoma rdzenia kręgowego:
    • MYCN-amplifikowane – zawierają amplifikowany onkogen MYCN, który napędza szybką proliferację; jest to agresywny podtyp z większym prawdopodobieństwem rozsiewu i gorszym rokowaniem 34
    • Mutacje NF2 – ependymoma rdzenia kręgowego wykazują zwiększoną częstość mutacji genu NF2, co wiąże się z zespołem nerwiakowłókniakowatości typu 2 3536

Deregulacja szlaków sygnałowych

W patogenezie ependymoma istotną rolę odgrywa deregulacja kilku kluczowych szlaków sygnałowych 3738:

  • Szlak Notch – deregulacja tego szlaku jest związana z kancerogenezą komórek ependymalnych, szczególnie w ependymoma nadnamiotowych. Mutacje NOTCH1 stwierdzono w około 8% dziecięcych ependymoma 3940
  • Szlak EPHB-Ephrin – onkogen receptora EPH B2 (EPHB2) może indukować ependymoma poprzez przekształcenie komórki glejowej promienistej w przodomózgowiu w komórkę macierzystą nowotworu 41
  • Szlak Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) – nadekspresja komponentów szlaku SHH, takich jak GLI1, GLI2 i STK36, oraz jego celów IGFBP2, IGFBP3 i IGFBP5, sugeruje deregulację tego szlaku w patogenezie ependymoma 4243
  • Szlak PI3K – aktywacja kaskady sygnałowej PI3K, związanej z przeżyciem komórek, stwierdzono w 72% pierwotnych ependymoma, co sugeruje znaczącą rolę w patogenezie choroby 44

Zmiany epigenetyczne w patogenezie ependymoma

Badania z ostatnich lat podkreślają kluczową rolę mechanizmów epigenetycznych w patogenezie ependymoma, szczególnie w przypadku guzów, w których nie zidentyfikowano specyficznych mutacji genetycznych 4546.

Metylacja DNA

Wzory metylacji DNA okazały się kluczowym czynnikiem w klasyfikacji molekularnej ependymoma i stanowią podstawę dla kategoryzacji tych nowotworów na dziewięć różnych podgrup molekularnych. Profile metylacji wykazują silną korelację z lokalizacją anatomiczną, wiekiem pacjenta oraz rokowaniem 4748.

Badania nad specyficzną metylacją genów w ependymoma wykazały, że hipermetylacja promotora RASSF1A jest jedną z najczęstszych zmian molekularnych w tych nowotworach. Dodatkowo, status metylacji genów ZIC2 i RASSF1A może być przydatnym parametrem w podklasyfikacji ependymoma 49.

Modyfikacje histonów

Szczególnie interesującym aspektem patogenezy ependymoma tylnego dołu czaszki typu A (PFA) jest mechanizm hamowania aktywności PRC2 (Polycomb Repressive Complex 2) i wynikający z tego niski poziom metylacji H3K27 50.

Ependymoma PFA wykazują bardzo niski poziom metylacji H3K27 i ekspresję białka EZHIP (Enhancer of Zeste Homologs Inhibitory Protein, wcześniej nazywanego CXORF67). EZHIP zawiera wysoce konserwowaną sekwencję podobną do onkohistonu K27M, która jest niezbędna i wystarczająca do hamowania aktywności PRC2 i zmniejszenia komórkowego poziomu H3K27me3 5152.

Redukcja H3K27me3 odpowiada ependymoma PFA i sugeruje, że pacjenci potrzebują terapii pooperacyjnej oraz wiąże się z gorszym statusem przeżycia. W badaniach wykazano, że H3K27me3 może być wykorzystywany jako marker prognostyczny dla nowotworów ependymalnych 53.

Regulacja metaboliczno-epigenetyczna

Nowsze badania zidentyfikowały powiązanie między metabolizmem a epigenomem w ependymoma PFA, które wpływa na fenotyp guza i może stanowić podstawę do opracowania nowych strategii terapeutycznych. Zaobserwowano, że guzy ependymoma PFA mają wzbogaconą sygnaturę hipoksji (odpowiedź na niski poziom tlenu), co koreluje z gorszym przeżyciem 54.

Hipoksja reguluje ekspresję genów i dostępność kluczowych metabolitów, które zbiorowo przyczyniają się do profilowania epigenetycznego ependymoma. Wyniki te sugerują, że unikalny metabolizm komórek PFA może odzwierciedlać ich pochodzenie z wczesnego tyłomózgowia lub stanowić nabyty fenotyp 5556.

Molekularne czynniki prognostyczne i implikacje terapeutyczne

Identyfikacja specyficznych markerów molekularnych w ependymoma ma istotne znaczenie dla rokowania i planowania terapii. Na podstawie badań genetycznych i molekularnych można wyróżnić kilka czynników prognostycznych 5758.

Czynniki związane z gorszym rokowaniem

  • Zysk chromosomu 1q – silnie koreluje z większą liczbą nawrotów i krótszym czasem przeżycia, szczególnie w guzach wewnątrzczaszkowych 5960
  • Delecja CDKN2A/2B – związana z gorszym rokowaniem, w tym z wielokrotnymi nawrotami lub przerzutami pozaczaszkowymi 6162
  • Amplifikacja CCND1 – wiąże się z krótszym czasem przeżycia, szczególnie w przypadkach wewnątrzczaszkowych 63
  • Fuzja ZFTA-RELA – aktywuje szlak NF-κB i wiąże się z agresywnym fenotypem guza 6465
  • Wysoki indeks proliferacyjny Ki-67 – wartość powyżej 7% jest dobrą wartością graniczną dla określenia stopnia złośliwości ependymoma we wszystkich lokalizacjach anatomicznych 66
  • Amplifikacja MYCN – występuje głównie w ependymoma rdzenia kręgowego i wiąże się z szybką progresją, wczesnym rozsiewem i opornością na leczenie 67

Implikacje dla terapii celowanej

Zrozumienie molekularnych mechanizmów patogenetycznych ependymoma otwiera możliwości dla rozwoju terapii celowanych 6869:

  • Inhibitory szlaku NF-κB – potencjalnie skuteczne w ependymoma z fuzją ZFTA-RELA 70
  • Inhibitory szlaku Hedgehog – badania sugerują, że kombinacja inhibitorów Hh (np. Sonidegib) oraz inhibitorów AURKA (np. Alisertib) może stanowić potencjalną strategię terapeutyczną 71
  • Inhibitory szlaku PI3K – badania wykazały, że hamowanie szlaku PI3K w ependymoma (np. za pomocą BKM120) utrudnia przeżycie i żywotność komórek nowotworowych, co czyni go atrakcyjnym celem chemioterapeutycznym 72
  • Terapie epigenetyczne – ukierunkowane na specyficzne zmiany w metylacji DNA lub modyfikacjach histonów, szczególnie w kontekście zahamowania aktywności PRC2 przez EZHIP w ependymoma PFA 7374

Złożoność molekularna ependymoma wskazuje, że skuteczność inhibitorów szlaku PI3K i innych terapii celowanych może być większa, gdy są one podawane jako część leczenia skojarzonego 75.

Genetyczne predyspozycje do rozwoju ependymoma

Chociaż większość przypadków ependymoma występuje sporadycznie, niektóre z nich mogą być związane z genetycznymi zespołami predyspozycji do nowotworów 7677.

Zespoły genetyczne związane z ependymoma

  • Nerwiakowłókniakowatość typu 2 (NF2) – osoby z NF2 mogą mieć zwiększone ryzyko rozwoju ependymoma, szczególnie wzdłuż szlaku wzrokowego. Mutacje genu NF2 są częste w ependymoma rdzenia kręgowego 787980
  • Zespół Turcota typu B i zespół MEN1 – również związane z rozwojem ependymoma, chociaż mutacje genów związane z tymi zespołami rodzinnymi rzadko występują w sporadycznych przypadkach 8182

Warto zauważyć, że najnowsze badania molekularne sugerują, iż predysponujące patogenne warianty germinalne są znacznie rzadsze u dzieci z molekularnie sklasyfikowanym ependymoma niż w przypadku innych dziecięcych nowotworów OUN. Co ciekawe, wszystkie wcześniej zgłaszane patogenne warianty germinalne TP53 i NF1 zostały albo przeklasyfikowane jako łagodne, albo opisane u dzieci, dla których nie przeprowadzono profilowania metylacji guza, co kwestionuje związek między zespołem Li-Fraumeni i nerwiakowłókniakowatością typu 1 a (molekularnie sklasyfikowanym) ependymoma 83.

Mechanizmy patogenetyczne w różnych podtypach ependymoma

Ependymoma stanowią grupę nowotworów, których mechanizmy patogenetyczne różnią się w zależności od lokalizacji anatomicznej i profilu molekularnego. Współczesna klasyfikacja tych guzów opiera się zarówno na cechach histologicznych, jak i molekularnych, co pozwala na lepsze prognozowanie przebiegu klinicznego i planowanie leczenia 8485.

Podtyp ependymoma Lokalizacja Główne zmiany molekularne Rokowanie
ZFTA-fusion positive Nadnamiotowa Fuzja ZFTA-RELA, aktywacja szlaku NF-κB Niekorzystne
YAP1-fusion positive Nadnamiotowa Fuzja YAP1, deregulacja szlaku Hippo Korzystne
PF-A Tylny dół czaszki Ekspresja EZHIP, niski poziom H3K27me3, zysk 1q Niekorzystne
PF-B Tylny dół czaszki Częste zyski i straty materiału genetycznego Korzystne
MYCN-amplifikowane Rdzeń kręgowy Amplifikacja MYCN Niekorzystne
Śluzowo-brodawkowate Stożek rdzeniowy, ogon koński Utrata 13q14-q31, zysk 9 i 18 Korzystne

Zrozumienie molekularnych podstaw patogenezy ependymoma ma kluczowe znaczenie dla opracowania nowych metod terapeutycznych. Klasyfikacja tych nowotworów na podstawie cech molekularnych, a nie tylko histologicznych, pozwala na lepszą stratyfikację pacjentów i personalizację leczenia 8687.

Należy podkreślić, że pomimo znacznych postępów w zrozumieniu patogenezy ependymoma, wciąż istnieje potrzeba dalszych badań nad mechanizmami molekularnymi leżącymi u podstaw tych nowotworów, szczególnie w kontekście opracowania skutecznych terapii celowanych 8889.

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  1. 17.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Ependymoma – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538244/
    Ependymomas are glial cell tumors that commonly arise in the lining cells of the ventricular system, and less commonly outside the central nervous system (CNS), or within the brain parenchyma. They are comprised of genetically distinct subgroups of tumors and affect children more commonly than adults. […] While ependymomas that arise from different regions of the CNS are histologically similar, their clinical course often varies. Histological classification alone has not provided consistent and reliable survival outcomes in retrospective studies, meaning that ependymomas with similar histological grades may follow a substantially different clinical course. Recent studies suggest that these tumors may be categorized based on different populations of progenitor cells, which would explain different clinical courses in tumors with the same histological grade.
  • #2 An Insight into Pathophysiological Features and Therapeutic Advances on Ependymoma
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8269186/
    Ependymomas are thought to be caused by oncogenetic events that turn normal ependymal cells into tumor phenotypes. […] Tumorigenesis is a complex multistep process that transforms a normal cell into malignant cells or cancer stem cells (CSCs). The process comprises the following three stages: initiation, promotion, and progression. This multistep process involves activation of the oncogene, inactivation of a tumor suppressor gene, as well as epigenetic phenomena that alter gene expression. […] Traditionally, ependymomas are thought to originate from ependymal cells that line the ventricles and the central canal of the spinal cord. A study conducted by Taylor et al. demonstrated that RGCs were ependymoma stem cells or the root cells of an ependymoma. […] A recent study demonstrated that the oncogene EPH receptor B2 (EPHB2) could induce an ependymoma by converting an RGC in the forebrain into a CSC.
  • #3 Intracranial ependymoma and other ependymal tumors – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/intracranial-ependymoma-and-other-ependymal-tumors
    Ependymomas are a group of glial tumors that typically arise within or adjacent to the ependymal lining of the ventricular system and are thought to be derived from the radial glial cells in the subventricular zone. […] Ependymomas most commonly occur in the posterior fossa, in contact with the fourth ventricle, or in the intramedullary spinal cord; they also occur in the brain parenchyma outside the posterior fossa, and very rarely outside the central nervous system (CNS).
  • #4 An Insight into Pathophysiological Features and Therapeutic Advances on Ependymoma
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8269186/
    The elevated expression of hTERT promotes ependymoma development by decreasing DNA damage, increasing cell proliferation, and lessening cell apoptosis. […] Ependymomas arise from the cranial ventricular system or spinal cord. Radial glial cells (RGCs) are thought to be the root cell of ependymomas. RGCs are multi-potent self-renewing progenitor cells in the brain that can proliferate into neurons and glial cells. The mutation of RGCs by aberrant transcription factor activity, adherens junction breakdown or abnormal cell signaling transforms them into a cancer stem cell. Chromosomal abnormalities also play a remarkable role in ependymal tumor formation.
  • #5 Ependymoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/277621-overview
    Ependymomas are traditionally thought to arise from oncogenetic events that transform normal ependymal cells into tumor phenotypes. Some evidence now suggests that radial glia may be the cells of origin. […] Significant progress has been made toward delineating mutations that segregate with various tumor phenotypes. While ependymomas exhibit molecular alterations that vary by subtype, some common molecular characteristics include: a loss of loci on chromosome 22, a mutation of p53 in malignant ependymoma, a recurring breakpoint at band 11q13, abnormal karyotypes with frequent involvement of chromosome 6 and/or 16, and NF2 mutations. […] The pathophysiology of ependymoma varies based on the location and molecular characteristics of the tumor. […] ZFTA-Fusion positive: characterized by gene fusion that interferes with inflammatory pathways, carries a poor prognosis.
  • #6 Pathology Outlines – Ependymoma overview
    https://www.pathologyoutlines.com/topic/cnstumorependymoma.html
    Single cell RNA sequencing across all major molecular ependymoma groups revealed hierarchical cellular populations, including undifferentiated neural stem cells, radial glia cells and more differentiated cells towards ependymal, astrocytic and neuronal lineages (Cancer Cell 2020;38:44) […] Proportion of undifferentiated or less differentiated cells correlates with poor prognosis and increased recurrence […] Aberrant radial glia-like cells are potential cells of origin for supratentorial ependymoma, with ZFTA::RELA fusions and neural stem cell-like cells the origin of posterior fossa ependymoma (Cancer Cell 2020;38:44) […] Spinal ependymoma likely arises from mature adult ependymal cells due to their highly similar transcriptomic profiles through single cell RNA sequencing (Acta Neuropathol 2024;147:22)
  • #7 An Insight into Pathophysiological Features and Therapeutic Advances on Ependymoma
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8269186/
    Ependymomas are thought to be caused by oncogenetic events that turn normal ependymal cells into tumor phenotypes. […] Tumorigenesis is a complex multistep process that transforms a normal cell into malignant cells or cancer stem cells (CSCs). The process comprises the following three stages: initiation, promotion, and progression. This multistep process involves activation of the oncogene, inactivation of a tumor suppressor gene, as well as epigenetic phenomena that alter gene expression. […] Traditionally, ependymomas are thought to originate from ependymal cells that line the ventricles and the central canal of the spinal cord. A study conducted by Taylor et al. demonstrated that RGCs were ependymoma stem cells or the root cells of an ependymoma. […] A recent study demonstrated that the oncogene EPH receptor B2 (EPHB2) could induce an ependymoma by converting an RGC in the forebrain into a CSC.
  • #8 Pathology Outlines – Ependymoma overview
    https://www.pathologyoutlines.com/topic/cnstumorependymoma.html
    Single cell RNA sequencing across all major molecular ependymoma groups revealed hierarchical cellular populations, including undifferentiated neural stem cells, radial glia cells and more differentiated cells towards ependymal, astrocytic and neuronal lineages (Cancer Cell 2020;38:44) […] Proportion of undifferentiated or less differentiated cells correlates with poor prognosis and increased recurrence […] Aberrant radial glia-like cells are potential cells of origin for supratentorial ependymoma, with ZFTA::RELA fusions and neural stem cell-like cells the origin of posterior fossa ependymoma (Cancer Cell 2020;38:44) […] Spinal ependymoma likely arises from mature adult ependymal cells due to their highly similar transcriptomic profiles through single cell RNA sequencing (Acta Neuropathol 2024;147:22)
  • #9 Pathology Outlines – Ependymoma overview
    https://www.pathologyoutlines.com/topic/cnstumorependymoma.html
    Single cell RNA sequencing across all major molecular ependymoma groups revealed hierarchical cellular populations, including undifferentiated neural stem cells, radial glia cells and more differentiated cells towards ependymal, astrocytic and neuronal lineages (Cancer Cell 2020;38:44) […] Proportion of undifferentiated or less differentiated cells correlates with poor prognosis and increased recurrence […] Aberrant radial glia-like cells are potential cells of origin for supratentorial ependymoma, with ZFTA::RELA fusions and neural stem cell-like cells the origin of posterior fossa ependymoma (Cancer Cell 2020;38:44) […] Spinal ependymoma likely arises from mature adult ependymal cells due to their highly similar transcriptomic profiles through single cell RNA sequencing (Acta Neuropathol 2024;147:22)
  • #10 Pediatric ependymoma – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatric_ependymoma
    Pediatric ependymomas are similar in nature to the adult form of ependymoma in that they are thought to arise from radial glial cells lining the ventricular system. […] Ependymomas are believed to arise from radial glial cells. Tumorspheres derived from ependymomas display a radial-glial like phenotype, expressing neuronal stem cell markers CD133 and nestin, as well as radial glial specific markers RC2 and brain lipid binding protein (BLBP/FABP7). Tumorspheres with radial glial characteristics form tumors in orthotopic mouse xenografts, suggesting radial glial as cell of origin for ependymomas. […] A number of genetic syndromes are associated with the development of ependymoma, including neurofibromatosis type II (NF2), Turcot syndrome B, and MEN1 syndrome. However, gene mutations linked to the familial syndromes are rarely found in sporadic cases of ependymoma.
  • #11 Pathology Outlines – Ependymoma overview
    https://www.pathologyoutlines.com/topic/cnstumorependymoma.html
    Single cell RNA sequencing across all major molecular ependymoma groups revealed hierarchical cellular populations, including undifferentiated neural stem cells, radial glia cells and more differentiated cells towards ependymal, astrocytic and neuronal lineages (Cancer Cell 2020;38:44) […] Proportion of undifferentiated or less differentiated cells correlates with poor prognosis and increased recurrence […] Aberrant radial glia-like cells are potential cells of origin for supratentorial ependymoma, with ZFTA::RELA fusions and neural stem cell-like cells the origin of posterior fossa ependymoma (Cancer Cell 2020;38:44) […] Spinal ependymoma likely arises from mature adult ependymal cells due to their highly similar transcriptomic profiles through single cell RNA sequencing (Acta Neuropathol 2024;147:22)
  • #12 Pathology Outlines – Ependymoma overview
    https://www.pathologyoutlines.com/topic/cnstumorependymoma.html
    Single cell RNA sequencing across all major molecular ependymoma groups revealed hierarchical cellular populations, including undifferentiated neural stem cells, radial glia cells and more differentiated cells towards ependymal, astrocytic and neuronal lineages (Cancer Cell 2020;38:44) […] Proportion of undifferentiated or less differentiated cells correlates with poor prognosis and increased recurrence […] Aberrant radial glia-like cells are potential cells of origin for supratentorial ependymoma, with ZFTA::RELA fusions and neural stem cell-like cells the origin of posterior fossa ependymoma (Cancer Cell 2020;38:44) […] Spinal ependymoma likely arises from mature adult ependymal cells due to their highly similar transcriptomic profiles through single cell RNA sequencing (Acta Neuropathol 2024;147:22)
  • #13 The Similarities and Differences between Intracranial and Spinal Ependymomas : A Review from a Genetic Research Perspective
    https://www.jkns.or.kr/journal/view.php?number=867
    Ependymomas occur in both the brain and spine. The genetic landscape of ependymoma is very heterogeneous despite the similarity of histopathologic findings. From the literature review, many studies have reported that spinal cord ependymoma might be associated with NF2 mutation, NEFL overexpression, Merlin loss, and 9q gain. Prior studies have identified HIC-1 methylation, 4.1B deletion, and 4.1R loss as common features in intracranial ependymoma. Spinal ependymoma has been found to be quite different from intracranial ependymoma in genetic studies, and the favorable prognosis in spinal ependymoma may be the result of the genetic differences. A more detailed understanding of these various genetic aberrations may enable the identification of more specific prognostic markers as well as the development of customized targeted therapies. Ependymoma in the spinal cord may be related with NF2 mutations, NEFL overexpression, and 9q gain. Its intracranial counterpart may be related with HIC-1 methylation, 4.1B deletion, and 4.1R loss.
  • #14 Mediastinal Anaplastic Ependymoma
    https://www.jchestsurg.org/journal/view.html?uid=6288&vmd=Full
    Ependymomas arise from ependymal cells and can grow at any site in the central nervous system (CNS), as well as in some locations outside of the CNS. […] The etiology of primary extra-CNS ependymoma has not yet been clarified. Sacrococcygeal ependymoma is known to derive from the remaining ependymal cells that are trapped as a result of the regression process and the physiological collapse of the central canal, while the pathogenesis of pelvic and extra-pelvic ependymoma is thought to be related to disturbances in the migration of primordial germ cells. The latter arise from yolk sac endoderm and migrate through the cloaca, hindgut, and dorsal mesentery towards the gonadal ridge, where the ovary and its connective tissue grows. Ependymomas that grow in the ovary, broad ligament, and mediastinum are likely to be derived from misdirected primordial germ cells.
  • #15 An Insight into Pathophysiological Features and Therapeutic Advances on Ependymoma
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8269186/
    Ependymomas are thought to be caused by oncogenetic events that turn normal ependymal cells into tumor phenotypes. […] Tumorigenesis is a complex multistep process that transforms a normal cell into malignant cells or cancer stem cells (CSCs). The process comprises the following three stages: initiation, promotion, and progression. This multistep process involves activation of the oncogene, inactivation of a tumor suppressor gene, as well as epigenetic phenomena that alter gene expression. […] Traditionally, ependymomas are thought to originate from ependymal cells that line the ventricles and the central canal of the spinal cord. A study conducted by Taylor et al. demonstrated that RGCs were ependymoma stem cells or the root cells of an ependymoma. […] A recent study demonstrated that the oncogene EPH receptor B2 (EPHB2) could induce an ependymoma by converting an RGC in the forebrain into a CSC.
  • #16 An Insight into Pathophysiological Features and Therapeutic Advances on Ependymoma
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8269186/
    However, aberrant transcription factor activity such as empty spiracles homeobox 2 (EMX2), breakage of the adherence gene E-Catenin at the apical cell junction, and deregulation of notch signaling pathways have been found to convert the RGC behavior and provoke ependymoma activity. […] Tumorigenesis also involves the deregulation of different pathways, such as the Notch and EPHB-Ephrin signaling pathways. […] Chromosomal abnormalities play a remarkable role in ependymomas. […] The deletion of the RAC family small GTPase 2 (RAC2) and chibby family member 1 (CBY1) gene in the chromosome 22q12.322q13.33 region are observed in 38% of intracranial ependymomas. […] The gain of chromosomes 1q, a momentous tumor aggressiveness prognosticator, is often detected in pediatric intracranial ependymomas.
  • #17 Ependymoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/277621-overview
    Ependymomas are traditionally thought to arise from oncogenetic events that transform normal ependymal cells into tumor phenotypes. Some evidence now suggests that radial glia may be the cells of origin. […] Significant progress has been made toward delineating mutations that segregate with various tumor phenotypes. While ependymomas exhibit molecular alterations that vary by subtype, some common molecular characteristics include: a loss of loci on chromosome 22, a mutation of p53 in malignant ependymoma, a recurring breakpoint at band 11q13, abnormal karyotypes with frequent involvement of chromosome 6 and/or 16, and NF2 mutations. […] The pathophysiology of ependymoma varies based on the location and molecular characteristics of the tumor. […] ZFTA-Fusion positive: characterized by gene fusion that interferes with inflammatory pathways, carries a poor prognosis.
  • #18 An Insight into Pathophysiological Features and Therapeutic Advances on Ependymoma
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8269186/
    However, aberrant transcription factor activity such as empty spiracles homeobox 2 (EMX2), breakage of the adherence gene E-Catenin at the apical cell junction, and deregulation of notch signaling pathways have been found to convert the RGC behavior and provoke ependymoma activity. […] Tumorigenesis also involves the deregulation of different pathways, such as the Notch and EPHB-Ephrin signaling pathways. […] Chromosomal abnormalities play a remarkable role in ependymomas. […] The deletion of the RAC family small GTPase 2 (RAC2) and chibby family member 1 (CBY1) gene in the chromosome 22q12.322q13.33 region are observed in 38% of intracranial ependymomas. […] The gain of chromosomes 1q, a momentous tumor aggressiveness prognosticator, is often detected in pediatric intracranial ependymomas.
  • #19 Ependymoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/986333-overview
    Ependymomas are traditionally thought to arise from oncogenetic events that transform normal ependymal cells into tumor phenotypes. Some evidence now suggests that radial glia may be the cells of origin. […] Significant progress has been made toward delineating mutations that segregate with various tumor phenotypes. While ependymomas exhibit molecular alterations that vary by subtype, some common molecular characteristics include: a loss of loci on chromosome 22, a mutation of p53 in malignant ependymoma, a recurring breakpoint at band 11q13, abnormal karyotypes with frequent involvement of chromosome 6 and/or 16, and NF2 mutations. […] The pathophysiology of ependymoma varies based on the location and molecular characteristics of the tumor. […] ZFTA-Fusion positive: characterized by gene fusion that interferes with inflammatory pathways, carries a poor prognosis
  • #20 An Insight into Pathophysiological Features and Therapeutic Advances on Ependymoma
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8269186/
    However, aberrant transcription factor activity such as empty spiracles homeobox 2 (EMX2), breakage of the adherence gene E-Catenin at the apical cell junction, and deregulation of notch signaling pathways have been found to convert the RGC behavior and provoke ependymoma activity. […] Tumorigenesis also involves the deregulation of different pathways, such as the Notch and EPHB-Ephrin signaling pathways. […] Chromosomal abnormalities play a remarkable role in ependymomas. […] The deletion of the RAC family small GTPase 2 (RAC2) and chibby family member 1 (CBY1) gene in the chromosome 22q12.322q13.33 region are observed in 38% of intracranial ependymomas. […] The gain of chromosomes 1q, a momentous tumor aggressiveness prognosticator, is often detected in pediatric intracranial ependymomas.
  • #21 Pediatric ependymoma – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatric_ependymoma
    ERBB2, ERBB4, and human telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) gene expression promote tumor cell proliferation, contributing to aggressive tumor behavior. High expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) correlates with unfavorable outcome. Over-expression of kinetochore proteins and down-regulation of metallothioneins are associated with recurrence in ependymomas. […] Comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) experiments have shown pediatric ependymomas possess a number of genomic anomalies not seen in adult ependymomas. […] Amplification of chromosome 1q and loss of 6q, 17p and 22q are the most common numerical chromosomal changes in pediatric ependymomas. Gain of chromosome 1q (1q21.1-32.1) is more common in the pediatric population and is associated with tumor recurrence in intracranial ependymomas.
  • #22
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10014-021-00417-y
    Although ependymomas (EPNs) have similar histopathology, they are heterogeneous tumors with diverse immunophenotypes, genetics, epigenetics, and different clinical behavior according to anatomical locations. […] Fusion genes were found only in ST-EPNs except for one SP-EPN with ZFTA-YAP1 fusion, NF2 gene alterations were found in SP-EPNs, but no driver gene was present in PF-EPNs. […] The gain of chromosome 1q and CDKN2A/2B deletion were associated with poor outcomes, such as multiple recurrences or extracranial metastases. […] A Ki-67 index greater than 5%, 7%, or 10% has been reported to be significantly associated with poor prognosis. […] We concluded that a Ki-67 index of 7% is a good cut-off for the EPN grades and in all anatomical locations. […] In our study, the Ki-67 index (cut-off of 7%) was well correlated with the WHO grades and PFS of our series of EPNs in all anatomical locations. […] Our results showed that chromosome 1q25 gain and CDKN2A/2B loss were significant poor prognostic factors indicating a dismal prognosis, such as multiple recurrence or extracranial metastasis.
  • #23 EPENDYMOMA – Histopathology.guru
    https://www.histopathology.guru/pathology-atlas/systemic-pathology/central-nervous-system/ependymoma/
    Ependymoma is tumor consisting of cells showing ependymal differentiation. Ependymal cells line the fluid filled spaces of the brain (ventricles) and spinal cord. […] Genetic abnormalities in tumor differ upon the anatomical sites. Loss of chromosomal arm 22q was noted in both spinal cord and intracranial tumors. Most intracranial tumors shows gain of 1q. Losses on 6q, 9 and 13. Spinal cord tumors shows gain on chromosome 7. Frequent losses on 6q, 4q, 10 and 2q. Myxopapillary ependymomas shows loss on 13q14-q31. Concurrent gain on chromosome 9 and 18. […] These tumors arise through out the neuraxis in intimate association with ependymoma or its remnants. Rarely they may occur in cerebral cortex, subarachnoid space, in presacral and post sacral soft tissue. Ependymomas in 4th ventricle typically occur in children, where as supratentorial lesions are more common in older individuals. Supratentorial and intraparenchymal ependymomas are more likely to be anaplastic than those at other sites.
  • #24 EPENDYMOMA – Histopathology.guru
    https://www.histopathology.guru/pathology-atlas/systemic-pathology/central-nervous-system/ependymoma/
    Ependymoma is tumor consisting of cells showing ependymal differentiation. Ependymal cells line the fluid filled spaces of the brain (ventricles) and spinal cord. […] Genetic abnormalities in tumor differ upon the anatomical sites. Loss of chromosomal arm 22q was noted in both spinal cord and intracranial tumors. Most intracranial tumors shows gain of 1q. Losses on 6q, 9 and 13. Spinal cord tumors shows gain on chromosome 7. Frequent losses on 6q, 4q, 10 and 2q. Myxopapillary ependymomas shows loss on 13q14-q31. Concurrent gain on chromosome 9 and 18. […] These tumors arise through out the neuraxis in intimate association with ependymoma or its remnants. Rarely they may occur in cerebral cortex, subarachnoid space, in presacral and post sacral soft tissue. Ependymomas in 4th ventricle typically occur in children, where as supratentorial lesions are more common in older individuals. Supratentorial and intraparenchymal ependymomas are more likely to be anaplastic than those at other sites.
  • #25 Ependymoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/277621-overview
    Ependymomas are traditionally thought to arise from oncogenetic events that transform normal ependymal cells into tumor phenotypes. Some evidence now suggests that radial glia may be the cells of origin. […] Significant progress has been made toward delineating mutations that segregate with various tumor phenotypes. While ependymomas exhibit molecular alterations that vary by subtype, some common molecular characteristics include: a loss of loci on chromosome 22, a mutation of p53 in malignant ependymoma, a recurring breakpoint at band 11q13, abnormal karyotypes with frequent involvement of chromosome 6 and/or 16, and NF2 mutations. […] The pathophysiology of ependymoma varies based on the location and molecular characteristics of the tumor. […] ZFTA-Fusion positive: characterized by gene fusion that interferes with inflammatory pathways, carries a poor prognosis.
  • #26 Ependymoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/986333-overview
    Ependymomas are traditionally thought to arise from oncogenetic events that transform normal ependymal cells into tumor phenotypes. Some evidence now suggests that radial glia may be the cells of origin. […] Significant progress has been made toward delineating mutations that segregate with various tumor phenotypes. While ependymomas exhibit molecular alterations that vary by subtype, some common molecular characteristics include: a loss of loci on chromosome 22, a mutation of p53 in malignant ependymoma, a recurring breakpoint at band 11q13, abnormal karyotypes with frequent involvement of chromosome 6 and/or 16, and NF2 mutations. […] The pathophysiology of ependymoma varies based on the location and molecular characteristics of the tumor. […] ZFTA-Fusion positive: characterized by gene fusion that interferes with inflammatory pathways, carries a poor prognosis
  • #27
    https://journals.lww.com/ijpm/fulltext/2022/65001/overview_of_recent_advances_in_the_classification.10.aspx
    Ependymomas can arise along the entire neuraxis; however, they possess site-specific unique molecular alterations and a methylome pattern which is directly related with the prognostic outcomes. […] Ependymomas are thought to arise from radial glial stem cells. […] The molecular classification of ependymomas is based on novel diagnostic technologies such as DNA methylome profiling and DNA sequencing. […] Markedly variable molecular alterations are frequently reported in ependymomas which include cytogenetic, genetic, epigenetic, and transcriptomic changes. These changes are site-specific based on which ependymomas are broadly classified into nine groups by Pajtler et al. […] C11orf95-RELA fusion is the result of chromothripsis, which leads to constitutive activation of the NF-k pathway.
  • #28 Ependymoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/986333-overview
    Ependymomas are traditionally thought to arise from oncogenetic events that transform normal ependymal cells into tumor phenotypes. Some evidence now suggests that radial glia may be the cells of origin. […] Significant progress has been made toward delineating mutations that segregate with various tumor phenotypes. While ependymomas exhibit molecular alterations that vary by subtype, some common molecular characteristics include: a loss of loci on chromosome 22, a mutation of p53 in malignant ependymoma, a recurring breakpoint at band 11q13, abnormal karyotypes with frequent involvement of chromosome 6 and/or 16, and NF2 mutations. […] The pathophysiology of ependymoma varies based on the location and molecular characteristics of the tumor. […] ZFTA-Fusion positive: characterized by gene fusion that interferes with inflammatory pathways, carries a poor prognosis
  • #29 Characterization of molecular signatures of supratentorial ependymomas | Modern Pathology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41379-019-0329-2
    Ependymomas show poor correlation between World Health Organization grade and clinical outcome. A subgroup of supratentorial ependymomas are characterized by C11orf95-RELA fusions, presumed to be secondary to chromothripsis of chromosome 11, resulting in constitutive activation of the NF-B signaling pathway and overexpression of cyclin D1, p65, and L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1CAM). […] Lastly, we report that RELA-fused ependymomas may be associated with different chromosomal copy number changes and molecular alterations compared to their non-RELA-fused counterparts, providing additional insight into the genetic pathogenesis of these tumors and potential targets for directed therapies. […] […] The discordance between World Health Organization grade and clinical outcome has been attributed, at least in part, to an underlying molecular heterogeneity within ependymomas. […] A recent study suggested that ependymomas could be classified into nine different subgroups based on their DNA methylation profiles. One of the groups that emerged was characterized by recurrent RELA rearrangements, most often with the partner C11orf95. […] Although initial studies showed that RELA-fused ependymomas are associated with poor clinical outcome, subsequent studies have not confirmed the prognostic significance of RELA rearrangement as an independent marker. […] In contrast, non-RELA-fused ependymomas in adults remain poorly characterized.
  • #30 Ependymoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/986333-overview
    Yap1-fusion positive: represents the minority of supratentorial ependymomas, characterized by a gene fusion more commonly observed in younger patients and is thought to carry a favorable prognosis. […] PF-A: The most common and aggressive subgroup, these occur in young children and appear to lack recurrent somatic mutations. […] PF-B: These tumors tend to present in older children and adolescents. They display frequent large-scale copy number gains and losses but have favorable clinical outcomes. […] MYCN-amplified: Contains an amplified oncogene that drives rapid proliferation; aggressive subtype with higher likelihood for dissemination and worse prognosis than other spinal subtypes. […] Myxopapillary ependymoma: relatively slow-growing tumor with favorable prognosis, but recur at a rate similar to other spinal tumors; the vast majority arise in the conus medullaris and cauda equina; primarily occur in young adults.
  • #31
    https://journals.lww.com/ijpm/fulltext/2022/65001/overview_of_recent_advances_in_the_classification.10.aspx
    YAP1 is the main downstream effector of the Hippo signaling pathway, which is de-regulated in several malignancies. […] PFA ependymomas show frequent chromosome 1q gain which is correlated with a poor prognosis but do not delineate other copy number aberrations. […] Spinal ependymomas also show association with neurofibromatosis type 2, and sporadic cases also show an increased frequency of NF2 gene mutation. […] These tumors uniquely arise in the region of the conus medullaris, cauda equina, and filum terminale but rarely in the intra-cranial location. […] In sub-ependymomas, the relationship between the methylome pattern and morphology is imprecise, and incorporation of molecular profiles does not have any proven clinical advantage over morphological classification. […] A layered integrated diagnosis should be offered for ependymomas.
  • #32 Ependymoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/986333-overview
    Yap1-fusion positive: represents the minority of supratentorial ependymomas, characterized by a gene fusion more commonly observed in younger patients and is thought to carry a favorable prognosis. […] PF-A: The most common and aggressive subgroup, these occur in young children and appear to lack recurrent somatic mutations. […] PF-B: These tumors tend to present in older children and adolescents. They display frequent large-scale copy number gains and losses but have favorable clinical outcomes. […] MYCN-amplified: Contains an amplified oncogene that drives rapid proliferation; aggressive subtype with higher likelihood for dissemination and worse prognosis than other spinal subtypes. […] Myxopapillary ependymoma: relatively slow-growing tumor with favorable prognosis, but recur at a rate similar to other spinal tumors; the vast majority arise in the conus medullaris and cauda equina; primarily occur in young adults.
  • #33 Ependymoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/986333-overview
    Yap1-fusion positive: represents the minority of supratentorial ependymomas, characterized by a gene fusion more commonly observed in younger patients and is thought to carry a favorable prognosis. […] PF-A: The most common and aggressive subgroup, these occur in young children and appear to lack recurrent somatic mutations. […] PF-B: These tumors tend to present in older children and adolescents. They display frequent large-scale copy number gains and losses but have favorable clinical outcomes. […] MYCN-amplified: Contains an amplified oncogene that drives rapid proliferation; aggressive subtype with higher likelihood for dissemination and worse prognosis than other spinal subtypes. […] Myxopapillary ependymoma: relatively slow-growing tumor with favorable prognosis, but recur at a rate similar to other spinal tumors; the vast majority arise in the conus medullaris and cauda equina; primarily occur in young adults.
  • #34 Ependymoma: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/986333-overview
    Yap1-fusion positive: represents the minority of supratentorial ependymomas, characterized by a gene fusion more commonly observed in younger patients and is thought to carry a favorable prognosis. […] PF-A: The most common and aggressive subgroup, these occur in young children and appear to lack recurrent somatic mutations. […] PF-B: These tumors tend to present in older children and adolescents. They display frequent large-scale copy number gains and losses but have favorable clinical outcomes. […] MYCN-amplified: Contains an amplified oncogene that drives rapid proliferation; aggressive subtype with higher likelihood for dissemination and worse prognosis than other spinal subtypes. […] Myxopapillary ependymoma: relatively slow-growing tumor with favorable prognosis, but recur at a rate similar to other spinal tumors; the vast majority arise in the conus medullaris and cauda equina; primarily occur in young adults.
  • #35
    https://journals.lww.com/ijpm/fulltext/2022/65001/overview_of_recent_advances_in_the_classification.10.aspx
    YAP1 is the main downstream effector of the Hippo signaling pathway, which is de-regulated in several malignancies. […] PFA ependymomas show frequent chromosome 1q gain which is correlated with a poor prognosis but do not delineate other copy number aberrations. […] Spinal ependymomas also show association with neurofibromatosis type 2, and sporadic cases also show an increased frequency of NF2 gene mutation. […] These tumors uniquely arise in the region of the conus medullaris, cauda equina, and filum terminale but rarely in the intra-cranial location. […] In sub-ependymomas, the relationship between the methylome pattern and morphology is imprecise, and incorporation of molecular profiles does not have any proven clinical advantage over morphological classification. […] A layered integrated diagnosis should be offered for ependymomas.
  • #36 The Similarities and Differences between Intracranial and Spinal Ependymomas : A Review from a Genetic Research Perspective
    https://www.jkns.or.kr/journal/view.php?number=867
    Ependymomas occur in both the brain and spine. The genetic landscape of ependymoma is very heterogeneous despite the similarity of histopathologic findings. From the literature review, many studies have reported that spinal cord ependymoma might be associated with NF2 mutation, NEFL overexpression, Merlin loss, and 9q gain. Prior studies have identified HIC-1 methylation, 4.1B deletion, and 4.1R loss as common features in intracranial ependymoma. Spinal ependymoma has been found to be quite different from intracranial ependymoma in genetic studies, and the favorable prognosis in spinal ependymoma may be the result of the genetic differences. A more detailed understanding of these various genetic aberrations may enable the identification of more specific prognostic markers as well as the development of customized targeted therapies. Ependymoma in the spinal cord may be related with NF2 mutations, NEFL overexpression, and 9q gain. Its intracranial counterpart may be related with HIC-1 methylation, 4.1B deletion, and 4.1R loss.
  • #37 An Insight into Pathophysiological Features and Therapeutic Advances on Ependymoma
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8269186/
    Ependymomas are thought to be caused by oncogenetic events that turn normal ependymal cells into tumor phenotypes. […] Tumorigenesis is a complex multistep process that transforms a normal cell into malignant cells or cancer stem cells (CSCs). The process comprises the following three stages: initiation, promotion, and progression. This multistep process involves activation of the oncogene, inactivation of a tumor suppressor gene, as well as epigenetic phenomena that alter gene expression. […] Traditionally, ependymomas are thought to originate from ependymal cells that line the ventricles and the central canal of the spinal cord. A study conducted by Taylor et al. demonstrated that RGCs were ependymoma stem cells or the root cells of an ependymoma. […] A recent study demonstrated that the oncogene EPH receptor B2 (EPHB2) could induce an ependymoma by converting an RGC in the forebrain into a CSC.
  • #38 An Insight into Pathophysiological Features and Therapeutic Advances on Ependymoma
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/13/13/3221
    Ependymomas are thought to originate from ependymal cells that line the ventricles and the central canal of the spinal cord. […] A study conducted by Taylor et al. demonstrated that RGCs were ependymoma stem cells or the root cells of an ependymoma. […] A recent study demonstrated that the oncogene EPH receptor B2 (EPHB2) could induce an ependymoma by converting an RGC in the forebrain into a CSC. […] However, aberrant transcription factor activity such as empty spiracles homeobox 2 (EMX2), breakage of the adherence gene αE-Catenin at the apical cell junction, and deregulation of notch signaling pathways have been found to convert the RGC behavior and provoke ependymoma activity. […] Tumorigenesis also involves the deregulation of different pathways, such as the Notch and EPHB-Ephrin signaling pathways.
  • #39 An Insight into Pathophysiological Features and Therapeutic Advances on Ependymoma
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/13/13/3221
    The deregulation of Notch signaling is assumed to be involved in ependymal cell tumorigenesis, particularly in supratentorial ependymomas. […] Chromosomal abnormalities play a remarkable role in ependymomas. […] The deletion of the RAC family small GTPase 2 (RAC2) and chibby family member 1 (CBY1) gene in the chromosome 22q12.3–22q13.33 region are observed in 38% of intracranial ependymomas. […] The gain of chromosomes 1q, a momentous tumor aggressiveness prognosticator, is often detected in pediatric intracranial ependymomas. […] The elevated expression of hTERT promotes ependymoma development by decreasing DNA damage, increasing cell proliferation, and lessening cell apoptosis. […] Ependymomas arise from the cranial ventricular system or spinal cord. […] RGCs are multi-potent self-renewing progenitor cells in the brain that can proliferate into neurons and glial cells.
  • #40 Ependymoma pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Ependymoma_pathophysiology
    On gross pathology, a well-encapsulated tumor which arises from the floor of the fourth ventricle, situated in the lower back portion of the brain is a characteristic finding of ependymoma. […] Development of ependymoma is the result of multiple genetic mutations (ERBB2, ERBB4, MMP2, MMP14, NOTCH1, and MEN1). […] Genes involved in ependymoma formation and progression are: ERBB2, ERBB4, Human telomerase reverse transcriptase TERT, KIT receptor tyrosine kinase and phospho-KIT receptor expression is associated with tumor progression, MMP2 and MMP14 mutations appear to also play a role in tumor growth and progression in intracranial cases. […] NOTCH1 mutations have been found in approximately 8% of pediatric ependymomas. […] MEN1 mutations are occasionally found in pediatric ependymomas. […] TPR and CHIBBY mutations have been identified in pediatric ependymomas. […] S100A6 and S100A4 on chromosome 1q have also been found to correspond to supratentorial tumor development and tumors occurring before the age of 3 years.
  • #41 An Insight into Pathophysiological Features and Therapeutic Advances on Ependymoma
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/13/13/3221
    Ependymomas are thought to originate from ependymal cells that line the ventricles and the central canal of the spinal cord. […] A study conducted by Taylor et al. demonstrated that RGCs were ependymoma stem cells or the root cells of an ependymoma. […] A recent study demonstrated that the oncogene EPH receptor B2 (EPHB2) could induce an ependymoma by converting an RGC in the forebrain into a CSC. […] However, aberrant transcription factor activity such as empty spiracles homeobox 2 (EMX2), breakage of the adherence gene αE-Catenin at the apical cell junction, and deregulation of notch signaling pathways have been found to convert the RGC behavior and provoke ependymoma activity. […] Tumorigenesis also involves the deregulation of different pathways, such as the Notch and EPHB-Ephrin signaling pathways.
  • #42 Pediatric ependymoma – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatric_ependymoma
    Ependymomas have been suggested to arise from radial glial cells, suggesting neural stem cell maintenance pathways such as Notch, sonic hedgehog (SHH), and p53 are important for the pathogenesis of ependymomas. […] Over-expression of components of SHH pathway such as GLI1, GLI2, and STK36 implicates deregulation of the SHH pathway in ependymomas. Moreover, over-expression of SHH targets IGFBP2, IGFBP3, and IGFBP5 in ependymoma is also suggestive of a role for SHH and insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling in the pathogenesis of pediatric ependymomas.
  • #43 Study reveals mechanism involved in rare pediatric brain cancer and points to possible treatment | EurekAlert!
    https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/963168
    Ependymomas are central nervous system tumors of various kinds that can basically be treated only by surgical removal and radiation therapy. […] Using an array of advanced techniques, the researchers discovered that the so-called Hedgehog signaling pathway (Hh) is highly activated in this type of tumor. […] The researchers discovered that primary cilia formation was regulated by a specific protein called AURKA. […] They therefore treated the tumors with Alisertib as well as Sonidegib. […] Although the combination was not successful in our animal model, we now understand the tumors molecular mechanisms and have a route to follow that was previously unknown, Magalhes said. […] For Elvis Terci Valera, a professor in FMRP-USPs child health program and last author of the article, the discoveries open up a prospect of clinical studies using a more advanced generation of Hh and AURKA inhibitors capable of penetrating the central nervous system.
  • #44 Investigating the role the PI3K pathway plays in ependymoma pathogenesis – Nottingham ePrints
    https://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/56824/
    Investigating the role the PI3K pathway plays in ependymoma pathogenesis. […] It was previously found that the PI3K signalling pathway, a cell survival cascade implicated in many cancers, was activated in 72% of primary ependymomas which suggests a significant role in disease pathogenesis. […] This study investigated the impact of signalling through the PI3K pathway in ependymoma survival and its prospect as an alternative target to treat these tumours. […] BKM120-mediated inhibition of the PI3K pathway in ependymoma impedes survival and viability, making it an attractive chemotherapeutic target to treat these tumours. […] Clinical efficiency of PI3K pathway inhibitors in ependymoma might be more appreciated when administered as part of a combination treatment.
  • #45
    https://journals.lww.com/co-neurology/Fulltext/2012/12000/Molecular_approaches_to_ependymoma___the_next.17.aspx?generateEpub=Article%7Cco-neurology:2012:12000:00017%7C10.1097/wco.0b013e328359cdf5%7C
    Effective treatment options for ependymoma apart from radical surgery and radiotherapy remain scarce, and the understanding of the molecular basis of ependymoma biology is crucial to the development of novel therapies. […] Comprehensive work revealing molecular pathomechanisms of ependymoma has been done; however, the elucidation of the processes underlying the origins of various clearly distinguishable ependymoma subgroups has proved to be difficult. […] Coordinated efforts to advance novel therapies into the clinic have led to breakthrough insights into the molecular biology of ependymoma.
  • #46 Metabolic Regulation of the Epigenome Drives Lethal Infantile Ependymoma | CERN Foundation
    https://www.cern-foundation.org/news/metabolic-regulation-of-the-epigenome-drives-ependymoma
    Ependymomas are glial tumors that occur throughout the central nervous system. […] In this publication, the investigators have identified a metabolic-epigenomic link in PFA ependymomas that informs the phenotype of PFA ependymoma and possible development of novel therapeutic strategies for these lethal cancers. […] Our previous research findings showed that the PFA brain tumours emerge very early in a childs development and, remarkably, there are no specific genetic mutations that are known to cause these tumours. Instead, these tumours possess a unique way of regulating what genes are on or off a unique epigenetic landscape. […] We observed that PFA ependymoma tumours have an enriched hypoxia (response to low oxygen level) signature which is correlated with poor survival. […] First, we showed hypoxia (low oxygen) environment is not only important for the establishing disease models, also quite essential for PFA ependymomas survival.
  • #47
    https://journals.lww.com/ijpm/fulltext/2022/65001/overview_of_recent_advances_in_the_classification.10.aspx
    Ependymomas can arise along the entire neuraxis; however, they possess site-specific unique molecular alterations and a methylome pattern which is directly related with the prognostic outcomes. […] Ependymomas are thought to arise from radial glial stem cells. […] The molecular classification of ependymomas is based on novel diagnostic technologies such as DNA methylome profiling and DNA sequencing. […] Markedly variable molecular alterations are frequently reported in ependymomas which include cytogenetic, genetic, epigenetic, and transcriptomic changes. These changes are site-specific based on which ependymomas are broadly classified into nine groups by Pajtler et al. […] C11orf95-RELA fusion is the result of chromothripsis, which leads to constitutive activation of the NF-k pathway.
  • #48 Characterization of molecular signatures of supratentorial ependymomas | Modern Pathology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41379-019-0329-2
    Ependymomas show poor correlation between World Health Organization grade and clinical outcome. A subgroup of supratentorial ependymomas are characterized by C11orf95-RELA fusions, presumed to be secondary to chromothripsis of chromosome 11, resulting in constitutive activation of the NF-B signaling pathway and overexpression of cyclin D1, p65, and L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1CAM). […] Lastly, we report that RELA-fused ependymomas may be associated with different chromosomal copy number changes and molecular alterations compared to their non-RELA-fused counterparts, providing additional insight into the genetic pathogenesis of these tumors and potential targets for directed therapies. […] […] The discordance between World Health Organization grade and clinical outcome has been attributed, at least in part, to an underlying molecular heterogeneity within ependymomas. […] A recent study suggested that ependymomas could be classified into nine different subgroups based on their DNA methylation profiles. One of the groups that emerged was characterized by recurrent RELA rearrangements, most often with the partner C11orf95. […] Although initial studies showed that RELA-fused ependymomas are associated with poor clinical outcome, subsequent studies have not confirmed the prognostic significance of RELA rearrangement as an independent marker. […] In contrast, non-RELA-fused ependymomas in adults remain poorly characterized.
  • #49 Methylation Profiling of Specific Genes in Ependymomas – Turkish Journal of Pathology
    https://www.turkjpath.org/doi.php?doi=10.5146/tjpath.2021.01565
    Ependymomas are neuroepithelial tumors of the central nervous system with heterogeneous biology and clinical course. […] Studies on the molecular oncogenesis of ependymomas are basically based on the changes of DNA methylation patterns. […] In the present study, we analyzed the gene-specific methylation profiles of the CDKN2A, RASSF1A, KLF4 and ZIC2 genes in the ependymoma tumor tissues. […] The genetic and epigenetic basis of the oncogenesis of ependymomas has been under scrutiny for the last decade. […] Hypermethylation of the RASSF1A promoter is one of the most common molecular changes in ependymomas. […] Current cancer research is mainly focused on discovering biomarkers, which can potentially be targets for drug selection or to stratify the patients according to the risk categories. […] We think DNA methylation changes could have a biological significance in ependymomas. Both ZIC2 and RASSF1A methylation status may be useful parameters in the subclassification of ependymomas.
  • #50 PFA ependymoma-associated protein EZHIP inhibits PRC2 activity through a H3 K27M-like mechanism | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-09981-6
    Posterior fossa type A (PFA) ependymomas exhibit very low H3K27 methylation and express high levels of EZHIP (Enhancer of Zeste Homologs Inhibitory Protein, also termed CXORF67). […] EZHIP directly contacts the active site of the EZH2 subunit in a mechanism similar to the H3 K27M oncohistone. […] Our data indicate that PFA ependymoma and DIPG are driven in part by the action of peptidyl PRC2 inhibitors, the K27M oncohistone and the EZHIP oncohistone-mimic, that dysregulate gene silencing to promote tumorigenesis. […] A molecular subtype of ependymoma tumors exhibits extremely low H3K27 methylation levels similar to K27M-containing DIPG and midline gliomas. […] Compared to the PFB subgroup, PFA ependymomas exhibit H3K27me3 reduction and CpG island-hypermethylation similar to DIPG tumors containing the K27M oncohistone.
  • #51 PFA ependymoma-associated protein EZHIP inhibits PRC2 activity through a H3 K27M-like mechanism | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-09981-6
    Posterior fossa type A (PFA) ependymomas exhibit very low H3K27 methylation and express high levels of EZHIP (Enhancer of Zeste Homologs Inhibitory Protein, also termed CXORF67). […] EZHIP directly contacts the active site of the EZH2 subunit in a mechanism similar to the H3 K27M oncohistone. […] Our data indicate that PFA ependymoma and DIPG are driven in part by the action of peptidyl PRC2 inhibitors, the K27M oncohistone and the EZHIP oncohistone-mimic, that dysregulate gene silencing to promote tumorigenesis. […] A molecular subtype of ependymoma tumors exhibits extremely low H3K27 methylation levels similar to K27M-containing DIPG and midline gliomas. […] Compared to the PFB subgroup, PFA ependymomas exhibit H3K27me3 reduction and CpG island-hypermethylation similar to DIPG tumors containing the K27M oncohistone.
  • #52 PFA ependymoma-associated protein EZHIP inhibits PRC2 activity through a H3 K27M-like mechanism | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-09981-6
    We find that CXORF67 contains a highly conserved K27M-like sequence that is necessary and sufficient to inhibit PRC2 activity and reduce cellular H3K27me3 levels. […] Our biochemical and cell-based studies demonstrate that CXORF67 functions as a K27M-like peptidyl inhibitor of PRC2. […] We conclude that these two biologically and clinically related brain tumors also share a common biochemical mechanism in tumorigenesis: inhibition of PRC2 activity through expression of potent peptide inhibitors. […] Taken together, our results suggest that EZHIP directly interacts with PRC2 and inhibits its lysine methyltransferase activity. […] Our in vitro and in vivo data indicate that a K27M-like peptide (KLP) in the C-terminus of EZHIP is necessary to inhibit PRC2 catalytic activity. […] Expression of EZHIP transgenes caused a marked reduction in H3K27me2/3 in various cell types through inhibition of PRC2 activity in a K27M-like mechanism. […] We propose that aberrant expression of EZHIP contributes to PFA ependymoma tumorigenesis through dysregulation of PRC2-mediated gene repression.
  • #53 Clinical significance of the histological and molecular characteristics of ependymal tumors: a single institution case series from China | BMC Cancer | Full Text
    https://bmccancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12885-019-5877-9
    We detected CCND1 amplification in our clinical samples and found that CCND1 amplification was related to a shorter survival time especially in the intracranial cases. […] H3K27me3 can also be used as a surrogate for DNA methylation; a reduction of H3K27me3 corresponds to EPN-PFA and suggests that the patients need post-surgery therapy and have a worse survival status. […] In our study, we found that H3K27me3 could also be used as a prognostic marker for ependymal tumors. […] Therefore, our study suggests that the reduction of H3K27me3 may also participate in the epigenetic process in ependymal tumors.
  • #54 Metabolic Regulation of the Epigenome Drives Lethal Infantile Ependymoma | CERN Foundation
    https://www.cern-foundation.org/news/metabolic-regulation-of-the-epigenome-drives-ependymoma
    Ependymomas are glial tumors that occur throughout the central nervous system. […] In this publication, the investigators have identified a metabolic-epigenomic link in PFA ependymomas that informs the phenotype of PFA ependymoma and possible development of novel therapeutic strategies for these lethal cancers. […] Our previous research findings showed that the PFA brain tumours emerge very early in a childs development and, remarkably, there are no specific genetic mutations that are known to cause these tumours. Instead, these tumours possess a unique way of regulating what genes are on or off a unique epigenetic landscape. […] We observed that PFA ependymoma tumours have an enriched hypoxia (response to low oxygen level) signature which is correlated with poor survival. […] First, we showed hypoxia (low oxygen) environment is not only important for the establishing disease models, also quite essential for PFA ependymomas survival.
  • #55 Metabolic Regulation of the Epigenome Drives Lethal Infantile Ependymoma | CERN Foundation
    https://www.cern-foundation.org/news/metabolic-regulation-of-the-epigenome-drives-ependymoma
    We further explored the underlying mechanism where hypoxia regulate genes expression and availability key metabolites that collectively contributes to epigenetic profiling of ependymoma. […] We have identified a highly linked metabolic-epigenomic phenotype in PFA ependymomas that informs both the phenotype of PFA ependymoma, and opportunities for development of novel therapeutic strategies.
  • #56 Ependymoma research | Taylor Lab
    https://lab.research.sickkids.ca/taylor/research/
    Ependymoma is the third most common paediatric brain tumor and remains incurable in nearly 45 per cent of patients. Our recent integrated genomics research into the biology of ependymoma has demonstrated that mutation rates are very low and that epigenetic modifications are central to ependymoma pathogenesis. […] It therefore appears that the unique metabolic environment of the developing human fetal hindbrain might contribute to the phenotype of PFA ependymoma through the influence of intermediary metabolism on the epigenome, and that this mechanism might offer an opportunity for novel targeted therapy. […] Our current and future work is focused on isolating and studying the cell of origin so we can determine if the unique metabolism of PFA cells is merely a reflection of their cell of origin in the early hindbrain, or an acquired phenotype.
  • #57
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10014-021-00417-y
    Although ependymomas (EPNs) have similar histopathology, they are heterogeneous tumors with diverse immunophenotypes, genetics, epigenetics, and different clinical behavior according to anatomical locations. […] Fusion genes were found only in ST-EPNs except for one SP-EPN with ZFTA-YAP1 fusion, NF2 gene alterations were found in SP-EPNs, but no driver gene was present in PF-EPNs. […] The gain of chromosome 1q and CDKN2A/2B deletion were associated with poor outcomes, such as multiple recurrences or extracranial metastases. […] A Ki-67 index greater than 5%, 7%, or 10% has been reported to be significantly associated with poor prognosis. […] We concluded that a Ki-67 index of 7% is a good cut-off for the EPN grades and in all anatomical locations. […] In our study, the Ki-67 index (cut-off of 7%) was well correlated with the WHO grades and PFS of our series of EPNs in all anatomical locations. […] Our results showed that chromosome 1q25 gain and CDKN2A/2B loss were significant poor prognostic factors indicating a dismal prognosis, such as multiple recurrence or extracranial metastasis.
  • #58 Clinical significance of the histological and molecular characteristics of ependymal tumors: a single institution case series from China | BMC Cancer | Full Text
    https://bmccancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12885-019-5877-9
    Ependymal tumors are pathologically defined intrinsic neoplasms originating in the intracranial compartments or the spinal cord that affect both children and adults. […] The recently integrated classification of ependymomas based on both histological and molecular characteristics is capable of subgrouping patients with various prognoses. […] We aimed to demonstrate the significance of histological characteristics, the v-relavian reticuloendotheliosis viral oncogene homolog A (RELA) fusions and other molecular features in ependymal tumors. […] Genetic studies have shown that molecular alterations are very common in ependymomas, which display a broad range of cytogenetic aberrations. […] One of the nine molecular alterations driving major prognostic implications is v-relavian reticuloendotheliosis viral oncogene homolog A (RELA) fusions.
  • #59
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10014-021-00417-y
    Although ependymomas (EPNs) have similar histopathology, they are heterogeneous tumors with diverse immunophenotypes, genetics, epigenetics, and different clinical behavior according to anatomical locations. […] Fusion genes were found only in ST-EPNs except for one SP-EPN with ZFTA-YAP1 fusion, NF2 gene alterations were found in SP-EPNs, but no driver gene was present in PF-EPNs. […] The gain of chromosome 1q and CDKN2A/2B deletion were associated with poor outcomes, such as multiple recurrences or extracranial metastases. […] A Ki-67 index greater than 5%, 7%, or 10% has been reported to be significantly associated with poor prognosis. […] We concluded that a Ki-67 index of 7% is a good cut-off for the EPN grades and in all anatomical locations. […] In our study, the Ki-67 index (cut-off of 7%) was well correlated with the WHO grades and PFS of our series of EPNs in all anatomical locations. […] Our results showed that chromosome 1q25 gain and CDKN2A/2B loss were significant poor prognostic factors indicating a dismal prognosis, such as multiple recurrence or extracranial metastasis.
  • #60 Clinical significance of the histological and molecular characteristics of ependymal tumors: a single institution case series from China | BMC Cancer | Full Text
    https://bmccancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12885-019-5877-9
    The RELA gene is located in 11q, and RELA fusions activate the Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-B) cellular pathway, which is a central mediator of the cellular inflammatory response. […] RELA fusions have been shown to activate the NF-B target gene, upregulate L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1CAM) and thereby have a profound impact on the expression of several other genes that regulate focal adhesion. […] The finding of this present study showed that RELA fusions were related to a shorter survival time in intracranial tumors. […] The aggressive pathological features related to RELA fusions may be induced by the aberrant NF-kB signaling, and the mechanism required further exploration. […] CCND1 amplification has been reported in many cancers, including breast cancer, esophageal cancer, laryngeal, and lung cancers.
  • #61
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10014-021-00417-y
    Although ependymomas (EPNs) have similar histopathology, they are heterogeneous tumors with diverse immunophenotypes, genetics, epigenetics, and different clinical behavior according to anatomical locations. […] Fusion genes were found only in ST-EPNs except for one SP-EPN with ZFTA-YAP1 fusion, NF2 gene alterations were found in SP-EPNs, but no driver gene was present in PF-EPNs. […] The gain of chromosome 1q and CDKN2A/2B deletion were associated with poor outcomes, such as multiple recurrences or extracranial metastases. […] A Ki-67 index greater than 5%, 7%, or 10% has been reported to be significantly associated with poor prognosis. […] We concluded that a Ki-67 index of 7% is a good cut-off for the EPN grades and in all anatomical locations. […] In our study, the Ki-67 index (cut-off of 7%) was well correlated with the WHO grades and PFS of our series of EPNs in all anatomical locations. […] Our results showed that chromosome 1q25 gain and CDKN2A/2B loss were significant poor prognostic factors indicating a dismal prognosis, such as multiple recurrence or extracranial metastasis.
  • #62 Clinical significance of the histological and molecular characteristics of ependymal tumors: a single institution case series from China | BMC Cancer | Full Text
    https://bmccancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12885-019-5877-9
    The RELA gene is located in 11q, and RELA fusions activate the Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-B) cellular pathway, which is a central mediator of the cellular inflammatory response. […] RELA fusions have been shown to activate the NF-B target gene, upregulate L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1CAM) and thereby have a profound impact on the expression of several other genes that regulate focal adhesion. […] The finding of this present study showed that RELA fusions were related to a shorter survival time in intracranial tumors. […] The aggressive pathological features related to RELA fusions may be induced by the aberrant NF-kB signaling, and the mechanism required further exploration. […] CCND1 amplification has been reported in many cancers, including breast cancer, esophageal cancer, laryngeal, and lung cancers.
  • #63 Clinical significance of the histological and molecular characteristics of ependymal tumors: a single institution case series from China | BMC Cancer | Full Text
    https://bmccancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12885-019-5877-9
    The RELA gene is located in 11q, and RELA fusions activate the Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-B) cellular pathway, which is a central mediator of the cellular inflammatory response. […] RELA fusions have been shown to activate the NF-B target gene, upregulate L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1CAM) and thereby have a profound impact on the expression of several other genes that regulate focal adhesion. […] The finding of this present study showed that RELA fusions were related to a shorter survival time in intracranial tumors. […] The aggressive pathological features related to RELA fusions may be induced by the aberrant NF-kB signaling, and the mechanism required further exploration. […] CCND1 amplification has been reported in many cancers, including breast cancer, esophageal cancer, laryngeal, and lung cancers.
  • #64 Clinical significance of the histological and molecular characteristics of ependymal tumors: a single institution case series from China | BMC Cancer | Full Text
    https://bmccancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12885-019-5877-9
    The RELA gene is located in 11q, and RELA fusions activate the Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-B) cellular pathway, which is a central mediator of the cellular inflammatory response. […] RELA fusions have been shown to activate the NF-B target gene, upregulate L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1CAM) and thereby have a profound impact on the expression of several other genes that regulate focal adhesion. […] The finding of this present study showed that RELA fusions were related to a shorter survival time in intracranial tumors. […] The aggressive pathological features related to RELA fusions may be induced by the aberrant NF-kB signaling, and the mechanism required further exploration. […] CCND1 amplification has been reported in many cancers, including breast cancer, esophageal cancer, laryngeal, and lung cancers.
  • #65 Characterization of molecular signatures of supratentorial ependymomas | Modern Pathology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41379-019-0329-2
    Ependymomas show poor correlation between World Health Organization grade and clinical outcome. A subgroup of supratentorial ependymomas are characterized by C11orf95-RELA fusions, presumed to be secondary to chromothripsis of chromosome 11, resulting in constitutive activation of the NF-B signaling pathway and overexpression of cyclin D1, p65, and L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1CAM). […] Lastly, we report that RELA-fused ependymomas may be associated with different chromosomal copy number changes and molecular alterations compared to their non-RELA-fused counterparts, providing additional insight into the genetic pathogenesis of these tumors and potential targets for directed therapies. […] […] The discordance between World Health Organization grade and clinical outcome has been attributed, at least in part, to an underlying molecular heterogeneity within ependymomas. […] A recent study suggested that ependymomas could be classified into nine different subgroups based on their DNA methylation profiles. One of the groups that emerged was characterized by recurrent RELA rearrangements, most often with the partner C11orf95. […] Although initial studies showed that RELA-fused ependymomas are associated with poor clinical outcome, subsequent studies have not confirmed the prognostic significance of RELA rearrangement as an independent marker. […] In contrast, non-RELA-fused ependymomas in adults remain poorly characterized.
  • #66
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10014-021-00417-y
    Although ependymomas (EPNs) have similar histopathology, they are heterogeneous tumors with diverse immunophenotypes, genetics, epigenetics, and different clinical behavior according to anatomical locations. […] Fusion genes were found only in ST-EPNs except for one SP-EPN with ZFTA-YAP1 fusion, NF2 gene alterations were found in SP-EPNs, but no driver gene was present in PF-EPNs. […] The gain of chromosome 1q and CDKN2A/2B deletion were associated with poor outcomes, such as multiple recurrences or extracranial metastases. […] A Ki-67 index greater than 5%, 7%, or 10% has been reported to be significantly associated with poor prognosis. […] We concluded that a Ki-67 index of 7% is a good cut-off for the EPN grades and in all anatomical locations. […] In our study, the Ki-67 index (cut-off of 7%) was well correlated with the WHO grades and PFS of our series of EPNs in all anatomical locations. […] Our results showed that chromosome 1q25 gain and CDKN2A/2B loss were significant poor prognostic factors indicating a dismal prognosis, such as multiple recurrence or extracranial metastasis.
  • #67 Ependymoma | Brain Tumor Center | Stanford Medicine
    https://med.stanford.edu/brain-tumor/conditions/glioma/ependymoma.html
    Ependymoma is a glioma of ependymal origin. […] Ependymal cells give rise to ependymomas. […] The presence of specific genetic markers (mutations) has been shown to be a reliable predictor of tumor behavior and treatment response. […] Examples of genetic markers relevant in categorizing ependymoma include: MYCN amplification of spinal cord ependymomas. Tumors with this biomarker tend to show rapid progression, early metastases, and resistance to treatment. […] Genetic markers provide clues about the tumor and allow physicians to individualize the treatment plan. […] Pathologists also consider the cellular appearance and presence of genetic markers to assign a grade to the tumor. Grading is a prediction of how the cancer would behave without treatment. In ependymoma, a grade is assigned within a particular subtype and can range from 1 (less aggressive) to 3 (more aggressive).
  • #68
    https://journals.lww.com/co-neurology/Fulltext/2012/12000/Molecular_approaches_to_ependymoma___the_next.17.aspx?generateEpub=Article%7Cco-neurology:2012:12000:00017%7C10.1097/wco.0b013e328359cdf5%7C
    Effective treatment options for ependymoma apart from radical surgery and radiotherapy remain scarce, and the understanding of the molecular basis of ependymoma biology is crucial to the development of novel therapies. […] Comprehensive work revealing molecular pathomechanisms of ependymoma has been done; however, the elucidation of the processes underlying the origins of various clearly distinguishable ependymoma subgroups has proved to be difficult. […] Coordinated efforts to advance novel therapies into the clinic have led to breakthrough insights into the molecular biology of ependymoma.
  • #69 Molecular Classification and Therapeutic Targets in Ependymoma
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/13/24/6218
    Molecular characterization of ependymoma has revolutionized its categorization. This new molecular classification has implications particularly in targeted therapeutics. Amongst the ten subgroups of ependymoma currently described, three are found in the spinal compartment, and three in the infratentorial and supratentorial compartments respectively; the subependymoma subgroup is found in all these anatomic compartments. Each subgroup carries unique molecular features that lead to oncogenesis and to disparities in prognosis. […] Ependymoma is a biologically diverse tumor wherein molecular classification has superseded traditional histological grading based on its superior ability to characterize behavior, prognosis, and possible targeted therapies. The current, updated molecular classification of ependymoma consists of ten distinct subgroups spread evenly among the spinal, infratentorial, and supratentorial compartments, each with its own distinct clinical and molecular characteristics.
  • #70 Clinical significance of the histological and molecular characteristics of ependymal tumors: a single institution case series from China | BMC Cancer | Full Text
    https://bmccancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12885-019-5877-9
    The RELA gene is located in 11q, and RELA fusions activate the Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-B) cellular pathway, which is a central mediator of the cellular inflammatory response. […] RELA fusions have been shown to activate the NF-B target gene, upregulate L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1CAM) and thereby have a profound impact on the expression of several other genes that regulate focal adhesion. […] The finding of this present study showed that RELA fusions were related to a shorter survival time in intracranial tumors. […] The aggressive pathological features related to RELA fusions may be induced by the aberrant NF-kB signaling, and the mechanism required further exploration. […] CCND1 amplification has been reported in many cancers, including breast cancer, esophageal cancer, laryngeal, and lung cancers.
  • #71 Study reveals mechanism involved in rare pediatric brain cancer and points to possible treatment | EurekAlert!
    https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/963168
    Ependymomas are central nervous system tumors of various kinds that can basically be treated only by surgical removal and radiation therapy. […] Using an array of advanced techniques, the researchers discovered that the so-called Hedgehog signaling pathway (Hh) is highly activated in this type of tumor. […] The researchers discovered that primary cilia formation was regulated by a specific protein called AURKA. […] They therefore treated the tumors with Alisertib as well as Sonidegib. […] Although the combination was not successful in our animal model, we now understand the tumors molecular mechanisms and have a route to follow that was previously unknown, Magalhes said. […] For Elvis Terci Valera, a professor in FMRP-USPs child health program and last author of the article, the discoveries open up a prospect of clinical studies using a more advanced generation of Hh and AURKA inhibitors capable of penetrating the central nervous system.
  • #72 Investigating the role the PI3K pathway plays in ependymoma pathogenesis – Nottingham ePrints
    https://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/56824/
    Investigating the role the PI3K pathway plays in ependymoma pathogenesis. […] It was previously found that the PI3K signalling pathway, a cell survival cascade implicated in many cancers, was activated in 72% of primary ependymomas which suggests a significant role in disease pathogenesis. […] This study investigated the impact of signalling through the PI3K pathway in ependymoma survival and its prospect as an alternative target to treat these tumours. […] BKM120-mediated inhibition of the PI3K pathway in ependymoma impedes survival and viability, making it an attractive chemotherapeutic target to treat these tumours. […] Clinical efficiency of PI3K pathway inhibitors in ependymoma might be more appreciated when administered as part of a combination treatment.
  • #73 PFA ependymoma-associated protein EZHIP inhibits PRC2 activity through a H3 K27M-like mechanism | Nature Communications
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-09981-6
    We find that CXORF67 contains a highly conserved K27M-like sequence that is necessary and sufficient to inhibit PRC2 activity and reduce cellular H3K27me3 levels. […] Our biochemical and cell-based studies demonstrate that CXORF67 functions as a K27M-like peptidyl inhibitor of PRC2. […] We conclude that these two biologically and clinically related brain tumors also share a common biochemical mechanism in tumorigenesis: inhibition of PRC2 activity through expression of potent peptide inhibitors. […] Taken together, our results suggest that EZHIP directly interacts with PRC2 and inhibits its lysine methyltransferase activity. […] Our in vitro and in vivo data indicate that a K27M-like peptide (KLP) in the C-terminus of EZHIP is necessary to inhibit PRC2 catalytic activity. […] Expression of EZHIP transgenes caused a marked reduction in H3K27me2/3 in various cell types through inhibition of PRC2 activity in a K27M-like mechanism. […] We propose that aberrant expression of EZHIP contributes to PFA ependymoma tumorigenesis through dysregulation of PRC2-mediated gene repression.
  • #74 Metabolic Regulation of the Epigenome Drives Lethal Infantile Ependymoma | CERN Foundation
    https://www.cern-foundation.org/news/metabolic-regulation-of-the-epigenome-drives-ependymoma
    We further explored the underlying mechanism where hypoxia regulate genes expression and availability key metabolites that collectively contributes to epigenetic profiling of ependymoma. […] We have identified a highly linked metabolic-epigenomic phenotype in PFA ependymomas that informs both the phenotype of PFA ependymoma, and opportunities for development of novel therapeutic strategies.
  • #75 Investigating the role the PI3K pathway plays in ependymoma pathogenesis – Nottingham ePrints
    https://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/56824/
    Investigating the role the PI3K pathway plays in ependymoma pathogenesis. […] It was previously found that the PI3K signalling pathway, a cell survival cascade implicated in many cancers, was activated in 72% of primary ependymomas which suggests a significant role in disease pathogenesis. […] This study investigated the impact of signalling through the PI3K pathway in ependymoma survival and its prospect as an alternative target to treat these tumours. […] BKM120-mediated inhibition of the PI3K pathway in ependymoma impedes survival and viability, making it an attractive chemotherapeutic target to treat these tumours. […] Clinical efficiency of PI3K pathway inhibitors in ependymoma might be more appreciated when administered as part of a combination treatment.
  • #76 Childhood Ependymoma – NCI
    https://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/childhood-ependymoma
    Ependymomas start when cells called ependymal cells grow without control. […] Childhood ependymoma is caused by certain changes to the way ependymal cells function, especially how they grow and divide into new cells. The exact cause of these cell changes is unknown. […] A risk factor is anything that increases the chance of getting a disease. Children with an inherited condition called neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2) may have an increased risk of developing ependymoma along the optic pathway. Not every child with this risk factor will develop ependymoma. And it will develop in some children who don’t have a known risk factor.
  • #77 Molecular reclassification reveals low prevalence of germline predisposition in children with ependymoma | Acta Neuropathologica Communications | Full Text
    https://actaneurocomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40478-023-01594-x
    Ependymoma is the second most common malignant childhood brain tumor, accounting for approximately 6% of all central nervous system (CNS) tumors in children. Nonetheless, our knowledge of its underlying etiology is sparse. […] In combination, these studies report 4.7% (9/191) of children with ependymoma to harbor pathogenic germline variants likely underlying the cancer pathogenesis, although individual study estimates range from 0 to more than 20%. Moreover, differing approaches to variant classification and the lack of molecular tumor diagnostics and population-based study designs challenge drawing inferences about the true nature of genetic predisposition for these children. […] Our previous best prevalence estimate for predisposing germline variants in children with ependymoma was 3.4%. This was based on pooling our recently reported cohort with a comprehensive quantitative review of the existing literature, which, of note, is predominated by non-population-based studies of children with non-molecularly classified intracranial ependymoma. From the current reanalysis, it is evident that predisposing pathogenic germline variants are significantly less common in children with molecularly classified ependymoma compared to other childhood CNS tumors overall (5/146 vs. 98/922 (non-ependymoma childhood CNS tumors included in Sturm et al.s study), p-value 0.004, Fishers exact test).
  • #78 Childhood Ependymoma – NCI
    https://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/childhood-ependymoma
    Ependymomas start when cells called ependymal cells grow without control. […] Childhood ependymoma is caused by certain changes to the way ependymal cells function, especially how they grow and divide into new cells. The exact cause of these cell changes is unknown. […] A risk factor is anything that increases the chance of getting a disease. Children with an inherited condition called neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2) may have an increased risk of developing ependymoma along the optic pathway. Not every child with this risk factor will develop ependymoma. And it will develop in some children who don’t have a known risk factor.
  • #79
    https://journals.lww.com/ijpm/fulltext/2022/65001/overview_of_recent_advances_in_the_classification.10.aspx
    YAP1 is the main downstream effector of the Hippo signaling pathway, which is de-regulated in several malignancies. […] PFA ependymomas show frequent chromosome 1q gain which is correlated with a poor prognosis but do not delineate other copy number aberrations. […] Spinal ependymomas also show association with neurofibromatosis type 2, and sporadic cases also show an increased frequency of NF2 gene mutation. […] These tumors uniquely arise in the region of the conus medullaris, cauda equina, and filum terminale but rarely in the intra-cranial location. […] In sub-ependymomas, the relationship between the methylome pattern and morphology is imprecise, and incorporation of molecular profiles does not have any proven clinical advantage over morphological classification. […] A layered integrated diagnosis should be offered for ependymomas.
  • #80 Ependymoma – American Brain Tumor Association | Learn More
    https://www.abta.org/tumor_types/ependymoma/
    Ependymomas arise from the ependymal cells that line the ventricles of the brain and the center of the spinal cord. They are soft, grayish, or red tumors which may contain cysts or mineral calcifications. […] The exact cause of most ependymomas is unknown. One known risk factor for developing ependymoma is an inherited cancer syndrome called neurofibromatosis type 2. However, people who inherit the genetic changes that cause neurofibromatosis type 2 do not inherit ependymoma, meaning that the risk of developing the tumor is not passed down to family members. Only a small number of patients have this cancer syndrome that increases their chance of developing ependymoma and not all patients with this syndrome develop ependymoma. […] Molecular profiling is the detection of specific genes, proteins, or other molecules in a tumor. This information helps confirm tumor diagnosis, inform treatment options, and predict prognosis. Genetic and Molecular markers commonly altered with ependymoma tumors include the following: Supratentorial Ependymomas: ZFTA, RELA, YAP1, MAML2; Posterior Fossa Ependymomas: H3 K27me3, EZHIP (methylome); Spinal Cord Ependymomas: NF2, MYCN.
  • #81 Pediatric ependymoma – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatric_ependymoma
    Pediatric ependymomas are similar in nature to the adult form of ependymoma in that they are thought to arise from radial glial cells lining the ventricular system. […] Ependymomas are believed to arise from radial glial cells. Tumorspheres derived from ependymomas display a radial-glial like phenotype, expressing neuronal stem cell markers CD133 and nestin, as well as radial glial specific markers RC2 and brain lipid binding protein (BLBP/FABP7). Tumorspheres with radial glial characteristics form tumors in orthotopic mouse xenografts, suggesting radial glial as cell of origin for ependymomas. […] A number of genetic syndromes are associated with the development of ependymoma, including neurofibromatosis type II (NF2), Turcot syndrome B, and MEN1 syndrome. However, gene mutations linked to the familial syndromes are rarely found in sporadic cases of ependymoma.
  • #82 Ependymoma pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Ependymoma_pathophysiology
    On gross pathology, a well-encapsulated tumor which arises from the floor of the fourth ventricle, situated in the lower back portion of the brain is a characteristic finding of ependymoma. […] Development of ependymoma is the result of multiple genetic mutations (ERBB2, ERBB4, MMP2, MMP14, NOTCH1, and MEN1). […] Genes involved in ependymoma formation and progression are: ERBB2, ERBB4, Human telomerase reverse transcriptase TERT, KIT receptor tyrosine kinase and phospho-KIT receptor expression is associated with tumor progression, MMP2 and MMP14 mutations appear to also play a role in tumor growth and progression in intracranial cases. […] NOTCH1 mutations have been found in approximately 8% of pediatric ependymomas. […] MEN1 mutations are occasionally found in pediatric ependymomas. […] TPR and CHIBBY mutations have been identified in pediatric ependymomas. […] S100A6 and S100A4 on chromosome 1q have also been found to correspond to supratentorial tumor development and tumors occurring before the age of 3 years.
  • #83 Molecular reclassification reveals low prevalence of germline predisposition in children with ependymoma | Acta Neuropathologica Communications | Full Text
    https://actaneurocomms.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40478-023-01594-x
    Interestingly, in children with ependymoma, all previously reported pathogenic germline TP53 and NF1 variants have either subsequently been reclassified as benign, or described in children for whom tumor methylation profiling has not been reported. This calls into question the link between both Li-Fraumeni Syndrome and neurofibromatosis type-1 and (molecularly classified) ependymoma. […] These data emphasize the need for both germline and tumor DNA profiling in children with CNS tumors and highlight the exceptional scarcity of germline mutations in children with molecularly classified intracranial ependymoma. Identification of cancer predisposition syndromes other than neurofibromatosis type-2 should warrant diagnostic reconsideration in children with ependymoma for whom molecular classification has not been performed.
  • #84 Ependymoma – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538244/
    Several genetic abnormalities have been found to correlate with ependymoma and comprise large genomic regions. Some of these studies have demonstrated that ependymomas correlate with distinct oncogenic products and molecular subgroups which may correlate more accurately with clinical outcomes compared with histologic classification alone. […] Based on genetic mutations and variations, ependymomas are classified as follows: […] The current consensus, however, recommends that patients with PF-EPN-A positive ependymoma, who are older than 12 months of age, undergo maximal safe micro-neurosurgical removal in addition to local radiotherapy. […] With increasing information about molecular pathogenetic mechanisms in ependymomas, the 2016 classification for nervous system tumors from WHO now includes in their classification the presence or absence of specific genetic alterations, RELA fusion-positive or negative, for ependymomas.
  • #85 Ependymoma – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538244/
    There are nine molecular subgroups described in ependymomas, which correlate with different anatomical locations, genetics, and demographic characteristics. These new findings offer the opportunity of potentially improving the classification, management, and prognostic information for ependymomas based on their molecular subgroup.
  • #86 Molecular Classification and Therapeutic Targets in Ependymoma
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/13/24/6218
    Molecular characterization of ependymoma has revolutionized its categorization. This new molecular classification has implications particularly in targeted therapeutics. Amongst the ten subgroups of ependymoma currently described, three are found in the spinal compartment, and three in the infratentorial and supratentorial compartments respectively; the subependymoma subgroup is found in all these anatomic compartments. Each subgroup carries unique molecular features that lead to oncogenesis and to disparities in prognosis. […] Ependymoma is a biologically diverse tumor wherein molecular classification has superseded traditional histological grading based on its superior ability to characterize behavior, prognosis, and possible targeted therapies. The current, updated molecular classification of ependymoma consists of ten distinct subgroups spread evenly among the spinal, infratentorial, and supratentorial compartments, each with its own distinct clinical and molecular characteristics.
  • #87 Molecular Classification and Therapeutic Targets in Ependymoma
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/13/24/6218
    This review emphasizes that despite the varied behavior of the ependymoma subgroups, it remains clear that research must be performed to further elucidate molecular targets for these tumors. […] The development of molecular therapies must rely on building upon our current understanding of ependymoma oncogenesis, as well as cultivating transfer of knowledge based on malignancies with similar genomic alterations.
  • #88
    https://journals.lww.com/co-neurology/Fulltext/2012/12000/Molecular_approaches_to_ependymoma___the_next.17.aspx?generateEpub=Article%7Cco-neurology:2012:12000:00017%7C10.1097/wco.0b013e328359cdf5%7C
    Effective treatment options for ependymoma apart from radical surgery and radiotherapy remain scarce, and the understanding of the molecular basis of ependymoma biology is crucial to the development of novel therapies. […] Comprehensive work revealing molecular pathomechanisms of ependymoma has been done; however, the elucidation of the processes underlying the origins of various clearly distinguishable ependymoma subgroups has proved to be difficult. […] Coordinated efforts to advance novel therapies into the clinic have led to breakthrough insights into the molecular biology of ependymoma.
  • #89
    https://grantome.com/grant/NIH/R21-NS120075-01
    Ultimately, our studies have the potential to improve our understanding of the epigenetic regulation that drives the acquisition of stemness and resistance to therapy and to advance the treatment of PFA EPN patients. […] The proposed research is relevant to public health as it focuses on the overarching theme of how copy number gains mediate an invasive phenotype by promoting metastasis and tumor progression. In particular, these studies will improve our understanding of complex inter-chromosomal structural variants that activate the expression of oncogenes and promote the acquisition and maintenance of stemness in the third most common pediatric brain tumor type ependymoma.