Materiały źródłowe

• #1 COVID-19: Epidemiology, virology, and prevention – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19

  COVID-19: Epidemiology, virology, and prevention […] Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in late 2019 in Wuhan, a city in Hubei Province of China, and subsequently spread worldwide, causing a major global pandemic. […] Before the World Health Organization (WHO) declared an end to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) global health emergency in May 2023, SARS-CoV-2 infection resulted in an estimated 15 million excess deaths in 2020 and 2021 alone. […] As SARS-CoV-2 transitions to endemicity, it remains an important cause of illness around the world. […] This topic will discuss the virology, epidemiology, and prevention of COVID-19.

• #2 COVID-19 pandemic – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic

  The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), began with an outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. Soon after, it spread to other areas of Asia, and then worldwide in early 2020. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the outbreak a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) on 30 January 2020, and assessed the outbreak as having become a pandemic on 11 March. […] COVID-19 symptoms range from asymptomatic to deadly, but most commonly include fever, sore throat, nocturnal cough, and fatigue. Transmission of the virus is often through airborne particles. Mutations have produced many strains (variants) with varying degrees of infectivity and virulence. […] The WHO ended the PHEIC for COVID-19 on 5 May 2023. The disease has continued to circulate. However, as of 2024, experts were uncertain as to whether it was still a pandemic.

• #3 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) – Epidemiology | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/3000168/epidemiology

  The World Health Organization (WHO) was informed of cases of pneumonia of unknown microbial etiology associated with Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China on 31 December 2019. […] The WHO later announced that a novel coronavirus had been detected in samples taken from these patients. Since then, the epidemic escalated and rapidly spread around the world, with the WHO first declaring a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) on 30 January 2020, and then formally declaring it a pandemic on 11 March 2020. […] The WHO declared that COVID-19 no longer constitutes a PHEIC in May 2023. […] Cases have been reported across all continents since the beginning of the pandemic, with over 776 million confirmed cases and over 7 million deaths reported globally. […] Older people 70 years of age and males are at increased risk for infection and severe disease.

• #4 Federal Agencies and Governmental Partnerships in Public Health Emergency Management: Implications for Continued COVID-19 Preparedness and Response HS Today

  https://www.hstoday.us/uncategorized/federal-agencies-and-governmental-partnerships-in-public-health-emergency-management-implications-for-continued-covid-19-preparedness-and-response/

  The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has tested the global governmental and public agency response to pandemic emergencies with regard to a number of areas. […] Since being first recognized in December 2019 and declared a global pandemic on March 11, 2020, by the World Health Organization (WHO), the 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak has caused severe damage in terms of human life, healthcare systems, and the economy both in the United States (U.S.) and around the world. […] An abundance of literature has been written about the importance and impact of monitoring, travel restrictions, social distancing, and other mitigation strategies to reduce community transmission of COVID-19. […] Generally, pandemic preparedness in the U.S. has centered on the four pillars of surveillance, vaccine delivery, communication and coordination, and emergency response.

• #5 Factsheet for health professionals on COVID-19

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/infectious-disease-topics/z-disease-list/covid-19/factsheet-covid-19

  ECDC continuously assesses new evidence on the emergence and circulation of VOCs in the EU and reports its findings on the evolution of SARS-COV-2. […] On 31 December 2019, the Municipal Health Commission in Wuhan City, mainland China, issued a report on a cluster of pneumonia cases of unknown aetiology with a link to a wholesale fish and live animal market. The first European case was reported on 24 January 2020. On 30 January 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared this outbreak of novel coronavirus a public health emergency of international concern and on 11 March 2020 declared it officially as a global pandemic. On 5 May 2023, WHO stated that COVID-19 is now an established and ongoing health issue which no longer constitutes a public health emergency of international concern.

• #6 Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/coronavirus-disease-covid-19

  The COVID-19 epidemic was declared by the WHO as a public health emergency of international concern on January 30, 2020. […] The Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO), Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, announced on 11 March 2020 that the new coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) can be characterized as a pandemic. […] Describing the situation as a pandemic means that the epidemic has spread to several countries, continents or throughout the world, and that it affects large numbers of people. […] COVID-19 no longer constitutes a public health emergency of international concern. […] PAHO Monthly COVID-19 Epidemiological Update – August 2023. […] COVID-19 pandemic in the Americas. Response Strategy and Donor Appeal April 2022 March 2023. Summary. […] Third round of the National Survey on the Continuity of Essential Health Services during the COVID-19 Pandemic: November-December 2021. Interim report for the Region of the Americas, January 2022.

• #7 COVID-19 pandemic – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic

  The global CFR was 1.02 percent as of 10 March 2023. […] Several variants have been named by WHO and labelled as a variant of concern (VoC) or a variant of interest (VoI). […] The disease is mainly transmitted via the respiratory route when people inhale droplets and small airborne particles that infected people exhale as they breathe, talk, cough, sneeze, or sing. […] Preventive measures to reduce the chances of infection include getting vaccinated, staying at home or spending more time outdoors, avoiding crowded places, keeping distance from others, wearing a mask in public, ventilating indoor spaces, managing potential exposure durations, washing hands with soap and water often and for at least twenty seconds, practising good respiratory hygiene, and avoiding touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands. […] COVID-19 vaccines were developed rapidly and deployed to the general public beginning in December 2020.

• #8 WHO COVID-19 dashboard

  https://data.who.int/dashboards/covid19/cases

  Case detection, definitions, testing strategies, reporting practice, and lag times (e.g. time to case notification, and time to reporting of deaths) differ between countries, territories and areas. […] Please note that statistics do not necessarily reflect the actual number of cases and deaths or the actual number of countries where cases and deaths are occurring, as a number of countries have stopped reporting or changed their frequency of reporting. […] All data represent date of reporting as opposed to date of symptom onset. All data are subject to continuous verification and may change based on retrospective updates to accurately reflect trends, changes in country case definitions and/or reporting practices. […] Starting from the week commencing on 11 September 2023, the source of the data from the Region of the Americas was switched to the aggregated national surveillances, received through the COVID-19, Influenza, RSV and Other Respiratory Viruses program in the Americas. Data have been included retrospectively since 31 July 2023.

• #9 COVID-19 pandemic – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic

  The scientific consensus is that the virus is most likely of a zoonotic origin, from bats or another closely related mammal. […] Official „case” counts refer to the number of people who have been tested for COVID-19 and whose test has been confirmed positive according to official protocols whether or not they experienced symptomatic disease. […] As of 10 March 2023, more than 6.88 million deaths had been attributed to COVID-19. […] Official death counts typically include people who died after testing positive. Such counts exclude deaths without a test. […] Official death counts have been claimed to underreport the actual death toll, because excess mortality data show an increase in deaths that is not explained by COVID-19 deaths alone. […] The infection fatality ratio (IFR) is the cumulative number of deaths attributed to the disease divided by the cumulative number of infected individuals.

• #10 Epidemiology of COVID-19

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7364648/

  The basic reproduction number (R0) is the expected number of secondary cases that could arise from one case in a susceptible population. R0 is the essence of infectious disease epidemiology and indicates the risk of an epidemic spread. Most studies have estimated the R0 for SARS-CoV2 to be within a range of 2.0 to 3.0. […] The mean or median incubation period of the disease ranges from 5 to 6 days. […] The duration for which a patient with COVID-19 remains infective is unclear. […] The spectrum of COVID-19 disease ranges from asymptomatic to critical including mortality. […] Although the disease can affect any age group, the elderly and patients with comorbidities are at risk for severe disease. […] The overall case fatality rate (CFR) was 2.3% (1023 deaths among 44672 confirmed cases).

• #11 Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Epidemiology, Clinical Spectrum and Implications for the Cardiovascular Clinician

  https://www.acc.org/Latest-in-Cardiology/Articles/2020/04/06/11/08/COVID-19-Epidemiology-Clinical-Spectrum-and-Implications-for-the-CV-Clinician

  COVID-19 is caused by a novel, enveloped single-stranded RNA virus, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). […] Despite sharing a vector, several differences exist between the three mentioned coronaviruses most notably their transmissibility potential and case fatality rate. […] The basic reproductive number („R0”), a measure of the expected number of cases that is generated from one case, is estimated to be 1.5-3.0 for SARS-CoV-2, as opposed to 0.5-1.0 and 1.5-4.0 with MERS-CoV-2 and SARS, respectively. […] SARS and MERS-CoV-2 were reported to have a 10% and 34.4% case fatality rate, respectively. In contrast, SARS-CoV-2 has been estimated to have a case fatality rate of ~2.3%. […] The prevalence of cardiovascular disease among patients with COVID-19 is not fully established as most of the published reports focus on hospitalized patients who are more likely to have comorbid conditions than individuals with subclinical or mildly symptomatic disease.

• #12 COVID-19 – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19

  Infectivity can begin four to five days before the onset of symptoms. Infected people can spread the disease even if they are pre-symptomatic or asymptomatic. […] The SARS-CoV-2 virus can infect a wide range of cells and systems of the body. COVID-19 is most known for affecting the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. […] COVID-19 is mainly transmitted when people breathe in air contaminated by droplets/aerosols and small airborne particles containing the virus. Infected people exhale those particles as they breathe, talk, cough, sneeze, or sing. […] The virus is thought to be of natural animal origin, most likely through spillover infection. A joint-study conducted in early 2021 by the People’s Republic of China and the World Health Organization indicated that the virus descended from a coronavirus that infects wild bats, and likely spread to humans through an intermediary wildlife host.

• #13 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/coronavirus/symptoms-causes/syc-20479963

  COVID-19, also called coronavirus disease 2019, is an illness caused by a virus. The virus is called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, or more commonly, SARS-CoV-2. It started spreading at the end of 2019 and became a pandemic disease in 2020. […] The virus that causes COVID-19 spreads most commonly through the air in tiny droplets of fluid between people in close contact. […] Staying up to date on your COVID-19 vaccine helps prevent serious illness, the need for hospital care due to COVID-19 and death from COVID-19. […] COVID-19 is caused by infection with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, also called SARS-CoV-2. […] The coronavirus spreads mainly from person to person, even from someone who is infected but has no symptoms. […] It’s possible to get COVID-19 more than once.

• #14 WHO COVID-19 dashboard

  https://data.who.int/dashboards/covid19/cases

  WHO will utilize various sources to continue monitoring the COVID-19 epidemiological situation via the WHO COVID-19 dashboard. If data for certain countries is unavailable in this section, it may indicate that they have either ceased reporting COVID-19 surveillance data to WHO or have integrated the COVID-19 surveillance into existing respiratory disease surveillance. […] This global summary of COVID-19 cases includes data on confirmed cases reported to WHO from the comprehensive COVID-19 case monitoring. […] In the context of WHO’s statistical reporting of COVID-19 data, it is important to note that only confirmed cases are included in case and death counts. […] Since 22 March 2020, global data has been compiled through WHO region-specific dashboards, and/or aggregate count data reported directly to WHO headquarters by Member States.

• #15 Tracking COVID-19: U.S. Public Health Surveillance and Data – EveryCRSReport.com

  https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R46588.html

  Public health surveillance, or ongoing data collection, is an essential part of public health. Particularly during a pandemic, timely data are important to understanding the epidemiology of a disease in order to craft policy and guide response decision-making. The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has exposed limitations and challenges with U.S. public health surveillance, including those related to the timeliness, completeness, and accuracy of data. This report provides an overview of U.S. public health surveillance, current COVID-19 surveillance and data collection, and selected policy issues that have been highlighted by the pandemic. […] CDC’s COVID-19 surveillance involves numerous surveillance systems that collect a variety of data, including on cases, testing positivity rates, hospitalizations, deaths, and emergency department visits. The multiple systems reflect an effort by CDC to strike a balance in surveillance—collecting different data types, with different measurement-related strengths and weaknesses that together can provide a picture of how the pandemic is affecting different populations in different locations.

• #16 Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance – United States, January 22-May 30, 2020 – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32555134/

  The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic resulted in 5,817,385 reported cases and 362,705 deaths worldwide through May, 30, 2020, including 1,761,503 aggregated reported cases and 103,700 deaths in the United States. […] This report describes demographic characteristics, underlying health conditions, symptoms, and outcomes among 1,320,488 laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases individually reported to CDC during January 22-May 30, 2020. […] Cumulative incidence, 403.6 cases per 100,000 persons, was similar among males (401.1) and females (406.0) and highest among persons aged 80 years (902.0). […] Among 599,636 (45%) cases with known information, 33% of persons were Hispanic or Latino of any race (Hispanic), 22% were non-Hispanic black (black), and 1.3% were non-Hispanic American Indian or Alaska Native (AI/AN).

• #17 Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance – United States, January 22-May 30, 2020 – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32555134/

  Among 287,320 (22%) cases with sufficient data on underlying health conditions, the most common were cardiovascular disease (32%), diabetes (30%), and chronic lung disease (18%). […] Overall, 184,673 (14%) patients were hospitalized, 29,837 (2%) were admitted to an intensive care unit (ICU), and 71,116 (5%) died. […] Hospitalizations were six times higher among patients with a reported underlying condition (45.4%) than those without reported underlying conditions (7.6%). […] Deaths were 12 times higher among patients with reported underlying conditions (19.5%) compared with those without reported underlying conditions (1.6%). […] The COVID-19 pandemic continues to be severe, particularly in certain population groups. […] These preliminary findings underscore the need to build on current efforts to collect and analyze case data, especially among those with underlying health conditions. […] These data are used to monitor trends in COVID-19 illness, identify and respond to localized incidence increase, and inform policies and practices designed to reduce transmission in the United States.

• #18 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) – Epidemiology | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/3000168/epidemiology

  Adolescents appear to have similar susceptibility to infection as adults, and children have a lower susceptibility. However, evidence is conflicting and the detailed relationship between age and susceptibility to infection requires further investigation. […] Unlike adults, children do not seem to be at higher risk for severe disease based on age or sex. […] Variants may spread more effectively and rapidly among young children compared with the wild-type virus, although hospitalization rates decreased. […] The incidence of infection in healthcare workers ranged from 0% to 49.6%, and the prevalence of seropositivity ranged from 1.6% to 31.6%. There was no association between age, sex, or healthcare worker role (i.e., nurse versus physician) and the risk for infection, based on moderate-certainty evidence.

• #19 Epidemiology of COVID-19

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7364648/

  A large case series from China revealed that 81% of cases had mild symptoms, 14% had severe disease, and 5% were afflicted with critical illness. […] While the mortality in China was reported as 2.3%, Italy, with a high proportion of elderly, reported a case fatality report of 7.2% due to higher infection and mortality rates among the elderly. […] Being a highly infectious disease, with a basic reproduction number between 2 to 3, COVID-19 is affecting a large number of healthcare workers, as evidenced by the fact that a sizeable portion of reported infections in the US included healthcare workers. […] Delivering health care for both COVID-19 affected individuals, as well those with other acute and chronic conditions, with limited access to healthcare facilities and services, are challenges for the health systems in low- and middle-income countries, which require immediate measures for health system strengthening across sectors.

• #20 Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Epidemiology, Clinical Spectrum and Implications for the Cardiovascular Clinician

  https://www.acc.org/Latest-in-Cardiology/Articles/2020/04/06/11/08/COVID-19-Epidemiology-Clinical-Spectrum-and-Implications-for-the-CV-Clinician

  Importantly, patients with severe disease and those admitted to intensive care units (ICU) had 2-3-fold higher rates of baseline cardio-metabolic conditions than non-severe/ICU patients. […] In a review of 21 critically ill patients with COVID-19, rates of heart failure, diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease were 42.9%, 33.3% and 47.6%, respectively. […] Patients with medical comorbidities had higher rates of in-hospital mortality, with diabetes mellitus (OR 2.85, CI 1.4-6.1, P=0.0062) and coronary heart disease (OR 21.4, CI 4.7-98.8, P0.0001) showing an association with higher death rates in an univariable analysis. […] Although respiratory symptoms predominate, severe cardiovascular sequelae may occur with COVID-19. […] Emerging data suggests that SARS-CoV-2 infection may culminate in serious cardiovascular injury or worsening of existing cardiovascular disease.

• #21 Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Epidemiology, Clinical Spectrum and Implications for the Cardiovascular Clinician

  https://www.acc.org/Latest-in-Cardiology/Articles/2020/04/06/11/08/COVID-19-Epidemiology-Clinical-Spectrum-and-Implications-for-the-CV-Clinician

  Cardiac biomarker elevation in patients with COVID-19 may be a marker of disease severity and predict both the likelihood of ICU stay and all-cause mortality. […] Patients with COVID-19 have also been shown to have abnormal coagulation parameters. This includes elevated levels of fibrin-degradation products and D-dimer, with the latter associated with an increased risk of in-hospital death (OR 18.4, 95% CI 2.6-128.6). […] Another apparent cardiovascular sequela in patients with COVID-19 is heart failure. […] Cardiac arrhythmias have also been described in patients with COVID-19. […] Numerous clinical trials are underway, assessing the efficacy and safety of various anti-viral treatments. Currently, there is no FDA-approved therapy to prevent or treat COVID-19. […] COVID-19 is a novel viral contagion with ongoing and wide-reaching public health implications. The pathobiology, clinical characteristics and prognosis of the infection are being actively elucidated. […] Cardiovascular testing, including circulating troponins and cardiovascular imaging, should be performed as per the clinical indication as most of the cardiovascular events in patients with COVID-19 appear to be secondary to the overwhelming critical illness.

• #22 COVID-19 Influenced the Epidemiology of Facial Trauma: A Narrative Review, 2020–2024

  https://www.mdpi.com/2673-8112/5/5/69

  The implementation of a range of social distancing and lockdown measures during the COVID-19 pandemic were seen to impact on the well-established epidemiology of facial trauma. […] The principal finding was that 83% (n = 52) of studies reported a significant decrease in the number of facial trauma presentations. […] This study demonstrated that social distancing measures significantly influenced the epidemiology of facial trauma presentations that occurred during the pandemic. […] It became apparent to these authors that the implementation of a range of public health social distancing/lockdown measures to reduce COVID-19 community transmission had a serendipitous secondary effect by changing the expected frequency and characteristics of facial trauma that presented to urban tertiary referral trauma centers.

• #23 COVID-19 Influenced the Epidemiology of Facial Trauma: A Narrative Review, 2020–2024

  https://www.mdpi.com/2673-8112/5/5/69

  The objective of this study was to determine the impact that the COVID-19 pandemic had on the epidemiology of maxillofacial trauma. Specifically, the purpose was to identify how the COVID-19 pandemic and associated public health measures of social distancing and lockdown changed the frequency and etiology of facial trauma as reported in the international literature. […] Overwhelmingly, 83% (n = 52) of the identified studies revealed a decrease in the number of facial trauma presentations during the COVID-19 period, with a mean decrease in incidence of 39% (range: 2–96% decrease). […] A notable secondary finding was that the widespread imposition of lockdown laws was seemingly responsible for altering the etiological causes of maxillofacial trauma presentation. […] The reduction in road traffic accidents could reasonably be accounted for by the imposition of the various lockdown laws limiting non-essential travel, public transport, and the overall number of vehicles and pedestrians on roads.

• #24 Respiratory Illness Data Dashboard | Washington State Department of Health

  https://doh.wa.gov/data-and-statistical-reports/diseases-and-chronic-conditions/communicable-disease-surveillance-data/respiratory-illness-data-dashboard

  COVID-19 death data may be underrepresented due to various factors that currently and historically impact reporting. […] Currently, a COVID-19 death is any mention of COVID-19 or similar term on a death certificate. […] COVID-19 and RSV: Deaths are typically registered within one week, but deaths relying on post-mortem testing can take months to get the cause of death information updated. […] COVID-19, flu, and RSV affect people of all races and ethnicities, but some racial and ethnic minority groups are unfairly affected by these diseases due to systemic health and social inequities.

• #25

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00109-020-01961-4

  The R0 of SARS-CoV-2 was estimated as 3 to 4 implying that each infected case transmitted the virus to roughly 3 to 4 new individuals with doubling occurring every 5 days. […] Although SARS-CoV-2 has a lower-case fatality rate (currently estimated at 2-4% as of April 2020 and peaking as high as 10% in highly populated areas such as New York), far greater deaths have been reported within a short time span in comparison with SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV. […] Current SARS-CoV-2 mutations have led to lineage changes from the original strain that was first detected in Wuhan, China. […] Real-time tracking of SARS-CoV-2 reveals that current circulating strains have now spread to all populations across the globe including the Icelandic people. […] The implications of viral evolution as evidenced by differences in clades acquired as the virus propagates across new host niches on viral pathogenesis are yet to be fully understood.

• #26

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00109-020-01961-4

  The B1 clade which predominates the west coast has an aspartic acid (D) at codon 614 of the S protein while the A2a clade on the east coast possesses a glycine (G) at the same position. […] The attachment of the virus to host target cells could be prevented by pre-existing neutralizing antibodies or cross reacting antibodies from earlier related infections such as SARS-CoV-1 that specifically attach to the SARS-CoV-2 highly variable RDB domain of the S1 subunit. […] Recent transcriptomic data showed that robust CD8+ T cell responses accompanied with clonal expansion were observed in individuals who only develop mild disease symptoms and those who cleared SARS-CoV-2 from the lungs. […] Alternatively, the virus is capable of overpowering all barricades set up by the host immune system and later establishing successful infection within the lung microenvironment.

• #27 The World Health Organization COVID-19 surveillance database | International Journal for Equity in Health | Full Text

  https://equityhealthj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12939-022-01767-5

  Recommended variables and disaggregation of COVID-19 surveillance data allow for detection and reporting on changes in the disease in the affection between men and women, and in different subgroups such as infants, children, elderly, and other high-risk groups defined by occupational such as HCWs, social or behavioural factors, migrants, young adults and others. […] The number of new hospitalized cases allows the estimation of the risk of severe disease and hospitalization and anticipation of the burden on healthcare capacity. However, this has shifted with the appearance of the Omicron variant: the large scale of Omicron transmission resulted in an unprecedented number of cases, and while the proportion of severe cases was small, they were still substantial in terms of absolute number of cases and led to hospital capacity being challenged in many parts of the world.

• #28 The World Health Organization COVID-19 surveillance database | International Journal for Equity in Health | Full Text

  https://equityhealthj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12939-022-01767-5

  COVID-19 global surveillance aims to monitor the extension of the pandemic across countries, the severity of the disease and risk factors, and the impact of control measures. Data collection tools and standardized surveillance methods were documented in the interim guidance Public Health Surveillance for SARS-CoV-2. […] Two years after the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, many aspects of epidemiological surveillance remain challenging despite many achievements and lessons learnt. This paper documents the construction of the WHO-HQ COVID-19 surveillance database by describing its data collection, storage, and dissemination mechanisms, followed by a discussion of the use of these data in facilitating analysis of inequalities. […] The objectives of the surveillance were to monitor areas and population affected by COVID-19 and to understand the epidemiological characteristics of the illness (incubation period, secondary attack rate, serial interval, case fatality rate) including age, sex, co-morbidities, settings of transmission, and nature of contacts to identify vulnerable groups at highest risk of exposure or severe disease.

• #29 COVID-NET Hospitalization Surveillance | Yale School of Public Health

  https://ysph.yale.edu/emerging-infections-program/projects/resp-net/covid-net/

  The Yale EIP RESP-NET team is conducting population-based surveillance for laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 associated hospitalizations in southern Connecticut. […] Weekly hospitalization rates from COVID-NET are available on CDCs website. […] In March 2020, in response to the outbreak of novel Coronavirus 2019 disease, EIPs launched COVID-NET. […] Participating COVID-NET sites conduct SARS-CoV-2 surveillance to investigate the characteristics and burden of children and adults hospitalized with SARS-CoV-2. […] Estimate overall and age-specific COVID-19-associated hospitalization rates in a timely manner (e.g., daily and/or weekly). […] Estimate overall and age-specific COVID-19-associated ICU admission rates and in-hospital mortality rates in all ages. […] Describe the characteristics, clinical features, and clinical course (e.g., severe illness and SARS-CoV-2-associated complications) of persons hospitalized with SARS-CoV-2 infection.

• #30 COVID-NET Hospitalization Surveillance | Yale School of Public Health

  https://ysph.yale.edu/emerging-infections-program/projects/resp-net/covid-net/

  Describe laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 and RSV hospitalizations by COVID-19 vaccination status among patients eligible to be vaccinated. […] Assess risk factors for COVID-19-associated complications among hospitalized cases. […] Utilize hospitalization data and other clinical data sources to estimate the national disease burden of COVID-19.

• #31 Digital technologies in the public-health response to COVID-19 | Nature Medicine

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-020-1011-4

  Digital technologies are being harnessed to support the public-health response to COVID-19 worldwide, including population surveillance, case identification, contact tracing and evaluation of interventions on the basis of mobility data and communication with the public. […] COVID-19, a previously unknown respiratory illness caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 11 March 2020, less than 3 months after cases were first detected. […] All countries are required by the International Health Regulations (2005) to have core capacity to ensure national preparedness for infectious hazards that have the potential to spread internationally. […] Digital epidemiological surveillance is a core public-health function of outbreak management, understanding infection transmission in time, place and person, and identifying risk factors for the disease to guide effective interventions.

• #32 Digital technologies in the public-health response to COVID-19 | Nature Medicine

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-020-1011-4

  Established population-surveillance systems typically rely on health-related data from laboratories, notifications of cases diagnosed by clinicians and syndromic surveillance networks. […] Data-aggregation systems, including ProMED-mail, GPHIN, HealthMap and EIOS, which use natural language processing and machine learning to process and filter online data, have been developed to provide epidemiological insight. […] Early and rapid case identification is crucial during a pandemic for the isolation of cases and appropriate contacts in order to reduce onward spread and understand key risks and modes of transmission. […] Digital contact tracing automates tracing on a scale and speed not easily replicable without digital tools. […] Evaluating their accuracy and effectiveness is essential.

• #33 JMIR Public Health and Surveillance – Correlations of Online Search Engine Trends With Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Incidence: Infodemiology Study

  https://publichealth.jmir.org/2020/2/e19702/

  Background: The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is the latest pandemic of the digital age. […] The aim of this study is to apply digital epidemiology to the current COVID-19 pandemic to determine the utility of providing adjunctive epidemiologic information on outbreaks of this disease and evaluate this methodology in the case of future pandemics. […] An epidemiologic time series analysis of online search trends relating to the COVID-19 pandemic was performed from January 9, 2020, to April 6, 2020. […] Worldwide search terms for shortness of breath, anosmia, dysgeusia and ageusia, headache, chest pain, and sneezing had strong correlations (r0.60, P.001) to both new daily confirmed cases and deaths from COVID-19. […] This study demonstrates the utility of digital epidemiology in providing helpful surveillance data of disease outbreaks like COVID-19. […] Although certain online search trends for this disease were influenced by media coverage, many search terms reflected clinical manifestations of the disease and showed strong correlations with real-world cases and deaths.

• #34 Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19/

  Illness from COVID-19 infection can range from no symptoms or very mild symptoms to severe illness that can result in hospitalization, intensive care, or death. […] While anyone can have symptoms, older adults and people with certain underlying medical conditions (e.g., heart disease, lung disease, diabetes, and weakened immune systems) have a higher risk for severe COVID-19 illness. […] Two types of viral tests are used to diagnose a current COVID-19 infection. A molecular test (also called RT-PCR) is used to detect genetic material from the virus. An antigen test is used to find specific proteins that are found on the surface of the virus. […] Currently, three medications are either authorized or approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of COVID-19: Paxlovid, Veklury, and Lagevrio. […] There are several strategies that should be followed to slow the spread of COVID-19.

• #35 Epidemiology, risk factors and prognosis of cardiovascular disease in the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic era: a systematic review

  https://www.imrpress.com/journal/RCM/23/1/10.31083/j.rcm2301028

  Epidemiology, risk factors and prognosis of cardiovascular disease in the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic era: a systematic review […] Since the emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) from China, the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused more than five million deaths worldwide. Several studies have elucidated the role of risk factors in the prognosis of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in the progression of COVID-19 pandemic. This systematic review assesses the link between COVID-19 and cardiovascular risk factors, and investigates the prognosis in the case of myocardial injury. […] Included studies found that preexisting CVD was linked to worse outcomes and increased risk of death in patients with COVID-19, whereas COVID-19 itself also induced myocardial injury, arrhythmia, acute coronary syndrome, and venous thromboembolism.

• #36 Epidemiology, risk factors and prognosis of cardiovascular disease in the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic era: a systematic review

  https://www.imrpress.com/journal/RCM/23/1/10.31083/j.rcm2301028

  Cardiovascular risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and obesity were associated with intensive care unit admission and poor prognosis. Cardiovascular risk factors are crucial for the progression of COVID-19, and infected patients should be constantly monitored and follow strict hygiene and decrease their social interactions.

• #37 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) – Epidemiology | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/3000168/epidemiology

  There was an association between Black race or Hispanic ethnicity and increased risk for infection compared with White race or non-Hispanic ethnicity, based on moderate-certainty evidence. […] There was an association between use of personal protective equipment and decreased risk for infection, based on moderate-certainty evidence.

• #38 The World Health Organization COVID-19 surveillance database | International Journal for Equity in Health | Full Text

  https://equityhealthj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12939-022-01767-5

  In January 2020, SARS-CoV-2 virus was identified as a cause of an outbreak in China. The disease quickly spread worldwide, and the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the pandemic in March 2020. […] From the first notifications of spread of the disease, the WHOs Emergency Programme implemented a global COVID-19 surveillance system in coordination with all WHO regional offices. The system aimed to monitor the spread of the epidemic over countries and across population groups, severity of the disease and risk factors, and the impact of control measures. COVID-19 surveillance data reported to WHO is a combination of case-based data and weekly aggregated data, focusing on a minimum global dataset for cases and deaths including disaggregation by age, sex, occupation as a Health Care Worker, as well as number of cases tested, and number of cases newly admitted for hospitalization. These disaggregations aim to monitor inequities in COVID-19 distribution and risk factors among population groups.

• #39 Factsheet for health professionals on COVID-19

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/infectious-disease-topics/z-disease-list/covid-19/factsheet-covid-19

  ECDC still publishes a weekly overview of the COVID-19 epidemiological situation by country in the EU and the European Economic Area (EEA) and, jointly with the WHO Regional Office for Europe, the WHO European Region including the Western Balkans. These overviews include age-specific COVID-19 case notification rates, test positivity, hospitalisation, intensive care admission and occupancy, death rates, virus variants, and vaccine uptake.

• #40 National surveillance for Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection/health-professionals/interim-guidance-surveillance-human-infection.html

  The following documents the integrated approach to national COVID-19 surveillance activities being led, supported and coordinated by the Public Health Agency of Canada. We outline the recommended goals, objectives and activities for COVID-19 surveillance in Canada. […] On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a global pandemic of COVID-19. Since the beginning of the pandemic, surveillance of domestic, international and community transmission of COVID-19 was established across Canada. […] The Public Health Agency of Canada’s current COVID-19 surveillance system is comprised of multiple data streams to monitor COVID-19 epidemiology in Canada and continues to build on lessons learned through the pandemic. […] This surveillance system has been used to track the progression and severity of COVID-19 disease throughout the course of the pandemic.

• #41 COVID-19 integrated surveillance: key national data

  https://www.iss.it/covid-19-integrated-surveillance-%F0%9F%87%AC%F0%9F%87%A7

  Data on laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infections are provided on a daily basis to the ISS by all Regions/APs. […] All COVID-19 cases diagnosed by the regional reference laboratories, and other laboratories that officially joined the diagnostic network more recently, fall within the scope of the surveillance. […] Individual data are updated by each Region/AP on a daily basis and have the peculiarity of providing a higher level of detail compared to other data flows (e.g. from the Civil Protection or the Ministry of Health). […] Interpretation of more recent data requires particular caution, and possible delays in reporting new cases should be taken into account when monitoring the evolution of the epidemic. […] According to circular n. 0007922 of 9 March 2020, issued by the Ministry of Health, case definitions are based on currently available information and therefore may be revised based on the evolution of the epidemiological situation and the available scientific knowledge.

• #42 Tracking COVID-19: U.S. Public Health Surveillance and Data – EveryCRSReport.com

  https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R46588.html

  Especially during an infectious disease emergency caused by a novel pathogen like COVID-19, surveillance and epidemiology can provide critical scientific insights needed to inform policy decisions—including disease spread, the populations that are affected, the symptoms and severity of disease among those populations, common risk factors for disease among those populations, and related changes over time. […] The COVID-19 pandemic has demanded larger volumes of health data at greater speeds than has been required in previous public health emergencies. During the COVID-19 pandemic, data are being collected and shared daily. This data collection has faced many challenges, including errors, missing data, and delays in reporting. […] The pandemic has revealed certain data collection gaps, such as the lack of a federal system for monitoring hospital capacity and utilization.

• #43 Multi-level quality assessment of United States COVID-19 epidemiological surveillance | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0319263

  Although the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) tasked United States (U.S.) health departments with tracking and informing disease mitigation efforts, there has been no national assessment of public COVID-19 data quality. […] The current study aimed to illustrate U.S. COVID-19 reporting quality by examining epidemiological surveillance from U.S. health departments in 50 states and the District of Columbia between July and August 2020 along five central quality dimensions: timeliness, reliability, completeness, accuracy, and accessibility. […] Results broadly demonstrated that the quality of COVID-19 data reporting was significantly heterogenous. […] Most states (56.8%) did not indicate sources of data for their official published reports. […] In assessing for 10 standard variables from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), states widely differed in granularity of reported variables and no state health department reported data for all CDC surveillance variables (e.g., race, ethnicity, sex).

• #44 The World Health Organization COVID-19 surveillance database | International Journal for Equity in Health | Full Text

  https://equityhealthj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12939-022-01767-5

  The pandemic brought a huge reporting burden on IHR focal points in regional offices and Member States, as well as on public health surveillance systems. WHO-HQ and regional offices have collaborated closely to build the most effective dataflow. […] The COVID-19 pandemic showed tremendous capacity surge, adaptability and commitment in displaying surveillance data.

• #45 National surveillance for Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/2019-novel-coronavirus-infection/health-professionals/interim-guidance-surveillance-human-infection.html

  The pandemic public health response goal is to minimize serious illness and overall deaths while minimizing societal disruption. […] They were developed to improve Canada’s understanding of COVID-19 epidemiology in the context of evolving public health interventions. […] The COVID-19 surveillance system is comprised of multiple data streams and is organized into the following components. […] Public health surveillance continues to be key to preparedness, particularly given the potential for multiple respiratory threats. Approaches to assessing the epidemiological situation through surveillance have shifted to monitor ongoing viral evolution and emergence of new variants over time. […] Provinces and territories voluntarily report detailed information on confirmed and probable cases of COVID-19 to the Public Health Agency of Canada. National case reporting contributes key information towards many components of integrated COVID-19 surveillance.

• #46 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/coronavirus/symptoms-causes/syc-20479963

  The main risk factors for COVID-19 are: If someone you live with has COVID-19. […] Some people are at a higher risk of serious COVID-19 illness than others. […] Known risk factors for serious illness include people who have not gotten a COVID-19 vaccine. […] Complications of COVID-19 include long-term loss of taste and smell, skin rashes, and sores. […] After a COVID-19 infection, some people report that symptoms continue for months, or they develop new symptoms. […] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends a COVID-19 vaccine for everyone age 6 months and older. […] The COVID-19 vaccine can lower the risk of death or serious illness caused by COVID-19. […] In addition to vaccination, there are other ways to stop the spread of the virus that causes COVID-19. […] Travel brings people together from areas where illnesses may be at higher levels. Masks can help slow the spread of respiratory diseases in general, including COVID-19.

• #47 Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) | Airborne Disease Surveillance Epidemiology Program | MeCDC | Maine DHHS

  https://www.maine.gov/dhhs/mecdc/infectious-disease/epi/airborne/coronavirus/index.shtml

  Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) […] DHHS MeCDC Disease Surveillance Epidemiology Airborne and Direct Contact Diseases Coronavirus […] Symptoms may appear 2-14 days after exposure. […] Most patients experience relatively mild symptoms and can recover at home. Some patients, like those with underlying medical conditions, may experience more severe respiratory illness. […] Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children, MIS-C, is a serious but rare complication of COVID-19. It causes inflammation of certain body parts. […] Treatment is available for COVID-19 to help prevent severe disease. It works best if started early after symptoms start. […] If you experience Long COVID symptoms, contact your primary care provider. They will help you create a plan for care. If you have ongoing symptoms that need special testing, your primary care provider might refer you to a specialist. They may refer you to a Post COVID Care Center if your symptoms need extra management.

• #48 Factsheet for health professionals on COVID-19

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/infectious-disease-topics/z-disease-list/covid-19/factsheet-covid-19

  COVID-19 is a disease under surveillance in the European Union (EU) and must be reported by all Member States. For EU surveillance purposes, a confirmed case is any person meeting at least one of the following laboratory criteria: detection of SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid; identification of SARS-CoV-2 r antigen in a clinical specimen (excluding self-tests performed outside healthcare settings); or isolation of SARS-CoV-2 in a clinical specimen. […] Well-designed, representative sentinel surveillance systems in primary and secondary care remain the core surveillance method for acute viral respiratory infections. These can provide robust data for monitoring the spread and intensity of respiratory virus activity and circulating variant viruses. […] The ECDC and WHO Regional Office for Europe issued surveillance objectives and operational considerations for the integrated surveillance of influenza, COVID-19, and other respiratory virus infections in Europe to support the continuity of national surveillance systems and public health laboratories for epidemiological and virological surveillance for influenza, SARS-CoV-2, and other potential respiratory viruses.

• #49 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) epidemiology reports, Australia, 2022–2024

  https://www1.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/covid-19_epidemiology_reports_australia_2022-23.htm

  This page contains links to epidemiological reports, published in CDI, on the incidence, severity, and distribution of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) within Australia. […] The Australian Respiratory Surveillance Report (ARSR) will be published fortnightly initially, presenting a national overview of acute viral respiratory infections in Australia, including COVID-19, influenza, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), drawing information from several different surveillance systems. […] The ARSR combines the previously separate COVID-19 in Australia Epidemiology Reports (published in Communicable Diseases Intelligence) and the Australian Influenza Surveillance Report and represents the first public national reporting on RSV epidemiology. […] Surveillance indicators presented in the ARSR are based on the Australian National Surveillance Plan for COVID-19, Influenza and RSV.

• #50 Respiratory Illness Data Dashboard | Washington State Department of Health

  https://doh.wa.gov/data-and-statistical-reports/diseases-and-chronic-conditions/communicable-disease-surveillance-data/respiratory-illness-data-dashboard

  These dashboards show trends in Washington state for COVID-19, influenza (flu), and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). […] Death data for COVID-19 and RSV are current through April 19, 2025. […] COVID-19: Emergency department visits associated with COVID-19 include records that contained one or more of the following COVID-19 specific ICD 10-CM discharge diagnosis codes: U07.1 (COVID-19), J12.82 (Pneumonia due to coronavirus disease 2019). […] COVID-19: Hospitalizations associated with COVID-19 include records that contained one or more of the following COVID-19 specific ICD 10-CM discharge diagnosis codes: U07.1 (COVID-19), J12.82 (Pneumonia due to coronavirus disease 2019). […] The data for COVID-19 and RSV deaths are obtained from the registered death certificates for WA residents, which are housed in the Washington Health and Life Event System (WHALES).

• #51 North Carolina Respiratory Virus Summary Dashboard | NC COVID-19

  https://covid19.ncdhhs.gov/dashboard

  This dashboard is a resource for tracking and understanding the spread of respiratory illness, including COVID-19, flu (influenza), and RSV, in North Carolina. […] This dashboard includes summary information about COVID-19 wastewater monitoring. […] This metric shows the percent of emergency department visits that are for a diagnosis of flu (influenza ICD-9/ICD-10 codes) or symptoms and diagnosis of COVID-19, RSV and acute respiratory illnesses. […] This metric shows the number of hospital admissions from emergency departments for a diagnosis of flu (influenza ICD-9/ICD-10 codes) or symptoms and diagnosis of COVID-19, RSV, and acute respiratory illnesses. […] NCDHHS is testing samples of wastewater from select treatments plants across the state to look for COVID-19. […] This metric helps us understand spread of COVID-19 at the community level. […] Research suggests that the virus that causes COVID-19 can appear in wastewater 4-6 days before the first cases are identified and can serve as an early warning indicator before changes are seen in other metrics.

• #52 Epidemiology of COVID-19

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7364648/

  The high CFR in Italy is probably due to the higher rate of infections among the elderly. […] As SARS-CoV2 is a novel virus, the entire global population is susceptible to the virus. […] COVID-19 is an infectious disease, posing a massive challenge to global health, which will probably run a prolonged course till an effective vaccine is found, or herd immunity is achieved. […] Until availability of effective vaccines for a large percentage of the global population, public health measures such as social distancing, isolation, and quarantine are needed to prevent the spread of the virus.

• #53 Epidemiology, causes, clinical manifestation and diagnosis, prevention and control of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) during the early outbreak period: a scoping review | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-020-00646-x

  The latest guidelines from Chinese health authorities described three main transmission routes for the COVID-19: 1) droplets transmission, 2) contact transmission, and 3) aerosol transmission. […] The most commonly reported symptoms are fever, cough, myalgia or fatigue, pneumonia, and complicated dyspnea, whereas less common reported symptoms include headache, diarrhea, hemoptysis, runny nose, and phlegm-producing cough. […] Prevention and control strategies and methods are reported at three levels: national level, case-related population level, and general population level. […] Several public health measures that may prevent or slow down the transmission of the COVID-19 were introduced; these include case isolation, identification and follow-up of contacts, environmental disinfection, and use of personal protective equipment.

• #54 Federal Agencies and Governmental Partnerships in Public Health Emergency Management: Implications for Continued COVID-19 Preparedness and Response HS Today

  https://www.hstoday.us/uncategorized/federal-agencies-and-governmental-partnerships-in-public-health-emergency-management-implications-for-continued-covid-19-preparedness-and-response/

  A key identified emergency management area and effective pandemic response is the interplay between federal, state, and local governments, along with their respective supporting agencies. […] Coordinated federal and state planning has yielded many effective programs in the U.S. […] This essay seeks to explore key federal agency actions and government partnerships and lessons learned from both past pandemic responses in the United States and the initial response to COVID-19 worldwide. […] Previous pandemics are consistently characterized by a pattern of successive waves of disease, each with a varying impact. […] Based on our review of previous pandemics, it is likely that actions taken during the initial COVID-19 crisis by public health agencies, along with federal and state governments, dictate the severity of subsequent waves.

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