Bulimia nerwowa
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Bulimia nerwowa (BN) to złożone zaburzenie odżywiania charakteryzujące się nawracającymi epizodami kompulsywnego objadania się, po których następują niewłaściwe zachowania kompensacyjne, takie jak samowywołane wymioty, nadużywanie środków przeczyszczających, głodzenie się czy nadmierne ćwiczenia. Patofizjologia BN obejmuje dysfunkcje neuroprzekaźników, w tym obniżone poziomy serotoniny, noradrenaliny i dopaminy, co wpływa na regulację apetytu, impulsywność i kontrolę emocji. Zmiany neuroanatomiczne obejmują zmniejszoną objętość istoty szarej oraz zaburzenia funkcjonalnej i strukturalnej łączności istoty białej, zwłaszcza w obszarach odpowiedzialnych za kontrolę zachowań i przetwarzanie nagrody. Zaburzenia hormonalne, w tym nieprawidłowości w poziomach neuropeptydów (np. cholecystokininy) oraz hormonów płciowych (testosteronu i estrogenu), również odgrywają istotną rolę w etiologii BN. Ponadto, dysbioza mikrobioty jelitowej może przyczyniać się do patogenezy zaburzenia. Genetyczne predyspozycje są znaczące, z ryzykiem dziedziczenia szacowanym na 30–80%, a czynniki środowiskowe i psychologiczne, takie jak współistniejące zaburzenia lękowe i traumatyczne doświadczenia, nasilają przebieg choroby.

Mechanizm Bulimii Nerwowej: Wprowadzenie

Bulimia nerwowa (BN) to poważne zaburzenie odżywiania charakteryzujące się nawracającymi epizodami objadania się (spożywania dużych ilości pożywienia w krótkim czasie, często z poczuciem utraty kontroli), po których następują niewłaściwe zachowania kompensacyjne mające na celu zapobieganie przyrostowi masy ciała, takie jak wywoływanie wymiotów, nadużywanie środków przeczyszczających lub moczopędnych, głodzenie się lub nadmierne ćwiczenia12. Bulimia nerwowa jest złożonym zaburzeniem psychicznym, które wpływa na funkcjonowanie mózgu oraz procesy decyzyjne3. Dokładna etiologia bulimii nerwowej pozostaje niejasna, jednak prawdopodobnie jest wieloczynnikowa, obejmująca czynniki genetyczne, biologiczne, behawioralne, psychologiczne i społeczne456.

Neurobiologiczne Podstawy Bulimii

Zaburzenia Neurotransmiterów

Dane z literatury sugerują, że poziomy noradrenaliny (norepinefryny) i serotoniny (5-hydroksytryptaminy; 5-HT) są niższe u osób z bulimią nerwową niż u zdrowych osób z grupy kontrolnej. Poziomy dopaminy są podobne lub niższe niż u osób z grupy kontrolnej78. Po ustąpieniu objawów zaburzenia, funkcja noradrenergiczna wraca do poziomu obserwowanego u osób zdrowych, podczas gdy funkcja dopaminergiczna i serotoninergiczna odbijają do poziomów wyższych niż u osób z grupy kontrolnej9.

Badania wykazały, że osoby cierpiące na bulimię mają obniżoną aktywność serotoninergiczną, noradrenergiczną i dopaminergiczną10. Nieprawidłowe poziomy wielu hormonów, zwłaszcza serotoniny, okazały się odpowiedzialne za niektóre zaburzone zachowania żywieniowe1112. Serotonina odgrywa kluczową rolę w regulacji apetytu (sytości), perfekcjonizmie, impulsywności i problemach z regulacją nastroju. Zwiększona aktywność 5-HT powoduje zwiększoną lub przedłużoną sytość, co prowadzi do restrykcyjnych zachowań żywieniowych, natomiast zmniejszona aktywność 5-HT prowadzi do okresowego braku sytości, co wywołuje kompulsywne lub niekontrolowane zachowania żywieniowe13.

Zaburzenia równowagi między receptorami dopaminowymi D1 i D2 związane są z zaburzeniami odżywiania, wpływając na przekaźnictwo serotoniny w śródmózgowiu i wskazując na zależne od stanu wzajemne relacje między systemami neuroprzekaźników14. Badania PET wykazały wyższe wiązanie receptora serotoninowego 1A u osób z bulimią zarówno w trakcie choroby, jak i po wyzdrowieniu, sugerując zmiany niezależne od stanu chorobowego15.

Zmiany Neuropeptydów

Wśród neuropeptydów, zmiany poziomów neuropeptydu Y, peptydu YY, beta-endorfiny, hormonu uwalniającego kortykotropinę, somatostatyny, cholecystokininy i wazopresyny zostały zaobserwowane w objawowej fazie bulimii nerwowej, z powrotem do poziomów obserwowanych u osób zdrowych po ustąpieniu objawów1617.

Cholecystokinina (CCK) odgrywa istotną rolę w patogenezie bulimii nerwowej. U pacjentów z bulimią poposiłkowe uwalnianie CCK jest zmniejszone, podczas gdy u pacjentów z anoreksją zarówno podstawowe, jak i indukowane pokarmem CCK jest normalne lub podwyższone18. Odkrycie zwiększonej pojemności żołądka u osób z bulimią o prawidłowej masie ciała doprowadziło do hipotezy, że powtarzające się epizody objadania się prowadzą do zwiększonej pojemności żołądka, co z kolei prowadzi do opóźnionego opróżniania żołądka i zmniejszonego poposiłkowego uwalniania CCK19.

Badania wykazały również związek bulimii z hormonami płciowymi. W jednym z badań diagnoza bulimii była skorelowana z wysokim poziomem testosteronu i niskim poziomem estrogenu, a normalizacja tych poziomów za pomocą złożonych doustnych środków antykoncepcyjnych zmniejszyła pragnienie spożywania tłuszczu i cukru20. Ponadto badania wykazały, że estrogen, zwany estradiolem, odgrywa rolę w rozwoju zaburzeń odżywiania, aktywując określone geny, które mogą prowadzić do rozwoju zaburzeń odżywiania u dotkniętych dziewcząt21.

Zmiany Strukturalne Mózgu

Badania naukowe wykazały, że osoby cierpiące na bulimię mają zmniejszoną objętość istoty szarej mózgu, a nieprawidłowości te są odwracalne po długoterminowym wyzdrowieniu22. Badania MRI mózgu wykazują zmiany anatomiczne u osób cierpiących na bulimię nerwową, jednak nadal nie jest jasne, czy zmiany te pojawiły się w wyniku zaburzenia, czy były czynnikami przyczyniającymi się do rozwoju BN23.

Badania wykazały, że u pacjentów z anoreksją i bulimią nerwową występują rozległe nieprawidłowości z rozproszonymi zmianami w strukturalnej i funkcjonalnej łączności istoty białej, szczególnie w obrębie szlaków regulujących apetyt i szlaków smakowych-nagrodowych24. Nieprawidłowości w funkcji interoceptywnej, zwłaszcza wyspy (insula), mogą przyczyniać się do zachowań kompulsywnego objadania się związanych z tym stanem25.

Osoby z bulimią wykazują deficyty interoceptywne, w których doświadczają upośledzenia w rozpoznawaniu i rozróżnianiu wewnętrznych doznań, uczuć i emocji26. Analiza z perspektywy neuronalnej łączy elementy interocepcji i emocji; w korze przedczołowej przyśrodkowej, przedniej i tylnej części zakrętu obręczy oraz przedniej korze wyspy występują znaczące nakładające się obszary, które są powiązane zarówno z interocepcją, jak i emocjonalnym jedzeniem27.

Mechanizmy Neuralne Bulimii

Zaburzenia Układów Nagrody i Hamowania

Narastające dowody sugerują, że zmieniona równowaga między nagrodą a hamowaniem może przyczyniać się do zaburzeń odżywiania. W przypadku bulimii nerwowej, dysfunkcja zarówno mechanizmów hamujących, jak i nagrodowych może objawiać się naprzemienną nadmierną i niedostateczną konsumpcją, charakterystyczną dla tego zaburzenia28.

Badania wykazały, że u uczestników z bulimią nerwową wystąpiła nieprawidłowa redukcja aktywacji w przyśrodkowej i bocznej korze przedczołowej, czyli regionach mózgu odgrywających rolę w kontroli zachowań, emocji i pragnień29. Podgrupy BN, które najsilniej odczuwały, że objadają się podczas zadania, oraz te z najcięższą i najczęstszą utratą kontroli nad jedzeniem, wykazały nietypowe zmniejszenie aktywacji obustronnej brzuszno-przyśrodkowej kory przedczołowej (vmPFC) i prawej brzuszno-bocznej kory przedczołowej (vIPFC) związanej z hamowaniem odpowiedzi pokarmowych30.

Kolejne badanie wykazało związek między aktywnością mózgu a kilkoma głównymi objawami bulimii, w tym zarówno zachowaniami związanymi z objadaniem się, jak i przeczyszczaniem31. Inne badanie zidentyfikowało kluczowy mechanizm neuronalny, który może bezpośrednio przyczyniać się do objadania się u pacjentów z bulimią nerwową32.

Bulimia nerwowa wiąże się również z nieprawidłowościami strukturalnymi sieci mózgowej i specyficznymi dla półkuli zmianami. Jednym z ważnych odkryć jest lewo-stronny wzrost właściwości węzłowych i połączeń między korą oczodołowo-czołową (OFC) a innymi obszarami nagrody mezokortykolimbicznej33. Ponadto u osób z bulimią wykryto zmiany strukturalne w sieciach somatosensorycznych i wzrokowo-przestrzennych34.

Mechanizmy Nagrody i Uzależnienia

Bulimia była porównywana do uzależnienia od narkotyków, chociaż empiryczne poparcie dla tej charakterystyki jest ograniczone35. Jednakże osoby z bulimią nerwową mogą wykazywać podatności związane z receptorem dopaminowym D2, podobne do osób z zaburzeniami używania substancji36. Badania PET wykazały, że osoby z bulimią nie wykazują różnic w wiązaniu receptora dopaminowego D2 w porównaniu z grupą kontrolną, ale niższe uwalnianie dopaminy w prążkowiu było związane z większą częstotliwością epizodów objadania się37.

Modele zwierzęce sugerują ostrą podwyższoną transmisję dopaminergiczną, ale zmniejszoną dystrybucję receptorów dopaminowych w prążkowiu po przedłużonym objadaniu się oraz lęk przy pozbawieniu możliwości objadania się38. Badania na zwierzętach pokazują też określone zmiany, szczególnie w przekaźnictwie serotoniny i dopaminy, związane z ograniczaniem jedzenia lub objadaniem się w zaburzeniach odżywiania39.

Neuroaktywne peptydy również są często zmienione podczas choroby związanej z zaburzeniami odżywiania i wpływają na neuroprzekaźnictwo mózgowe, podobnie jak hormony pochodzące z komórek tłuszczowych, takie jak leptyna, lub grelina z błony śluzowej żołądka, które mogą stymulować lub tłumić odpowiedź dopaminową mózgu i zmieniać podejście do jedzenia w zaburzeniach odżywiania40.

Wpływ Czynników Genetycznych i Biologicznych

Badania wskazują na istnienie predyspozycji genetycznych przyczyniających się do wystąpienia tego zaburzenia odżywiania41. Zaburzenia odżywiania, w tym bulimia nerwowa, są obecnie uważane za co najmniej umiarkowanie dziedziczne, co oznacza, że mogą być przekazywane przez rodziny. Jedno przełomowe badanie na ten temat wykazało podobieństwa genetyczne u 57% uczestników badania42. Stopień ryzyka, który szacuje się jako uwarunkowany genetycznie, wynosi między 30% a 80%43.

Badania sugerują, że osoby, które mają bliskiego krewnego z bulimią, są cztery razy bardziej narażone na jej rozwój niż osoby, które nie mają krewnego z tym zaburzeniem44. Genetyka odgrywa dużą rolę w rozwoju zaburzeń odżywiania, co potwierdzają badania GWAS, epigenetyczne, badania ekspresji genów i interakcji gen-gen oraz genomika żywieniowa45.

Zazwyczaj nie jest to samo zaburzenie, które jest przekazywane, ale raczej kilka cech, takich jak sposób reagowania na stres, które mogą sprawić, że ktoś będzie bardziej podatny na rozwój BN lub innych zaburzeń odżywiania46. Badania wykazują, że krewni pierwszego stopnia osób z anoreksją nerwową mają dziesięć razy większe prawdopodobieństwo rozwoju tej choroby w ciągu swojego życia47.

Mózgowy czynnik neurotroficzny (BDNF) jest badany jako możliwy mechanizm patogenezy bulimii48. Istnieją również dowody na to, że hormony płciowe mogą wpływać na apetyt i odżywianie u kobiet oraz na wystąpienie bulimii nerwowej49.

Wpływ Mikrobioty Jelitowej

Badania dotyczące określonych bakterii jelitowych przyczyniają się również do informacji o patofizjologii zaburzeń odżywiania. Wykazano, że mikrobiota jelitowa jest zaangażowana w różne funkcje metaboliczne, takie jak regulacja przyrostu masy ciała, pozyskiwanie energii z diety i wydzielanie insuliny50.

Chociaż większość badań mikrobioty jelitowej skupia się na anoreksji nerwowej, coraz więcej danych sugeruje, że zaburzenia mikrobioty jelitowej mogą odgrywać rolę również w bulimii nerwowej. Dysbioza mikrobioty jelitowej i związane z nią metabolity bakteryjne mogą przyczyniać się do patogenezy zaburzeń odżywiania51.

Mechanizmy Psychologiczne Bulimii

Funkcja Objadania się i Przeczyszczania

Bulimia nerwowa jest zaburzeniem psychicznym wynikającym z głębokich problemów psychologicznych i uczucia braku kontroli52. Osoby cierpiące często używają destrukcyjnego wzorca odżywiania, aby poczuć kontrolę nad swoim życiem53. Mogą odczuwać utratę kontroli podczas epizodu objadania się i spożywać duże ilości pożywienia (ponad 20 000 kalorii)54.

Dla niektórych osób cierpiących na bulimię, akt objadania się i przeczyszczania może stać się sposobem na znieczulenie bolesnych emocji, które często towarzyszą procesowi żałoby lub innym trudnym stanom emocjonalnym55. Akt przeczyszczania oferuje tymczasową ulgę od tych emocji. Ponieważ żałoba jest często bolesna, objadanie się i przeczyszczanie może wydawać się mniej bolesną alternatywą56.

Zachowania kompensacyjne nie są wyborem stylu życia – są objawem złożonego problemu zdrowia psychicznego57. Cykl objadania się i angażowania w zachowania kompensacyjne prowadzi do intensywnych uczuć wstydu, winy i obrzydzenia58.

Rola Lęku i Depresji

Bulimia nerwowa (BN) to niebezpieczne zaburzenie odżywiania charakteryzujące się cyklami objadania się i kompensacyjnymi zachowaniami związanymi z przeczyszczaniem59. Lęk, w szczególności, może być w złożony sposób spleciony z BN, przy czym każdy z tych stanów potencjalnie prowadzi do rozwoju lub utrzymywania się drugiego. Badania wykazały, że aż 65% osób z zaburzeniami odżywiania ma również zaburzenie lękowe60.

Rozwój jakiejkolwiek współistniejącej lub współwystępującej diagnozy zdrowia psychicznego stanowi złożony łańcuch przyczyn i skutków, chociaż w tych przypadkach czasami pojawiają się wzorce. Na przykład, u danej osoby mogą wystąpić objawy BN przed rozwinięciem zaburzenia lękowego, ale częściej to lęk pojawia się jako pierwszy61. Jedno badanie wykazało, że prawie 70% respondentów stwierdziło, że ich zaburzenie lękowe zostało zdiagnozowane przed zaburzeniem odżywiania. W rzeczywistości, lęk jest często uważany za potencjalny czynnik ryzyka rozwoju jakiegokolwiek typu zaburzenia odżywiania62.

W przypadku bulimii nerwowej, zachowania takie jak objadanie się mogą pojawić się jako sposób radzenia sobie ze stresem i lękiem, które w przeciwnym razie nie są leczone. Przeczyszczanie może się wtedy rozwinąć jako sposób radzenia sobie ze stresem lub postrzeganym poczuciem winy lub wstydu związanym z objadaniem się. Ostatecznie, te reakcje rozwijają się w błędne koło, uwięziając kogoś w tym destrukcyjnym wzorcu63.

Bulimia nerwowa może współwystępować z każdym typem zaburzenia lękowego. Ponownie, zaburzenie to często rozwija się jako nieprzystosowawczy mechanizm radzenia sobie z głęboko nieprzyjemnymi uczuciami związanymi z zaburzeniami lękowymi i innymi problemami zdrowia psychicznego64.

Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, zaburzenie obsesyjno-kompulsywne (OCD) jest jednym z najczęstszych zaburzeń lękowych współwystępujących z jakimkolwiek typem zaburzenia odżywiania. Może to być związane z mechanizmami zaangażowanymi w OCD, np. obsesjami i kompulsjami, które napędzają to zaburzenie65.

Kobiety zmagające się z PTSD są również szczególnie narażone na rozwój BN. Niestety, historia traumy jest bardzo powszechnym doświadczeniem u osób z wszystkimi typami zaburzeń odżywiania, a współistnienie z bulimią nerwową jest szczególnie silne66.

Impulsywność w Bulimii

Zaburzenia odżywiania, w tym bulimia nerwowa, są często opisywane jako zarówno kompulsywne, jak i impulsywne. Kompulsywność odnosi się do wielokrotnego działania pod wpływem nieodpartego przymusu – innymi słowy, kompulsywność to tendencja do powtarzania tych samych, często bezcelowych czynności, które czasami wiążą się z niepożądanymi konsekwencjami. Impulsywność odnosi się do tendencji do działania przedwcześnie i bez przewidywania67.

Bulimia nerwowa charakteryzuje się spożywaniem dużej ilości jedzenia w krótkim czasie, po którym następuje przymus pozbycia się z organizmu kalorii spożytych podczas tego objadania się. Niekontrolowany przymus objadania się jest impulsywnym zachowaniem, które jest dyktowane przez utratę kontroli jako sposób na stłumienie wszelkiego emocjonalnego niepokoju68.

Po tym, jak osoby angażują się w epizody objadania się, często są pochłonięte uczuciami winy i wstydu. W rezultacie ich myśli są zdominowane przez obsesję, aby pozbyć się z organizmu wszystkich właśnie spożytych kalorii, więc zwracają się do przeczyszczania w postaci samowywołanych wymiotów, nadmiernych ćwiczeń lub nadużywania środków przeczyszczających; wszystkie z nich są zdominowane przez impulsywność69.

Impulsywne zachowania są niewątpliwie wynikiem szerokiej gamy czynników, w tym genetyki, czynników biologicznych, środowiska rodzinnego, stresujących sytuacji oraz wpływów społecznych i rówieśniczych. Dowody wykazały związek między poziomami serotoniny, neuroprzekaźnika w mózgu, a impulsywnością, wskazując możliwie genetyczne powiązanie między tym chemicznym składnikiem mózgu a impulsywnymi zachowaniami prowadzącymi do bulimii nerwowej70.

Powikłania Patofizjologiczne Bulimii Nerwowej

Zaburzenia Elektrolitowe i Metaboliczne

Zaburzenia elektrolitowe i metaboliczne są najczęstszymi przyczynami chorobowości i śmiertelności u pacjentów z bulimią nerwową71. Patofizjologiczne przyczyny hipokaliemii i hipochloremii obserwowane przy wszystkich znaczących zachowaniach przeczyszczających są dwustronne i wzajemnie powiązane72.

Chroniczne przeczyszczanie prowadzi do wyczerpania płynów wewnątrznaczyniowych73. Mechanizmy, przez które zasadowica metaboliczna występuje przy samowywołanych wymiotach i przy nadużywaniu środków przeczyszczających, są podobne74. Wspomniany wcześniej proces aktywacji układu renina-angiotensyna-aldosteron prowadzi do tego, co zostało nazwane zespołem pseudo-Barttera, ze względu na wynikające z tego wyniki w surowicy i histochemiczne dane z biopsji nerek, które przypominają zespół Barttera75.

Choroba nerek w zaburzeniach odżywiania jest złożona i nie w pełni zrozumiana76. Mechanizmy choroby nerek znacznie się różnią w zależności od podtypu zaburzenia odżywiania i zaangażowanych zachowań77. Przewlekła hipokaliemia prowadzi do zwyrodnienia nieotłuszczeniowego kanalików krętych, objawiającego się łagodnymi zmianami wakuolizacji cytoplazmatycznej lub rozległą martwicą i złuszczaniem kanalików78.

Patofizjologia nefropatii hipokaliemicznej jest uważana za wynik skurczu naczyń nerkowych, zmniejszenia przepływu krwi przez rdzeń i upośledzenia angiogenezy nerkowej79. Podczas gdy przewlekła hipokaliemia prowadzi do zmian wakuolowych i śródmiąższowego zapalenia nerek (TIN), niedawny opis przypadku opisujący biopsję nerki pacjenta z zaburzeniem odżywiania z celowymi wymiotami i hipokaliemią wykazał nierównomierną progresję TIN, sugerując dodatkowe czynniki przyczyniające się do choroby nerek, takie jak zmniejszona perfuzja nerkowa80.

Prawdopodobne jest również, że ostra hipokaliemia przyczynia się do ostrej niewydolności nerek, możliwie poprzez hipowolemię i rabdomiolizę81. Niewydolność nerek wywołana hipokaliemią została opisana jako przyczyna ostrej niewydolności nerek w opisie przypadku pacjenta z AN-BP, którego autorzy opisują, w jaki sposób hipokaliemia i hipowolemia razem prowadzą do zmian niedokrwiennych, cytokin zapalnych, zwiększonego skurczu naczyń i zmniejszonego rozszerzenia naczyń82.

Powikłania Żołądkowo-Jelitowe

W przeciwieństwie do anoreksji nerwowej, w której powikłania wynikają z utraty wagi i niedożywienia, rodzaj i nasilenie powikłań medycznych bulimii nerwowej można określić na podstawie częstotliwości i metody, którą pacjent stosuje do przeczyszczania83.

Powtarzające się samowywołane wymioty mogą prowadzić do erozji szkliwa zębowego i/lub zapalenia przełyku84. Niekiedy występują poważne zaburzenia płynów i elektrolitów, szczególnie hipokaliemia85. Niezwykle rzadko żołądek pęka lub przełyk ulega rozdarciu podczas epizodu objadania się lub przeczyszczania, prowadząc do powikłań zagrażających życiu86. Jednakże kardiomiopatia może być wynikiem długotrwałego nadużywania syropu z wymiotnicy, jeśli jest stosowany do wywoływania wymiotów87.

Z czasem bulimia nerwowa może wpływać na organizm w następujący sposób: uszkodzenie żołądka z powodu przejedzenia, zaburzenia równowagi elektrolitowej (posiadanie zbyt wysokich lub zbyt niskich poziomów sodu, potasu lub innych minerałów, co może prowadzić do zawału serca lub niewydolności serca), owrzodzenia i inne uszkodzenia gardła z powodu wymiotów, nieregularne miesiączki lub brak miesiączki, co może powodować problemy z zajściem w ciążę, próchnica zębów z powodu wymiotów, odwodnienie, problemy z wypróżnianiem lub uszkodzenie jelit z powodu nadużywania środków przeczyszczających88.

Leczenie Bulimii Nerwowej

Farmakoterapia jest skuteczna w leczeniu bulimii nerwowej i może być włączona do schematu leczenia jako część terapii multimodalnej. Leki przeciwdepresyjne zostały najszerzej przebadane i są zazwyczaj lekami z wyboru ze względu na ich udowodnioną skuteczność i tolerancję89.

Neurobiologia bulimii nerwowej i mechanizm działania farmakoterapii nie są znane. Jedna z hipotez sugeruje, że szlaki serotoniny w ośrodkowym układzie nerwowym są zaburzone przynajmniej u niektórych pacjentów90.

Selektywne inhibitory wychwytu zwrotnego serotoniny, takie jak fluoksetyna, citalopram i sertralina, wykazały skuteczność w zmniejszaniu objawów bulimii nerwowej. Fluoksetyna jest jedynym lekiem zatwierdzonym przez FDA do leczenia bulimii nerwowej. Wydaje się, że wyższa dawka (60 mg) jest znacznie lepsza niż placebo w zmniejszaniu częstotliwości epizodów objadania się i wymiotów91. Obecnie, Prozac (fluoksetyna) jest jedynym lekiem przeciwdepresyjnym specjalnie zatwierdzonym do leczenia bulimii nerwowej92.

Badania sugerują, że fluoksetyna, lek wchodzący w skład leku markowego Prozac, była pomocna jako interwencja dla pacjentów, którzy nie reagowali odpowiednio na samą psychoterapię93. Możliwe, że może mieć taki sam efekt u osób z bulimią nerwową94.

Leczenie farmakologiczne bulimii nerwowej, które jest ukierunkowane na korektę zaobserwowanych zmian neurochemicznych, jest trudne ze względu na złożoność zaburzeń. Jednakże takie leczenie jest konieczne i powinno być kontynuowane długo po ustąpieniu objawów, aby zapewnić przywrócenie mózgowej homeostazy biochemicznej9596.

Typowo, gdy ktoś doświadcza współwystępujących zaburzeń zdrowia psychicznego, stany te są najlepiej leczone jednocześnie. Ze względu na to, jak głęboko powiązane są ze sobą większość tych stanów, nieuwzględnienie obu może utrudnić długoterminowe wyzdrowienie97.

Rodzaj kompleksowej opieki potrzebnej do leczenia bulimii i lęku często obejmuje kursy terapii zarówno indywidualnej, jak i grupowej, poradnictwo żywieniowe, wsparcie w postaci posiłków, leczenie medyczne i leki, gdy są potrzebne98.

Terapie psychologiczne, które okazały się najbardziej skuteczne w leczeniu bulimii nerwowej, to: Wzmocniona Terapia Poznawczo-Behawioralna (CBT-E), Terapia Poznawczo-Behawioralna z Przewodnikiem do Samopomocy (CBT-GSH) oraz Terapia Interpersonalna (IPT)99.

Mało prawdopodobne jest, aby kiedykolwiek istniał lek, który leczy bulimię nerwową, w tym sensie, że osoba przyjmuje go i nie potrzebuje dalszego leczenia, aby kontrolować swoje objawy i poprawić swoje zdrowie100. Skuteczny program leczenia bulimii jest często podejściem wieloaspektowym, zajmującym się różnymi psychologicznymi, biologicznymi i środowiskowymi czynnikami, które rozwijają i utrzymują zaburzenia odżywiania101.

Farmakoterapia powinna być stosowana tylko jako uzupełnienie psychoterapii w leczeniu bulimii nerwowej102. Fluoksetyna jest preferowanym lekiem farmakoterapeutycznym w bulimii nerwowej i może zmniejszyć epizody objadania się i przeczyszczania103.

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Bulimia nervosa – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa, also known simply as bulimia, is an eating disorder characterized by binge eating (eating large quantities of food in a short period of time, often feeling out of control) followed by compensatory behaviors, such as vomiting, excessive exercise, or fasting to prevent weight gain. […] Bulimia is more common among those who have a close relative with the condition. The percentage risk that is estimated to be due to genetics is between 30% and 80%. […] Diagnosis is based on a person’s medical history; however, this is difficult, as people are usually secretive about their binge eating and purging habits. […] Bulimia typically involves rapid and out-of-control eating, which is followed by self-induced vomiting or other forms of purging. […] People with bulimia exhibit several interoceptive deficits, in which one experiences impairment in recognizing and discriminating between internal sensations, feelings, and emotions.
  • #2 Aetiopathogenesis and pathophysiology of bulimia nervosa: biological bases and implications for treatment – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11460890/
    Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterised by recurrent episodes of binge eating and associated efforts to purge the ingested calories through self-induced vomiting, laxative or diuretic abuse, fasting or intensive exercise. The aetiopathogenesis and pathophysiology of the disorder are currently unclear. Biological bases have been proposed repeatedly, based on several lines of evidence: hunger, satiety and food choice are regulated by neurotransmitters and neuropeptides, and impairment of eating habits may be related to alterations in the secretion of these chemicals; genetic studies suggest that these neurotransmitter systems are dysfunctional in individuals with bulimia nervosa; and the frequent comorbidity of bulimia nervosa with major depressive and obsessive-compulsive disorders, conditions in which multiple alterations of brain biochemical functions have been demonstrated.
  • #3 Bulimia nervosa – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bulimia/symptoms-causes/syc-20353615
    Bulimia is a complex illness that affects how your brain works and how you make decisions. […] The exact cause of bulimia is not known. Genes may play a role in the development of bulimia and other eating disorders. Emotional health and family history may play a role. Also, pressures from society to be thin may play a role. […] Mental health and emotional problems, such as depression, anxiety or substance misuse, are linked closely with eating disorders. People with bulimia may feel badly about themselves, especially if they’re bullied about weight or shape. In some cases, distressing events and factors that cause emotional distress may play a part, such as being mistreated as a child. […] Bulimia may cause many serious and even life-threatening complications, including heart problems, such as an irregular heartbeat or heart failure. […] Conditions that often occur along with bulimia include anxiety, depression, personality disorders or bipolar disorder, and misuse of alcohol or drugs.
  • #4 Bulimia nervosa – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bulimia/symptoms-causes/syc-20353615
    Bulimia is a complex illness that affects how your brain works and how you make decisions. […] The exact cause of bulimia is not known. Genes may play a role in the development of bulimia and other eating disorders. Emotional health and family history may play a role. Also, pressures from society to be thin may play a role. […] Mental health and emotional problems, such as depression, anxiety or substance misuse, are linked closely with eating disorders. People with bulimia may feel badly about themselves, especially if they’re bullied about weight or shape. In some cases, distressing events and factors that cause emotional distress may play a part, such as being mistreated as a child. […] Bulimia may cause many serious and even life-threatening complications, including heart problems, such as an irregular heartbeat or heart failure. […] Conditions that often occur along with bulimia include anxiety, depression, personality disorders or bipolar disorder, and misuse of alcohol or drugs.
  • #5 Bulimia nervosa
    https://womenshealth.gov/mental-health/mental-health-conditions/eating-disorders/bulimia-nervosa
    Researchers are not sure exactly what causes bulimia and other eating disorders. Researchers are finding a complex combination of genetic, biological, behavioral, psychological, and social factors may be the cause. This combination includes having specific genes, a person’s biology, body image and self-esteem, social experiences, family health history, and sometimes other mental health illnesses. […] Researchers are also studying unusual activity in the brain, such as changing levels of serotonin or other chemicals, to see how it may affect eating. […] Purging through vomiting or taking laxatives can prevent your body from getting the important nutrients it needs from food. Over time, bulimia can affect your body in the following ways: Stomach damage from overeating, Electrolyte imbalance (having levels of sodium, potassium, or other minerals that are too high or too low, which can lead to heart attack or heart failure), Ulcers and other damage to your throat from vomiting, Irregular periods or not having periods, which can cause problems getting pregnant, Tooth decay from vomiting, Dehydration, Problems having bowel movements or damage to the intestines from laxative abuse.
  • #6 What Causes Bulimia Nervosa?
    https://withinhealth.com/learn/articles/what-causes-bulimia-nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a serious eating disorder that revolves around cycles of binge eating and purging, which can be dangerous to someone’s mental, physical, and emotional health. […] What causes bulimia is often not just one factor but a combination of biological, psychological, and environmental considerations. […] Eating disorders of all kinds were once considered primarily social disorders, impacted by factors like peer pressure and cultural norms around thinness. But thanks to developments in technology, doctors, scientists, and researchers are increasingly finding biological factors as potential bulimia causes. […] Many eating disorders, including bulimia nervosa, are now considered at least moderately heritable, meaning they can be passed down through families. […] One ground-breaking study on the subject found genetic similarities in 57% of the study’s participants.
  • #7 Aetiopathogenesis and pathophysiology of bulimia nervosa: biological bases and implications for treatment – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11460890/
    Data in the literature suggest that levels of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) are lower in individuals with bulimia nervosa than in healthy controls. Levels of dopamine are similar to, or lower than, those in controls. After remission of the disorder, noradrenergic function returns to that seen in controls, whereas dopaminergic and serotonergic function rebound to levels higher than in controls. Among the neuropeptides, alterations in the levels of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, beta-endorphin, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, cholecystokinin and vasopressin have been found in the symptomatic phase of bulimia nervosa, with a return to levels seen in controls after remission. Pharmacological treatment of bulimia nervosa that is directed at correction of the neurochemical alterations observed is difficult because of the complexity of the impairments. However, such treatment is necessary and should be continued long after symptomatic remission to ensure reinstitution of cerebral biochemical homeostasis.
  • #8
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200115020-00004
    Data in the literature suggest that levels of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) are lower in individuals with bulimia nervosa than in healthy controls. Levels of dopamine are similar to, or lower than, those in controls. After remission of the disorder, noradrenergic function returns to that seen in controls, whereas dopaminergic and serotonergic function rebound to levels higher than in controls. Among the neuropeptides, alterations in the levels of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, -endorphin, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, cholecystokinin and vasopressin have been found in the symptomatic phase of bulimia nervosa, with a return to levels seen in controls after remission. […] Pharmacological treatment of bulimia nervosa that is directed at correction of the neurochemical alterations observed is difficult because of the complexity of the impairments. However, such treatment is necessary and should be continued long after symptomatic remission to ensure reinstitution of cerebral biochemical homeostasis.
  • #9 Aetiopathogenesis and pathophysiology of bulimia nervosa: biological bases and implications for treatment – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11460890/
    Data in the literature suggest that levels of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) are lower in individuals with bulimia nervosa than in healthy controls. Levels of dopamine are similar to, or lower than, those in controls. After remission of the disorder, noradrenergic function returns to that seen in controls, whereas dopaminergic and serotonergic function rebound to levels higher than in controls. Among the neuropeptides, alterations in the levels of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, beta-endorphin, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, cholecystokinin and vasopressin have been found in the symptomatic phase of bulimia nervosa, with a return to levels seen in controls after remission. Pharmacological treatment of bulimia nervosa that is directed at correction of the neurochemical alterations observed is difficult because of the complexity of the impairments. However, such treatment is necessary and should be continued long after symptomatic remission to ensure reinstitution of cerebral biochemical homeostasis.
  • #10 Cholecystokinin in the Pathogenesis of Bulimia Nervosa
    https://www.scirp.org/html/7568.html
    Objective: This review aims to describe the role of the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) in the pathogenesis of bulimia nervosa (BN), the perpetuation of this illness and the possibility of its use as a target for future therapeutic advances. […] It is well established that CCK is altered in the pathogenesis of BN, and that its main role is in the perpetuation of the disorder rather than the cause of it. […] This review will address the role of CCK, one of the key neuropeptides, involved in the perpetuation of the pathogenesis of bulimia nervosa. […] Dysregulation of CCK in Bulimia Nervosa: Different alterations have been described in BN disorders: decreased noradrenergic, serotoninergic and dopaminergic activity, reduced colecistoquinergic action and increased orexigenic action of PYY, suggesting that satiety is altered in patients with BN.
  • #11 Bulimia nervosa – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa
    Examining from a neural basis also connects elements of interoception and emotion; notable overlaps occur in the medial prefrontal cortex, anterior and posterior cingulate, and anterior insula cortices, which are linked to both interoception and emotional eating. […] There is evidence of genetic predispositions contributing to the onset of this eating disorder. […] Abnormal levels of many hormones, notably serotonin, have been shown to be responsible for some disordered eating behaviors. […] Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is under investigation as a possible mechanism. […] There is evidence that sex hormones may influence appetite and eating in women and the onset of bulimia nervosa. […] Bulimia has been compared to drug addiction, though the empirical support for this characterization is limited.
  • #12 Bulimia nervosa | PPT
    https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/bulimia-nervosa-47963610/47963610
    Bulimia nervosa is understood to be a complex disorder with multiple factors contributing to its development. […] Abnormal levels of many hormones, notably serotonin, have been shown to be responsible for some disordered eating behaviors. Particularly, neurotransmitters endorphins and encephalin are responsive to binges. […] Research suggests that people who have a close relative who has or has had bulimia are four times more likely to develop it than those who do not have a relative with the condition. […] Sensation seeking may cause some individuals to gorge for the pleasure of eating. Bulimics have a compulsion to eat that resembles an addiction. Bulimia can be triggered because of environmental stress such as family dysfunction or traumatic stressful life events such as divorce, or the death of a loved one.
  • #13 The Characteristics, Risks, Effects, and Pathophysiology of Eating Disorders -A Review
    https://www.ijraset.com/research-paper/the-characteristics-risks-effects-and-pathophysiology-of-eating-disorders
    The underlying pathomechanisms of eating disorders are poorly understood and they have an unknown origin. Eating disorders lack Pathophysiological definitions and we rely on the diagnostic criteria mentioned in the DSM-5. […] Alterations in brain serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine – 5-HT) contribute to various aspects of eating disorders such as appetite (satiety), perfectionism, impulsiveness and mood-regulation problems. Increased 5-HT activity causes increased, or prolonged satiety results in restrictive eating behaviours and reduced 5-HT activity leads to a periodic lack of satiation that causes compulsive or binge-eating behaviours. Therefore, it can be understood that the restrictive type of anorexia nervosa corresponds with increased neurotransmission of 5-HT and the binge-purge type of anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa coincide with decreased neurotransmission of 5-HT.
  • #14 Bulimia Nervosa: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/286485-overview
    The pathophysiology of bulimia nervosa (BN) remains unclear. Abnormal laboratory values typically normalize with regulation of eating behaviors and cessation of binge eating and purging behaviors. […] There are no animal models for BN but more broadly for binge eating behaviors, indicating acute elevations in dopamine neurotransmission but decreases in striatal dopamine receptor distribution after prolonged binge eating and anxiety when deprived of binge eating. […] Animal models have suggested a change in the balance of dopamine D1 and D2 receptor neurotransmission with disordered eating, affecting midbrain serotonin neurotransmission and indicating state-dependent inter-relationships between neurotransmitter systems. […] Sex hormones and neuroactive peptides are also frequently altered during the ill state of eating disorders and affect brain neurotransmission, as do the fat-cell-derived hormones leptin or ghrelin from the gastric mucosa that may stimulate or dampen brain dopamine response and alter food approach in eating disorders.
  • #15 Bulimia Nervosa: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/286485-overview
    In summary, animal studies suggest distinct changes, especially in serotonin and dopamine neurotransmission, associated with food restriction or binge eating in eating disorders. […] Human neurotransmitter receptor studies using positron emission tomography (PET) showed higher serotonin 1A-receptor binding in AN and BN when ill and after recovery, suggesting state-independent alterations. […] Ill BN also showed no dopamine D2-receptor binding differences versus controls, but lower striatal dopamine release was associated with higher binge-eating frequency. […] Recently, higher glutamate receptor binding across several regions that was related to maturity fears characterized BN compared to controls. […] However, studies on GABA or glutamate using MRI spectroscopy in the ED population have yielded inconclusive results. […] Altogether, while the literature is limited, the studies indicate that, in particular, serotonin receptor availability is altered in AN and BN, making those receptors potential drug intervention targets. However, those neuroreceptor studies did not inform on the functionality of those receptors.
  • #16 Aetiopathogenesis and pathophysiology of bulimia nervosa: biological bases and implications for treatment – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11460890/
    Data in the literature suggest that levels of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) are lower in individuals with bulimia nervosa than in healthy controls. Levels of dopamine are similar to, or lower than, those in controls. After remission of the disorder, noradrenergic function returns to that seen in controls, whereas dopaminergic and serotonergic function rebound to levels higher than in controls. Among the neuropeptides, alterations in the levels of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, beta-endorphin, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, cholecystokinin and vasopressin have been found in the symptomatic phase of bulimia nervosa, with a return to levels seen in controls after remission. Pharmacological treatment of bulimia nervosa that is directed at correction of the neurochemical alterations observed is difficult because of the complexity of the impairments. However, such treatment is necessary and should be continued long after symptomatic remission to ensure reinstitution of cerebral biochemical homeostasis.
  • #17
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200115020-00004
    Data in the literature suggest that levels of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) are lower in individuals with bulimia nervosa than in healthy controls. Levels of dopamine are similar to, or lower than, those in controls. After remission of the disorder, noradrenergic function returns to that seen in controls, whereas dopaminergic and serotonergic function rebound to levels higher than in controls. Among the neuropeptides, alterations in the levels of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, -endorphin, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, cholecystokinin and vasopressin have been found in the symptomatic phase of bulimia nervosa, with a return to levels seen in controls after remission. […] Pharmacological treatment of bulimia nervosa that is directed at correction of the neurochemical alterations observed is difficult because of the complexity of the impairments. However, such treatment is necessary and should be continued long after symptomatic remission to ensure reinstitution of cerebral biochemical homeostasis.
  • #18 Cholecystokinin in the Pathogenesis of Bulimia Nervosa
    https://www.scirp.org/html/7568.html
    In BN patients, the postprandial release OF CCK is decreased, while in AN patients, both basal and food induced CCK, is normal or elevated. […] Findings of enlarged gastric capacity in normal-weight bulimics led to the proposal that repeated binge eating leads to increased stomach capacity that in turn leads to delayed gastric emptying and blunted post-meal CCK release. […] The role of CCK in the pathogenesis of BN seems to be a very important factor in the perpetuation of the disease, since it is at this stage when the patient has most problems in preventing a “normal” meal to convert into a binge because of lack of physiological satiety feedback. […] Understanding the mechanisms by which CCK regulates orexigenic pathways in the body may lead to new strategies for controlling appetite-related disorders such as obesity and bulimia nervosa.
  • #19 Cholecystokinin in the Pathogenesis of Bulimia Nervosa
    https://www.scirp.org/html/7568.html
    In BN patients, the postprandial release OF CCK is decreased, while in AN patients, both basal and food induced CCK, is normal or elevated. […] Findings of enlarged gastric capacity in normal-weight bulimics led to the proposal that repeated binge eating leads to increased stomach capacity that in turn leads to delayed gastric emptying and blunted post-meal CCK release. […] The role of CCK in the pathogenesis of BN seems to be a very important factor in the perpetuation of the disease, since it is at this stage when the patient has most problems in preventing a “normal” meal to convert into a binge because of lack of physiological satiety feedback. […] Understanding the mechanisms by which CCK regulates orexigenic pathways in the body may lead to new strategies for controlling appetite-related disorders such as obesity and bulimia nervosa.
  • #20 Bulimia nervosa pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Bulimia_nervosa_pathophysiology
    Bulimia is related to deep psychological issues and feelings of lack of control. […] Sufferers often use the destructive eating pattern to feel in control over their lives. […] They may feel a loss of control during a binge, and consume great quantities of food (over 20,000 calories). […] In one study, diagnosis of bulimia was correlated with high testosterone and low estrogen levels, and normalizing these levels with combined oral contraceptive pills reduced cravings for fat and sugar.
  • #21 What Causes Bulimia Nervosa?
    https://withinhealth.com/learn/articles/what-causes-bulimia-nervosa
    It’s usually not the disorder, per se, that gets passed down, but rather several traits, such as how someone reacts to stress, that can make someone more susceptible to developing BN or other eating disorders. […] Research has found a link between female puberty and the development of eating disorders. […] A follow-up to this finding discovered that estrogen, called estradiol, plays a role. […] This second study concluded this excess estradiol was also switching on specific genes that could lead to the development of eating disorders in affected girls. […] Another study found the neurological pathways in the brain responsible for motivation and reinforcement as another potential cause of bulimia. […] Brain activity was also connected to several major symptoms of bulimia, including both binging and purging behaviors.
  • #22 Bulimia nervosa – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa
    However, people with bulimia nervosa may share dopamine D2 receptor-related vulnerabilities with those with substance use disorders. […] Studies have shown a relationship between bulimia’s effect on metabolic rate and caloric intake with thyroid dysfunction. […] Scientific research has shown that people suffering from bulimia have decreased volumes of brain matter, and that the abnormalities are reversible after long-term recovery.
  • #23 Psychological Causes of Bulimia Nervosa
    https://withinhealth.com/learn/articles/psychological-causes-of-bulimia-nervosa
    Brain MRI studies demonstrate anatomical changes in those who have from bulimia nervosa, however it remains unclear if these changes came as a consequence of the disorder, or if they were contributory factors to developing BN. […] Although the causes of bulimia nervosa are multifaceted and not fully understood, it is always possible to begin the process of healing from this eating disorder. Because of the complex nature of this disorder, treating people with bulimia must include careful attention to the behavioral, psychological, and social components.
  • #24 Bulimia Nervosa – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562178/
    Bulimia nervosa is a disorder that is characterized by binge eating and inappropriate compensatory behavior to control weight with potentially dangerous sequelae. […] The precise etiology of bulimia nervosa is unclear but is likely multifactorial. The abnormalities in interoceptive function, particularly of the insula, may contribute to the binging behavior associated with this condition. A 2016 study indicated that patients with anorexia and bulimia nervosa have widespread abnormalities with diffuse alterations in white matter structural and useful connectivity, particularly within appetite-regulating and taste-reward pathways. Other studies have indicated a possible altered function of intrinsic functional brain architecture. […] Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as fluoxetine, citalopram, and sertraline have shown to reduce symptoms of bulimia nervosa. Fluoxetine is the only FDA approved medication for bulimia nervosa. It appears that a higher dose (60 mg) is significantly better than a placebo in decreasing the frequency of binge and vomiting episodes.
  • #25 Bulimia Nervosa – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562178/
    Bulimia nervosa is a disorder that is characterized by binge eating and inappropriate compensatory behavior to control weight with potentially dangerous sequelae. […] The precise etiology of bulimia nervosa is unclear but is likely multifactorial. The abnormalities in interoceptive function, particularly of the insula, may contribute to the binging behavior associated with this condition. A 2016 study indicated that patients with anorexia and bulimia nervosa have widespread abnormalities with diffuse alterations in white matter structural and useful connectivity, particularly within appetite-regulating and taste-reward pathways. Other studies have indicated a possible altered function of intrinsic functional brain architecture. […] Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as fluoxetine, citalopram, and sertraline have shown to reduce symptoms of bulimia nervosa. Fluoxetine is the only FDA approved medication for bulimia nervosa. It appears that a higher dose (60 mg) is significantly better than a placebo in decreasing the frequency of binge and vomiting episodes.
  • #26 Bulimia nervosa – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa, also known simply as bulimia, is an eating disorder characterized by binge eating (eating large quantities of food in a short period of time, often feeling out of control) followed by compensatory behaviors, such as vomiting, excessive exercise, or fasting to prevent weight gain. […] Bulimia is more common among those who have a close relative with the condition. The percentage risk that is estimated to be due to genetics is between 30% and 80%. […] Diagnosis is based on a person’s medical history; however, this is difficult, as people are usually secretive about their binge eating and purging habits. […] Bulimia typically involves rapid and out-of-control eating, which is followed by self-induced vomiting or other forms of purging. […] People with bulimia exhibit several interoceptive deficits, in which one experiences impairment in recognizing and discriminating between internal sensations, feelings, and emotions.
  • #27 Bulimia nervosa – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa
    Examining from a neural basis also connects elements of interoception and emotion; notable overlaps occur in the medial prefrontal cortex, anterior and posterior cingulate, and anterior insula cortices, which are linked to both interoception and emotional eating. […] There is evidence of genetic predispositions contributing to the onset of this eating disorder. […] Abnormal levels of many hormones, notably serotonin, have been shown to be responsible for some disordered eating behaviors. […] Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is under investigation as a possible mechanism. […] There is evidence that sex hormones may influence appetite and eating in women and the onset of bulimia nervosa. […] Bulimia has been compared to drug addiction, though the empirical support for this characterization is limited.
  • #28 Neurobiology of Eating Disorders: Clinical Implications
    https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/neurobiology-eating-disorders-clinical-implications
    Alterations in brain circuitry linked to reward and inhibition in particular appear to be involved in the maladaptive eating behavior characteristic of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder. […] Mounting evidence suggests that an altered balance of reward and inhibition may contribute to disordered eating. In anorexia nervosa, severely restricted food intake appears to be related to overactive inhibitory control in combination with underactive reward circuitry. In contrast, dysregulation of both inhibitory and reward drives may manifest in the alternating over- and under-consumption characteristic of bulimia nervosa. Binge eating disorder may be related to altered sensitivity of ventral reward regions. […] Neuroimaging research suggests eating disorder symptoms may result from dysfunction in circuits underlying reward and inhibition. The brain-based temperament traits of eating disorders are stable across illness and recovery. This suggests that treatments that work with these traits and target disturbances in inhibitory control, reward sensitivity, and salience may better address disease-specific mechanisms contributing to disordered eating-and may also enhance adherence and motivation, and thereby improve outcomes.
  • #29 Study Connects Key Neural Mechanism to Bulimia Nervosa
    https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/study-connects-key-neural-mechanism-to-bulimia-nervosa
    A study identified a key neural mechanism that may directly contribute to binge eating in patients with bulimia nervosa (BN). […] Results showed that the participants with BN made more commission errors during both tasks, and that deficient activation of the medial and lateral prefrontal cortices—the brain regions that play a role in the control of behaviors, emotions, and cravings—was identified in the participants with BN compared with healthy controls. […] BN subgroups who felt most strongly that they were binge eating during the task and those with the most severe and most frequent loss of control eating showed an abnormal reduction in bilateral ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vIPFC) activation associated with eating response inhibition. […] Our findings suggest that eating-specific impairments in inhibitory control-related activation may serve as a new target for treatment.
  • #30 Study Connects Key Neural Mechanism to Bulimia Nervosa
    https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/study-connects-key-neural-mechanism-to-bulimia-nervosa
    A study identified a key neural mechanism that may directly contribute to binge eating in patients with bulimia nervosa (BN). […] Results showed that the participants with BN made more commission errors during both tasks, and that deficient activation of the medial and lateral prefrontal cortices—the brain regions that play a role in the control of behaviors, emotions, and cravings—was identified in the participants with BN compared with healthy controls. […] BN subgroups who felt most strongly that they were binge eating during the task and those with the most severe and most frequent loss of control eating showed an abnormal reduction in bilateral ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vIPFC) activation associated with eating response inhibition. […] Our findings suggest that eating-specific impairments in inhibitory control-related activation may serve as a new target for treatment.
  • #31 What Causes Bulimia Nervosa?
    https://withinhealth.com/learn/articles/what-causes-bulimia-nervosa
    It’s usually not the disorder, per se, that gets passed down, but rather several traits, such as how someone reacts to stress, that can make someone more susceptible to developing BN or other eating disorders. […] Research has found a link between female puberty and the development of eating disorders. […] A follow-up to this finding discovered that estrogen, called estradiol, plays a role. […] This second study concluded this excess estradiol was also switching on specific genes that could lead to the development of eating disorders in affected girls. […] Another study found the neurological pathways in the brain responsible for motivation and reinforcement as another potential cause of bulimia. […] Brain activity was also connected to several major symptoms of bulimia, including both binging and purging behaviors.
  • #32 Study Connects Key Neural Mechanism to Bulimia Nervosa
    https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/study-connects-key-neural-mechanism-to-bulimia-nervosa
    A study identified a key neural mechanism that may directly contribute to binge eating in patients with bulimia nervosa (BN). […] Results showed that the participants with BN made more commission errors during both tasks, and that deficient activation of the medial and lateral prefrontal cortices—the brain regions that play a role in the control of behaviors, emotions, and cravings—was identified in the participants with BN compared with healthy controls. […] BN subgroups who felt most strongly that they were binge eating during the task and those with the most severe and most frequent loss of control eating showed an abnormal reduction in bilateral ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vIPFC) activation associated with eating response inhibition. […] Our findings suggest that eating-specific impairments in inhibitory control-related activation may serve as a new target for treatment.
  • #33 Abnormal structural brain network and hemisphere-specific changes in bulimia nervosa | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-019-0543-1
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is characterized by episodic binge eating and purging behaviors. Disrupted neural processes of self-regulation, taste-rewarding, and body image has been associated with the pathogenesis of BN. […] The hemispheric-specific change could be an important aspect of the pathophysiology of BN. […] The first important finding is the left-lateralized increases in nodal properties and connections among the OFC and other mesocorticolimbic reward areas. […] The results important for understanding body image distortion is the structural changes in somatosensory and visuospatial networks of BN patients. […] The hemisphere-specific change in the lateral temporal cortex might be another neural mechanism underlying distorted body imaging of BN. […] In conclusion, this study revealed nodal and connectivity changes distributed over the PFC, the mesocorticolimbic reward circuitry, the somatosensory and visuospatial networks in BN. The hemisphere-specific change could be an important aspect of the pathophysiology of BN.
  • #34 Abnormal structural brain network and hemisphere-specific changes in bulimia nervosa | Translational Psychiatry
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-019-0543-1
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is characterized by episodic binge eating and purging behaviors. Disrupted neural processes of self-regulation, taste-rewarding, and body image has been associated with the pathogenesis of BN. […] The hemispheric-specific change could be an important aspect of the pathophysiology of BN. […] The first important finding is the left-lateralized increases in nodal properties and connections among the OFC and other mesocorticolimbic reward areas. […] The results important for understanding body image distortion is the structural changes in somatosensory and visuospatial networks of BN patients. […] The hemisphere-specific change in the lateral temporal cortex might be another neural mechanism underlying distorted body imaging of BN. […] In conclusion, this study revealed nodal and connectivity changes distributed over the PFC, the mesocorticolimbic reward circuitry, the somatosensory and visuospatial networks in BN. The hemisphere-specific change could be an important aspect of the pathophysiology of BN.
  • #35 Bulimia nervosa – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa
    Examining from a neural basis also connects elements of interoception and emotion; notable overlaps occur in the medial prefrontal cortex, anterior and posterior cingulate, and anterior insula cortices, which are linked to both interoception and emotional eating. […] There is evidence of genetic predispositions contributing to the onset of this eating disorder. […] Abnormal levels of many hormones, notably serotonin, have been shown to be responsible for some disordered eating behaviors. […] Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is under investigation as a possible mechanism. […] There is evidence that sex hormones may influence appetite and eating in women and the onset of bulimia nervosa. […] Bulimia has been compared to drug addiction, though the empirical support for this characterization is limited.
  • #36 Bulimia nervosa – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa
    However, people with bulimia nervosa may share dopamine D2 receptor-related vulnerabilities with those with substance use disorders. […] Studies have shown a relationship between bulimia’s effect on metabolic rate and caloric intake with thyroid dysfunction. […] Scientific research has shown that people suffering from bulimia have decreased volumes of brain matter, and that the abnormalities are reversible after long-term recovery.
  • #37 Bulimia Nervosa: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/286485-overview
    In summary, animal studies suggest distinct changes, especially in serotonin and dopamine neurotransmission, associated with food restriction or binge eating in eating disorders. […] Human neurotransmitter receptor studies using positron emission tomography (PET) showed higher serotonin 1A-receptor binding in AN and BN when ill and after recovery, suggesting state-independent alterations. […] Ill BN also showed no dopamine D2-receptor binding differences versus controls, but lower striatal dopamine release was associated with higher binge-eating frequency. […] Recently, higher glutamate receptor binding across several regions that was related to maturity fears characterized BN compared to controls. […] However, studies on GABA or glutamate using MRI spectroscopy in the ED population have yielded inconclusive results. […] Altogether, while the literature is limited, the studies indicate that, in particular, serotonin receptor availability is altered in AN and BN, making those receptors potential drug intervention targets. However, those neuroreceptor studies did not inform on the functionality of those receptors.
  • #38 Bulimia Nervosa: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/286485-overview
    The pathophysiology of bulimia nervosa (BN) remains unclear. Abnormal laboratory values typically normalize with regulation of eating behaviors and cessation of binge eating and purging behaviors. […] There are no animal models for BN but more broadly for binge eating behaviors, indicating acute elevations in dopamine neurotransmission but decreases in striatal dopamine receptor distribution after prolonged binge eating and anxiety when deprived of binge eating. […] Animal models have suggested a change in the balance of dopamine D1 and D2 receptor neurotransmission with disordered eating, affecting midbrain serotonin neurotransmission and indicating state-dependent inter-relationships between neurotransmitter systems. […] Sex hormones and neuroactive peptides are also frequently altered during the ill state of eating disorders and affect brain neurotransmission, as do the fat-cell-derived hormones leptin or ghrelin from the gastric mucosa that may stimulate or dampen brain dopamine response and alter food approach in eating disorders.
  • #39 Bulimia Nervosa: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/286485-overview
    In summary, animal studies suggest distinct changes, especially in serotonin and dopamine neurotransmission, associated with food restriction or binge eating in eating disorders. […] Human neurotransmitter receptor studies using positron emission tomography (PET) showed higher serotonin 1A-receptor binding in AN and BN when ill and after recovery, suggesting state-independent alterations. […] Ill BN also showed no dopamine D2-receptor binding differences versus controls, but lower striatal dopamine release was associated with higher binge-eating frequency. […] Recently, higher glutamate receptor binding across several regions that was related to maturity fears characterized BN compared to controls. […] However, studies on GABA or glutamate using MRI spectroscopy in the ED population have yielded inconclusive results. […] Altogether, while the literature is limited, the studies indicate that, in particular, serotonin receptor availability is altered in AN and BN, making those receptors potential drug intervention targets. However, those neuroreceptor studies did not inform on the functionality of those receptors.
  • #40 Bulimia Nervosa: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/286485-overview
    The pathophysiology of bulimia nervosa (BN) remains unclear. Abnormal laboratory values typically normalize with regulation of eating behaviors and cessation of binge eating and purging behaviors. […] There are no animal models for BN but more broadly for binge eating behaviors, indicating acute elevations in dopamine neurotransmission but decreases in striatal dopamine receptor distribution after prolonged binge eating and anxiety when deprived of binge eating. […] Animal models have suggested a change in the balance of dopamine D1 and D2 receptor neurotransmission with disordered eating, affecting midbrain serotonin neurotransmission and indicating state-dependent inter-relationships between neurotransmitter systems. […] Sex hormones and neuroactive peptides are also frequently altered during the ill state of eating disorders and affect brain neurotransmission, as do the fat-cell-derived hormones leptin or ghrelin from the gastric mucosa that may stimulate or dampen brain dopamine response and alter food approach in eating disorders.
  • #41 Bulimia nervosa – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa
    Examining from a neural basis also connects elements of interoception and emotion; notable overlaps occur in the medial prefrontal cortex, anterior and posterior cingulate, and anterior insula cortices, which are linked to both interoception and emotional eating. […] There is evidence of genetic predispositions contributing to the onset of this eating disorder. […] Abnormal levels of many hormones, notably serotonin, have been shown to be responsible for some disordered eating behaviors. […] Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is under investigation as a possible mechanism. […] There is evidence that sex hormones may influence appetite and eating in women and the onset of bulimia nervosa. […] Bulimia has been compared to drug addiction, though the empirical support for this characterization is limited.
  • #42 What Causes Bulimia Nervosa?
    https://withinhealth.com/learn/articles/what-causes-bulimia-nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a serious eating disorder that revolves around cycles of binge eating and purging, which can be dangerous to someone’s mental, physical, and emotional health. […] What causes bulimia is often not just one factor but a combination of biological, psychological, and environmental considerations. […] Eating disorders of all kinds were once considered primarily social disorders, impacted by factors like peer pressure and cultural norms around thinness. But thanks to developments in technology, doctors, scientists, and researchers are increasingly finding biological factors as potential bulimia causes. […] Many eating disorders, including bulimia nervosa, are now considered at least moderately heritable, meaning they can be passed down through families. […] One ground-breaking study on the subject found genetic similarities in 57% of the study’s participants.
  • #43 Bulimia nervosa – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa, also known simply as bulimia, is an eating disorder characterized by binge eating (eating large quantities of food in a short period of time, often feeling out of control) followed by compensatory behaviors, such as vomiting, excessive exercise, or fasting to prevent weight gain. […] Bulimia is more common among those who have a close relative with the condition. The percentage risk that is estimated to be due to genetics is between 30% and 80%. […] Diagnosis is based on a person’s medical history; however, this is difficult, as people are usually secretive about their binge eating and purging habits. […] Bulimia typically involves rapid and out-of-control eating, which is followed by self-induced vomiting or other forms of purging. […] People with bulimia exhibit several interoceptive deficits, in which one experiences impairment in recognizing and discriminating between internal sensations, feelings, and emotions.
  • #44 Bulimia nervosa | PPT
    https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/bulimia-nervosa-47963610/47963610
    Bulimia nervosa is understood to be a complex disorder with multiple factors contributing to its development. […] Abnormal levels of many hormones, notably serotonin, have been shown to be responsible for some disordered eating behaviors. Particularly, neurotransmitters endorphins and encephalin are responsive to binges. […] Research suggests that people who have a close relative who has or has had bulimia are four times more likely to develop it than those who do not have a relative with the condition. […] Sensation seeking may cause some individuals to gorge for the pleasure of eating. Bulimics have a compulsion to eat that resembles an addiction. Bulimia can be triggered because of environmental stress such as family dysfunction or traumatic stressful life events such as divorce, or the death of a loved one.
  • #45 The Characteristics, Risks, Effects, and Pathophysiology of Eating Disorders -A Review
    https://www.ijraset.com/research-paper/the-characteristics-risks-effects-and-pathophysiology-of-eating-disorders
    GWASs, epigenetic, gene-expression and gene–gene interaction projects, nutritional genomics suggest that genetics play a large role in the development of eating disorders. […] Research about specific gut bacteria also contributes to the information about the pathophysiology of eating disorders. Gut microbiota has been shown to demonstrate involvement in various metabolic functions such as the regulation of weight gain, harvestation of energy from the diet and the secretion of insulin. […] The pathophysiological model of eating disorders should be based on molecular mechanisms that explain the alterations in appetite and feeding patterns, the mechanisms underlying alterations and diagnostic crossovers between different eating disorders and the risk factors that trigger the final common molecular pathway that leads to anorexia nervosa and/or bulimia nervosa.
  • #46 What Causes Bulimia Nervosa?
    https://withinhealth.com/learn/articles/what-causes-bulimia-nervosa
    It’s usually not the disorder, per se, that gets passed down, but rather several traits, such as how someone reacts to stress, that can make someone more susceptible to developing BN or other eating disorders. […] Research has found a link between female puberty and the development of eating disorders. […] A follow-up to this finding discovered that estrogen, called estradiol, plays a role. […] This second study concluded this excess estradiol was also switching on specific genes that could lead to the development of eating disorders in affected girls. […] Another study found the neurological pathways in the brain responsible for motivation and reinforcement as another potential cause of bulimia. […] Brain activity was also connected to several major symptoms of bulimia, including both binging and purging behaviors.
  • #47 Causes and characteristics of eating disorders
    https://www.stpatricks.ie/media-centre/blogs-articles/2018/february/eating-disorders-causes-characteristics-and-common-misconceptions
    What causes an eating disorder? […] Like most other mental health difficulties, there tends to be a combination of biological, psychological, social and environmental factors at play that come together to create the conditions where an eating disorder is more likely to develop. […] Risk factors associated with these illnesses include dieting and low self-esteem. […] Pre-disposing factors include: trauma, bullying, loss or grief, critical comments about weight or shape. […] Personality characteristics that can be associated with the development of an eating disorder include: anxiety, perfectionism, being obsessional, hyper-sensitivity, rigidity of thought. […] Genetics are also important. Current research indicates that there are significant genetic contributions to the development of eating disorders; for instance, first degree relatives of people with anorexia nervosa are ten times more likely to develop the illness in their lifetime.
  • #48 Bulimia nervosa – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa
    Examining from a neural basis also connects elements of interoception and emotion; notable overlaps occur in the medial prefrontal cortex, anterior and posterior cingulate, and anterior insula cortices, which are linked to both interoception and emotional eating. […] There is evidence of genetic predispositions contributing to the onset of this eating disorder. […] Abnormal levels of many hormones, notably serotonin, have been shown to be responsible for some disordered eating behaviors. […] Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is under investigation as a possible mechanism. […] There is evidence that sex hormones may influence appetite and eating in women and the onset of bulimia nervosa. […] Bulimia has been compared to drug addiction, though the empirical support for this characterization is limited.
  • #49 Bulimia nervosa – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa
    Examining from a neural basis also connects elements of interoception and emotion; notable overlaps occur in the medial prefrontal cortex, anterior and posterior cingulate, and anterior insula cortices, which are linked to both interoception and emotional eating. […] There is evidence of genetic predispositions contributing to the onset of this eating disorder. […] Abnormal levels of many hormones, notably serotonin, have been shown to be responsible for some disordered eating behaviors. […] Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is under investigation as a possible mechanism. […] There is evidence that sex hormones may influence appetite and eating in women and the onset of bulimia nervosa. […] Bulimia has been compared to drug addiction, though the empirical support for this characterization is limited.
  • #50 The Characteristics, Risks, Effects, and Pathophysiology of Eating Disorders -A Review
    https://www.ijraset.com/research-paper/the-characteristics-risks-effects-and-pathophysiology-of-eating-disorders
    GWASs, epigenetic, gene-expression and gene–gene interaction projects, nutritional genomics suggest that genetics play a large role in the development of eating disorders. […] Research about specific gut bacteria also contributes to the information about the pathophysiology of eating disorders. Gut microbiota has been shown to demonstrate involvement in various metabolic functions such as the regulation of weight gain, harvestation of energy from the diet and the secretion of insulin. […] The pathophysiological model of eating disorders should be based on molecular mechanisms that explain the alterations in appetite and feeding patterns, the mechanisms underlying alterations and diagnostic crossovers between different eating disorders and the risk factors that trigger the final common molecular pathway that leads to anorexia nervosa and/or bulimia nervosa.
  • #51 The gut microbiota contributes to the pathogenesis of anorexia nervosa in humans and mice | Nature Microbiology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-023-01355-5
    Anorexia nervosa (AN) is an eating disorder with a high mortality. The pathogenesis of AN probably involves genetics and various environmental factors, and an altered gut microbiota has been observed in individuals with AN using amplicon sequencing and relatively small cohorts. Here we investigated whether a disrupted gut microbiota contributes to AN pathogenesis. Our omics and mechanistic studies imply that a disruptive gut microbiome may contribute to AN pathogenesis. It has been hypothesized that an aberrant gut microbiota may be involved in the pathogenesis of AN. Several small studies that used amplicon sequencing to characterize the gut microbiota at the genus level in AN have been published, showing dysbiosis of gut bacterial microbiota. Moreover, in a mouse model of anorexia, changes in the gut microbiota have been shown to be associated with changes in eating behaviour and expression of hypothalamic neuropeptides. Our findings lend support to the hypothesis that a disrupted AN gut microbiota and associated bacterial metabolites contribute to AN pathogenesis. We found that the reduced weight gain and induced hypothalamic and adipose tissue gene expression were related to aberrant energy metabolism and eating behaviour.
  • #52 Bulimia nervosa pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Bulimia_nervosa_pathophysiology
    Bulimia is related to deep psychological issues and feelings of lack of control. […] Sufferers often use the destructive eating pattern to feel in control over their lives. […] They may feel a loss of control during a binge, and consume great quantities of food (over 20,000 calories). […] In one study, diagnosis of bulimia was correlated with high testosterone and low estrogen levels, and normalizing these levels with combined oral contraceptive pills reduced cravings for fat and sugar.
  • #53 Bulimia nervosa pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Bulimia_nervosa_pathophysiology
    Bulimia is related to deep psychological issues and feelings of lack of control. […] Sufferers often use the destructive eating pattern to feel in control over their lives. […] They may feel a loss of control during a binge, and consume great quantities of food (over 20,000 calories). […] In one study, diagnosis of bulimia was correlated with high testosterone and low estrogen levels, and normalizing these levels with combined oral contraceptive pills reduced cravings for fat and sugar.
  • #54 Bulimia nervosa pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Bulimia_nervosa_pathophysiology
    Bulimia is related to deep psychological issues and feelings of lack of control. […] Sufferers often use the destructive eating pattern to feel in control over their lives. […] They may feel a loss of control during a binge, and consume great quantities of food (over 20,000 calories). […] In one study, diagnosis of bulimia was correlated with high testosterone and low estrogen levels, and normalizing these levels with combined oral contraceptive pills reduced cravings for fat and sugar.
  • #55 Grief and Bulimia Nervosa
    https://www.eatingdisorderhope.com/blog/grief-and-bulimia-nervosa
    Grief is perhaps one of the most powerful emotions that humans encounter. […] For the individual who is predisposed to developing an eating disorder, such as bulimia nervosa, or who may be currently dealing with bulimia, the experience of grief can be enough to trigger the disorder into an active phase of binging and purging. […] While bulimia itself is not caused by grief, an inability to healthily cope with grief can lead to a progression of this eating disorder. Bulimia is the result of multiple factors, including biological components, environmental, psychological and social triggers. […] For some people who suffer with bulimia, the act of binging and purging can actually become a way of numbing painful emotions that are often endured in the grief process. […] The act of purging offers a temporary relief from these emotions. Because grief is often painful, binging and purging can seem like a much less painful alternative. […] Bulimia will not help resolve your grief and will only result in more complicated symptoms.
  • #56 Grief and Bulimia Nervosa
    https://www.eatingdisorderhope.com/blog/grief-and-bulimia-nervosa
    Grief is perhaps one of the most powerful emotions that humans encounter. […] For the individual who is predisposed to developing an eating disorder, such as bulimia nervosa, or who may be currently dealing with bulimia, the experience of grief can be enough to trigger the disorder into an active phase of binging and purging. […] While bulimia itself is not caused by grief, an inability to healthily cope with grief can lead to a progression of this eating disorder. Bulimia is the result of multiple factors, including biological components, environmental, psychological and social triggers. […] For some people who suffer with bulimia, the act of binging and purging can actually become a way of numbing painful emotions that are often endured in the grief process. […] The act of purging offers a temporary relief from these emotions. Because grief is often painful, binging and purging can seem like a much less painful alternative. […] Bulimia will not help resolve your grief and will only result in more complicated symptoms.
  • #57 Bulimia nervosa | Better Health Channel
    https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/bulimia-nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder and a mental illness. […] Compensatory behaviours are not a lifestyle choice they are a sign of a complex mental health problem. […] The cycle of binge eating and engaging in compensatory behaviours leads to intense feelings of shame, guilt and disgust. […] Compensatory behaviours can include: self-induced vomiting, using laxatives and diuretics, fasting, excessive exercise, using medications inappropriately to control body weight. […] Dieting is the primary risk factor and trigger across all types of eating disorders. […] Physical problems that may be caused by ongoing bulimia nervosa can include: gastrointestinal conditions associated with compensatory behaviours, heart-related issues, ongoing dental problems, weakened bones (osteoporosis), infertility in men and women, electrolyte imbalance from self-induced vomiting this can cause severe dehydration, and damage nerves, muscles and organs.
  • #58 Bulimia nervosa | Better Health Channel
    https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/bulimia-nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder and a mental illness. […] Compensatory behaviours are not a lifestyle choice they are a sign of a complex mental health problem. […] The cycle of binge eating and engaging in compensatory behaviours leads to intense feelings of shame, guilt and disgust. […] Compensatory behaviours can include: self-induced vomiting, using laxatives and diuretics, fasting, excessive exercise, using medications inappropriately to control body weight. […] Dieting is the primary risk factor and trigger across all types of eating disorders. […] Physical problems that may be caused by ongoing bulimia nervosa can include: gastrointestinal conditions associated with compensatory behaviours, heart-related issues, ongoing dental problems, weakened bones (osteoporosis), infertility in men and women, electrolyte imbalance from self-induced vomiting this can cause severe dehydration, and damage nerves, muscles and organs.
  • #59 The Relationship Between Bulimia & Anxiety  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-mental-illness/anxiety-disorder/
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a dangerous eating disorder marked by cycles of binge eating and compensatory purging behaviors. […] Anxiety, in particular, can be complexly intertwined with BN, with either condition potentially leading to the development or maintenance of the other. Studies have shown that as many as 65% of people with eating disorders also have an anxiety disorder. […] The development of any comorbidor co-occurring mental health diagnosis represents a complex chain of causes and effects, though patterns do sometimes emerge in these cases. For example, someone can show signs of BN before developing an anxiety disorder, but more often than not, the anxiety comes first. […] One survey found that nearly 70% of respondents said their anxiety disorder was diagnosed before their eating disorder. In fact, anxiety is often thought of as a potential risk factor for developing any type of eating disorder.
  • #60 The Relationship Between Bulimia & Anxiety  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-mental-illness/anxiety-disorder/
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a dangerous eating disorder marked by cycles of binge eating and compensatory purging behaviors. […] Anxiety, in particular, can be complexly intertwined with BN, with either condition potentially leading to the development or maintenance of the other. Studies have shown that as many as 65% of people with eating disorders also have an anxiety disorder. […] The development of any comorbidor co-occurring mental health diagnosis represents a complex chain of causes and effects, though patterns do sometimes emerge in these cases. For example, someone can show signs of BN before developing an anxiety disorder, but more often than not, the anxiety comes first. […] One survey found that nearly 70% of respondents said their anxiety disorder was diagnosed before their eating disorder. In fact, anxiety is often thought of as a potential risk factor for developing any type of eating disorder.
  • #61 The Relationship Between Bulimia & Anxiety  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-mental-illness/anxiety-disorder/
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a dangerous eating disorder marked by cycles of binge eating and compensatory purging behaviors. […] Anxiety, in particular, can be complexly intertwined with BN, with either condition potentially leading to the development or maintenance of the other. Studies have shown that as many as 65% of people with eating disorders also have an anxiety disorder. […] The development of any comorbidor co-occurring mental health diagnosis represents a complex chain of causes and effects, though patterns do sometimes emerge in these cases. For example, someone can show signs of BN before developing an anxiety disorder, but more often than not, the anxiety comes first. […] One survey found that nearly 70% of respondents said their anxiety disorder was diagnosed before their eating disorder. In fact, anxiety is often thought of as a potential risk factor for developing any type of eating disorder.
  • #62 The Relationship Between Bulimia & Anxiety  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-mental-illness/anxiety-disorder/
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a dangerous eating disorder marked by cycles of binge eating and compensatory purging behaviors. […] Anxiety, in particular, can be complexly intertwined with BN, with either condition potentially leading to the development or maintenance of the other. Studies have shown that as many as 65% of people with eating disorders also have an anxiety disorder. […] The development of any comorbidor co-occurring mental health diagnosis represents a complex chain of causes and effects, though patterns do sometimes emerge in these cases. For example, someone can show signs of BN before developing an anxiety disorder, but more often than not, the anxiety comes first. […] One survey found that nearly 70% of respondents said their anxiety disorder was diagnosed before their eating disorder. In fact, anxiety is often thought of as a potential risk factor for developing any type of eating disorder.
  • #63 The Relationship Between Bulimia & Anxiety  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-mental-illness/anxiety-disorder/
    There are any number of reasons why people may experience an anxiety disorder before developing eating disorder behaviors. But one of the biggest may be the fact that, for many people, bulimia nervosa develops as a maladaptive coping mechanism. […] With bulimia nervosa, behavior like binge eating may manifest as a way to deal with stress and anxiety that are otherwise not being addressed. Purging can then develop as a way to cope with the stress or perceived guilt or shame of binge eating. Eventually, these responses develop into a vicious cycle, trapping someone in this destructive pattern. […] Bulimia nervosa can co-occur with any type of anxiety disorder. Again, the condition often develops as a maladaptive coping mechanism for the deeply unpleasant feelings involved in anxiety disorders and other mental health concerns.
  • #64 The Relationship Between Bulimia & Anxiety  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-mental-illness/anxiety-disorder/
    There are any number of reasons why people may experience an anxiety disorder before developing eating disorder behaviors. But one of the biggest may be the fact that, for many people, bulimia nervosa develops as a maladaptive coping mechanism. […] With bulimia nervosa, behavior like binge eating may manifest as a way to deal with stress and anxiety that are otherwise not being addressed. Purging can then develop as a way to cope with the stress or perceived guilt or shame of binge eating. Eventually, these responses develop into a vicious cycle, trapping someone in this destructive pattern. […] Bulimia nervosa can co-occur with any type of anxiety disorder. Again, the condition often develops as a maladaptive coping mechanism for the deeply unpleasant feelings involved in anxiety disorders and other mental health concerns.
  • #65 The Relationship Between Bulimia & Anxiety  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-mental-illness/anxiety-disorder/
    Overall, however, OCD is one of the most common anxiety disorders to co-occur with any type of eating disorder. This may be due to the mechanisms involved in OCD, e.g., the obsessions and compulsions that drive the disorder. […] Women who struggle with PTSD are also at a particularly high risk of developing BN. Sadly, a history of trauma is a very common experience for people with all types of eating disorders, and the comorbidity with bulimia nervosa is particularly strong. […] Typically, when someone experiences co-occurring mental health disorders, the conditions are best treated simultaneously. With how deeply interconnected most of these conditions are, not addressing both can make long-term recovery particularly difficult. […] The type of comprehensive care needed to treat bulimia and anxiety often includes courses of therapy both individual and in a group, nutritional counseling, meal support, medical treatment, and medication when needed.
  • #66 The Relationship Between Bulimia & Anxiety  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-mental-illness/anxiety-disorder/
    Overall, however, OCD is one of the most common anxiety disorders to co-occur with any type of eating disorder. This may be due to the mechanisms involved in OCD, e.g., the obsessions and compulsions that drive the disorder. […] Women who struggle with PTSD are also at a particularly high risk of developing BN. Sadly, a history of trauma is a very common experience for people with all types of eating disorders, and the comorbidity with bulimia nervosa is particularly strong. […] Typically, when someone experiences co-occurring mental health disorders, the conditions are best treated simultaneously. With how deeply interconnected most of these conditions are, not addressing both can make long-term recovery particularly difficult. […] The type of comprehensive care needed to treat bulimia and anxiety often includes courses of therapy both individual and in a group, nutritional counseling, meal support, medical treatment, and medication when needed.
  • #67 Impulsivity and Bulimia Nervosa – Center For Discovery
    https://centerfordiscovery.com/blog/impulsivity-bulimia-nervosa/
    Impulsivity and bulimia nervosa? Eating disorders, including bulimia nervosa, are often described as both compulsive and impulsive. Compulsivity refers to repeatedly acting on an irresistible urge in other words; compulsivity is a tendency to repeat the same, often purposeless acts, which are sometimes associated with undesirable consequences. Impulsivity refers to a tendency to act prematurely and without foresight. […] Bulimia nervosa is characterized by consuming a large amount of food in a short period followed by the urge to rid the body of any calories that were consumed during this binge. The uncontrollable urge to binge is an impulsive behavior that is dictated by the loss of control as a way to suppress any emotional unrest. […] After individuals engage in binging episodes, they are often consumed with feelings of guilt and shame. As a result, their thoughts are dominated by an obsession to rid the body of all calories that just consumed so they turn to purge in the form of self-induced vomiting, excessive exercise or laxative abuse; all of which are dominated by impulsivity.
  • #68 Impulsivity and Bulimia Nervosa – Center For Discovery
    https://centerfordiscovery.com/blog/impulsivity-bulimia-nervosa/
    Impulsivity and bulimia nervosa? Eating disorders, including bulimia nervosa, are often described as both compulsive and impulsive. Compulsivity refers to repeatedly acting on an irresistible urge in other words; compulsivity is a tendency to repeat the same, often purposeless acts, which are sometimes associated with undesirable consequences. Impulsivity refers to a tendency to act prematurely and without foresight. […] Bulimia nervosa is characterized by consuming a large amount of food in a short period followed by the urge to rid the body of any calories that were consumed during this binge. The uncontrollable urge to binge is an impulsive behavior that is dictated by the loss of control as a way to suppress any emotional unrest. […] After individuals engage in binging episodes, they are often consumed with feelings of guilt and shame. As a result, their thoughts are dominated by an obsession to rid the body of all calories that just consumed so they turn to purge in the form of self-induced vomiting, excessive exercise or laxative abuse; all of which are dominated by impulsivity.
  • #69 Impulsivity and Bulimia Nervosa – Center For Discovery
    https://centerfordiscovery.com/blog/impulsivity-bulimia-nervosa/
    Impulsivity and bulimia nervosa? Eating disorders, including bulimia nervosa, are often described as both compulsive and impulsive. Compulsivity refers to repeatedly acting on an irresistible urge in other words; compulsivity is a tendency to repeat the same, often purposeless acts, which are sometimes associated with undesirable consequences. Impulsivity refers to a tendency to act prematurely and without foresight. […] Bulimia nervosa is characterized by consuming a large amount of food in a short period followed by the urge to rid the body of any calories that were consumed during this binge. The uncontrollable urge to binge is an impulsive behavior that is dictated by the loss of control as a way to suppress any emotional unrest. […] After individuals engage in binging episodes, they are often consumed with feelings of guilt and shame. As a result, their thoughts are dominated by an obsession to rid the body of all calories that just consumed so they turn to purge in the form of self-induced vomiting, excessive exercise or laxative abuse; all of which are dominated by impulsivity.
  • #70 Impulsivity and Bulimia Nervosa – Center For Discovery
    https://centerfordiscovery.com/blog/impulsivity-bulimia-nervosa/
    Impulsive behaviors are undoubtedly a product of a wide variety of factors, including genetics, biological factors, family environment, stressful situations, and social and peer influences. Evidence has shown the relationship between levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain, and impulsivity, possibly indicating that there is a genetic link in between this brain chemical and impulsive behaviors leading to bulimia nervosa. […] Eating disorder clients who are deemed highly impulsive may have a more difficult time in therapy because they are more prone to relapse and may have other co-occurring conditions such as borderline personality disorder and substance abuse disorder which can complicate the treatment regimen.
  • #71 Medical complications of bulimia nervosa | Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine
    https://www.ccjm.org/content/88/6/333
    Bulimia nervosa, a mental illness 4 times more common than anorexia nervosa, is characterized by binge-eating followed by compensatory purging behaviors, which include self-induced vomiting, diuretic abuse, laxative abuse, and misuse of insulin. […] Patients with bulimia nervosa are at risk of developing medical complications that affect all body systems, especially the renal and electrolyte systems. […] Electrolyte and metabolic disturbances are the most common causes of morbidity and mortality in patients with bulimia nervosa. […] The pathophysiologic reasons for hypokalemia and hypochloremia seen with all significant purging behaviors are 2-fold and interrelated. […] Chronic purging results in intravascular fluid depletion. […] The mechanisms by which metabolic alkalosis occurs in self-induced vomiting and in laxative abuse are similar. […] The aforementioned process of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activation results in what has been termed pseudo-Bartter syndrome due to resulting serum and histochemical findings on renal biopsy that resemble Bartter syndrome.
  • #72 Medical complications of bulimia nervosa | Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine
    https://www.ccjm.org/content/88/6/333
    Bulimia nervosa, a mental illness 4 times more common than anorexia nervosa, is characterized by binge-eating followed by compensatory purging behaviors, which include self-induced vomiting, diuretic abuse, laxative abuse, and misuse of insulin. […] Patients with bulimia nervosa are at risk of developing medical complications that affect all body systems, especially the renal and electrolyte systems. […] Electrolyte and metabolic disturbances are the most common causes of morbidity and mortality in patients with bulimia nervosa. […] The pathophysiologic reasons for hypokalemia and hypochloremia seen with all significant purging behaviors are 2-fold and interrelated. […] Chronic purging results in intravascular fluid depletion. […] The mechanisms by which metabolic alkalosis occurs in self-induced vomiting and in laxative abuse are similar. […] The aforementioned process of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activation results in what has been termed pseudo-Bartter syndrome due to resulting serum and histochemical findings on renal biopsy that resemble Bartter syndrome.
  • #73 Medical complications of bulimia nervosa | Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine
    https://www.ccjm.org/content/88/6/333
    Bulimia nervosa, a mental illness 4 times more common than anorexia nervosa, is characterized by binge-eating followed by compensatory purging behaviors, which include self-induced vomiting, diuretic abuse, laxative abuse, and misuse of insulin. […] Patients with bulimia nervosa are at risk of developing medical complications that affect all body systems, especially the renal and electrolyte systems. […] Electrolyte and metabolic disturbances are the most common causes of morbidity and mortality in patients with bulimia nervosa. […] The pathophysiologic reasons for hypokalemia and hypochloremia seen with all significant purging behaviors are 2-fold and interrelated. […] Chronic purging results in intravascular fluid depletion. […] The mechanisms by which metabolic alkalosis occurs in self-induced vomiting and in laxative abuse are similar. […] The aforementioned process of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activation results in what has been termed pseudo-Bartter syndrome due to resulting serum and histochemical findings on renal biopsy that resemble Bartter syndrome.
  • #74 Medical complications of bulimia nervosa | Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine
    https://www.ccjm.org/content/88/6/333
    Bulimia nervosa, a mental illness 4 times more common than anorexia nervosa, is characterized by binge-eating followed by compensatory purging behaviors, which include self-induced vomiting, diuretic abuse, laxative abuse, and misuse of insulin. […] Patients with bulimia nervosa are at risk of developing medical complications that affect all body systems, especially the renal and electrolyte systems. […] Electrolyte and metabolic disturbances are the most common causes of morbidity and mortality in patients with bulimia nervosa. […] The pathophysiologic reasons for hypokalemia and hypochloremia seen with all significant purging behaviors are 2-fold and interrelated. […] Chronic purging results in intravascular fluid depletion. […] The mechanisms by which metabolic alkalosis occurs in self-induced vomiting and in laxative abuse are similar. […] The aforementioned process of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activation results in what has been termed pseudo-Bartter syndrome due to resulting serum and histochemical findings on renal biopsy that resemble Bartter syndrome.
  • #75 Medical complications of bulimia nervosa | Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine
    https://www.ccjm.org/content/88/6/333
    Bulimia nervosa, a mental illness 4 times more common than anorexia nervosa, is characterized by binge-eating followed by compensatory purging behaviors, which include self-induced vomiting, diuretic abuse, laxative abuse, and misuse of insulin. […] Patients with bulimia nervosa are at risk of developing medical complications that affect all body systems, especially the renal and electrolyte systems. […] Electrolyte and metabolic disturbances are the most common causes of morbidity and mortality in patients with bulimia nervosa. […] The pathophysiologic reasons for hypokalemia and hypochloremia seen with all significant purging behaviors are 2-fold and interrelated. […] Chronic purging results in intravascular fluid depletion. […] The mechanisms by which metabolic alkalosis occurs in self-induced vomiting and in laxative abuse are similar. […] The aforementioned process of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activation results in what has been termed pseudo-Bartter syndrome due to resulting serum and histochemical findings on renal biopsy that resemble Bartter syndrome.
  • #76 Renal and electrolyte complications in eating disorders: a comprehensive review | Journal of Eating Disorders | Full Text
    https://jeatdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40337-023-00751-w
    Kidney disease in ED is complex and incompletely understood. […] Mechanisms of kidney disease vary significantly based on subtype of ED and behaviors involved. […] Chronic hypokalemia leads to nonfatty degeneration of convoluted tubules presenting as mild changes of cytoplasmic vacuolization or extensive necrosis and sloughing of tubules. […] The pathophysiology of hypokalemic nephropathy is thought to be due to renal vasoconstriction, reduced medullary blood flow and impaired renal angiogenesis. […] While chronic hypokalemia leads to vacuolar lesions and tubulointerstitial nephritis (TIN), a recent case report describing renal biopsy of an eating disorder patient with intentional vomiting and hypokalemia showed non-uniform progression of TIN, suggesting additional factors contributing to renal disease, such as decreased renal perfusion.
  • #77 Renal and electrolyte complications in eating disorders: a comprehensive review | Journal of Eating Disorders | Full Text
    https://jeatdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40337-023-00751-w
    Kidney disease in ED is complex and incompletely understood. […] Mechanisms of kidney disease vary significantly based on subtype of ED and behaviors involved. […] Chronic hypokalemia leads to nonfatty degeneration of convoluted tubules presenting as mild changes of cytoplasmic vacuolization or extensive necrosis and sloughing of tubules. […] The pathophysiology of hypokalemic nephropathy is thought to be due to renal vasoconstriction, reduced medullary blood flow and impaired renal angiogenesis. […] While chronic hypokalemia leads to vacuolar lesions and tubulointerstitial nephritis (TIN), a recent case report describing renal biopsy of an eating disorder patient with intentional vomiting and hypokalemia showed non-uniform progression of TIN, suggesting additional factors contributing to renal disease, such as decreased renal perfusion.
  • #78 Renal and electrolyte complications in eating disorders: a comprehensive review | Journal of Eating Disorders | Full Text
    https://jeatdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40337-023-00751-w
    Kidney disease in ED is complex and incompletely understood. […] Mechanisms of kidney disease vary significantly based on subtype of ED and behaviors involved. […] Chronic hypokalemia leads to nonfatty degeneration of convoluted tubules presenting as mild changes of cytoplasmic vacuolization or extensive necrosis and sloughing of tubules. […] The pathophysiology of hypokalemic nephropathy is thought to be due to renal vasoconstriction, reduced medullary blood flow and impaired renal angiogenesis. […] While chronic hypokalemia leads to vacuolar lesions and tubulointerstitial nephritis (TIN), a recent case report describing renal biopsy of an eating disorder patient with intentional vomiting and hypokalemia showed non-uniform progression of TIN, suggesting additional factors contributing to renal disease, such as decreased renal perfusion.
  • #79 Renal and electrolyte complications in eating disorders: a comprehensive review | Journal of Eating Disorders | Full Text
    https://jeatdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40337-023-00751-w
    Kidney disease in ED is complex and incompletely understood. […] Mechanisms of kidney disease vary significantly based on subtype of ED and behaviors involved. […] Chronic hypokalemia leads to nonfatty degeneration of convoluted tubules presenting as mild changes of cytoplasmic vacuolization or extensive necrosis and sloughing of tubules. […] The pathophysiology of hypokalemic nephropathy is thought to be due to renal vasoconstriction, reduced medullary blood flow and impaired renal angiogenesis. […] While chronic hypokalemia leads to vacuolar lesions and tubulointerstitial nephritis (TIN), a recent case report describing renal biopsy of an eating disorder patient with intentional vomiting and hypokalemia showed non-uniform progression of TIN, suggesting additional factors contributing to renal disease, such as decreased renal perfusion.
  • #80 Renal and electrolyte complications in eating disorders: a comprehensive review | Journal of Eating Disorders | Full Text
    https://jeatdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40337-023-00751-w
    Kidney disease in ED is complex and incompletely understood. […] Mechanisms of kidney disease vary significantly based on subtype of ED and behaviors involved. […] Chronic hypokalemia leads to nonfatty degeneration of convoluted tubules presenting as mild changes of cytoplasmic vacuolization or extensive necrosis and sloughing of tubules. […] The pathophysiology of hypokalemic nephropathy is thought to be due to renal vasoconstriction, reduced medullary blood flow and impaired renal angiogenesis. […] While chronic hypokalemia leads to vacuolar lesions and tubulointerstitial nephritis (TIN), a recent case report describing renal biopsy of an eating disorder patient with intentional vomiting and hypokalemia showed non-uniform progression of TIN, suggesting additional factors contributing to renal disease, such as decreased renal perfusion.
  • #81 Renal and electrolyte complications in eating disorders: a comprehensive review | Journal of Eating Disorders | Full Text
    https://jeatdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40337-023-00751-w
    It is also likely that acute hypokalemia is a contributor to AKI, possibly through hypovolemia and rhabdomyolysis. […] Hypokalemia-induced renal failure has been described as causative in AKI in a case report in a patient with AN-BP, the authors of which describe how hypokalemia and hypovolemia together lead to ischemic changes, inflammatory cytokines, increased vasoconstriction and decreased vasodilation.
  • #82 Renal and electrolyte complications in eating disorders: a comprehensive review | Journal of Eating Disorders | Full Text
    https://jeatdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40337-023-00751-w
    It is also likely that acute hypokalemia is a contributor to AKI, possibly through hypovolemia and rhabdomyolysis. […] Hypokalemia-induced renal failure has been described as causative in AKI in a case report in a patient with AN-BP, the authors of which describe how hypokalemia and hypovolemia together lead to ischemic changes, inflammatory cytokines, increased vasoconstriction and decreased vasodilation.
  • #83 Bulimia Nervosa – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562178/
    Bulimia nervosa is proven to be associated with an increase in all-cause mortality. […] Bulimia nervosa is a psychiatric disorder that can lead to potentially critical complications. Unlike in anorexia nervosa, in which complications are due to weight loss and malnutrition, the type and severity of medical complications of bulimia nervosa can be determined based on the frequency and the method the patient uses to purge.
  • #84 Bulimia Nervosa – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/eating-disorders/bulimia-nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa is characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by some form of inappropriate compensatory behavior such as purging (self-induced vomiting, laxative or diuretic abuse), fasting, or driven exercise; episodes occur, on average, at least once/week for 3 months. […] Serious fluid and electrolyte disturbances, especially hypokalemia, occur occasionally. Extremely rarely, the stomach ruptures or the esophagus is torn during a binge or purge episode, leading to life-threatening complications. […] However, cardiomyopathy may result from long-term abuse of syrup of ipecac if used to induce vomiting. […] Recurrent self-induced vomiting may erode dental enamel and/or cause esophagitis. […] Serious fluid and electrolyte disturbances, especially hypokalemia, occur occasionally. […] Rupture of the esophagus or stomach or cardiomyopathy are rare complications.
  • #85 Bulimia Nervosa – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/eating-disorders/bulimia-nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa is characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by some form of inappropriate compensatory behavior such as purging (self-induced vomiting, laxative or diuretic abuse), fasting, or driven exercise; episodes occur, on average, at least once/week for 3 months. […] Serious fluid and electrolyte disturbances, especially hypokalemia, occur occasionally. Extremely rarely, the stomach ruptures or the esophagus is torn during a binge or purge episode, leading to life-threatening complications. […] However, cardiomyopathy may result from long-term abuse of syrup of ipecac if used to induce vomiting. […] Recurrent self-induced vomiting may erode dental enamel and/or cause esophagitis. […] Serious fluid and electrolyte disturbances, especially hypokalemia, occur occasionally. […] Rupture of the esophagus or stomach or cardiomyopathy are rare complications.
  • #86 Bulimia Nervosa – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/eating-disorders/bulimia-nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa is characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by some form of inappropriate compensatory behavior such as purging (self-induced vomiting, laxative or diuretic abuse), fasting, or driven exercise; episodes occur, on average, at least once/week for 3 months. […] Serious fluid and electrolyte disturbances, especially hypokalemia, occur occasionally. Extremely rarely, the stomach ruptures or the esophagus is torn during a binge or purge episode, leading to life-threatening complications. […] However, cardiomyopathy may result from long-term abuse of syrup of ipecac if used to induce vomiting. […] Recurrent self-induced vomiting may erode dental enamel and/or cause esophagitis. […] Serious fluid and electrolyte disturbances, especially hypokalemia, occur occasionally. […] Rupture of the esophagus or stomach or cardiomyopathy are rare complications.
  • #87 Bulimia Nervosa – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/eating-disorders/bulimia-nervosa
    Bulimia nervosa is characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by some form of inappropriate compensatory behavior such as purging (self-induced vomiting, laxative or diuretic abuse), fasting, or driven exercise; episodes occur, on average, at least once/week for 3 months. […] Serious fluid and electrolyte disturbances, especially hypokalemia, occur occasionally. Extremely rarely, the stomach ruptures or the esophagus is torn during a binge or purge episode, leading to life-threatening complications. […] However, cardiomyopathy may result from long-term abuse of syrup of ipecac if used to induce vomiting. […] Recurrent self-induced vomiting may erode dental enamel and/or cause esophagitis. […] Serious fluid and electrolyte disturbances, especially hypokalemia, occur occasionally. […] Rupture of the esophagus or stomach or cardiomyopathy are rare complications.
  • #88 Bulimia nervosa
    https://womenshealth.gov/mental-health/mental-health-conditions/eating-disorders/bulimia-nervosa
    Researchers are not sure exactly what causes bulimia and other eating disorders. Researchers are finding a complex combination of genetic, biological, behavioral, psychological, and social factors may be the cause. This combination includes having specific genes, a person’s biology, body image and self-esteem, social experiences, family health history, and sometimes other mental health illnesses. […] Researchers are also studying unusual activity in the brain, such as changing levels of serotonin or other chemicals, to see how it may affect eating. […] Purging through vomiting or taking laxatives can prevent your body from getting the important nutrients it needs from food. Over time, bulimia can affect your body in the following ways: Stomach damage from overeating, Electrolyte imbalance (having levels of sodium, potassium, or other minerals that are too high or too low, which can lead to heart attack or heart failure), Ulcers and other damage to your throat from vomiting, Irregular periods or not having periods, which can cause problems getting pregnant, Tooth decay from vomiting, Dehydration, Problems having bowel movements or damage to the intestines from laxative abuse.
  • #89 Bulimia nervosa in adults: Pharmacotherapy – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/bulimia-nervosa-in-adults-pharmacotherapy/print
    Pharmacotherapy is efficacious for bulimia nervosa and may be included in the treatment regimen as part of multimodal therapy. Antidepressants have been most widely studied, and are typically the drugs of choice due to their demonstrated efficacy and tolerability. […] The neurobiology of bulimia nervosa and the mechanism of action for pharmacotherapy are not known. One hypothesis is that central nervous system serotonin pathways are disturbed in at least some patients.
  • #90 Bulimia nervosa in adults: Pharmacotherapy – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/bulimia-nervosa-in-adults-pharmacotherapy/print
    Pharmacotherapy is efficacious for bulimia nervosa and may be included in the treatment regimen as part of multimodal therapy. Antidepressants have been most widely studied, and are typically the drugs of choice due to their demonstrated efficacy and tolerability. […] The neurobiology of bulimia nervosa and the mechanism of action for pharmacotherapy are not known. One hypothesis is that central nervous system serotonin pathways are disturbed in at least some patients.
  • #91 Bulimia Nervosa – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562178/
    Bulimia nervosa is a disorder that is characterized by binge eating and inappropriate compensatory behavior to control weight with potentially dangerous sequelae. […] The precise etiology of bulimia nervosa is unclear but is likely multifactorial. The abnormalities in interoceptive function, particularly of the insula, may contribute to the binging behavior associated with this condition. A 2016 study indicated that patients with anorexia and bulimia nervosa have widespread abnormalities with diffuse alterations in white matter structural and useful connectivity, particularly within appetite-regulating and taste-reward pathways. Other studies have indicated a possible altered function of intrinsic functional brain architecture. […] Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as fluoxetine, citalopram, and sertraline have shown to reduce symptoms of bulimia nervosa. Fluoxetine is the only FDA approved medication for bulimia nervosa. It appears that a higher dose (60 mg) is significantly better than a placebo in decreasing the frequency of binge and vomiting episodes.
  • #92 Using Prozac to Treat Bulimia: Research & Effectiveness  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-treatment/medications/prozac/
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a complex mental health condition that can impact mental, physical, and emotional well-being. […] BN is often caused by a combination of psychological, biological, and environmental complications, which often require a comprehensive approach to treat appropriately. […] Currently, Prozac is the only antidepressant specifically approved for the treatment of bulimia nervosa. […] Research has suggested fluoxetine, the drug that makes up the brand name Prozac medication, was helpful as an intervention for patients who did not respond adequately to psychotherapy alone. […] Its possible it may have the same effect on people with bulimia nervosa. […] No medication exists exclusively to treat bulimia nervosa or other eating disorders. […] But fluoxetine is the only medication approved for treating bulimia nervosa by the FDA.
  • #93 Using Prozac to Treat Bulimia: Research & Effectiveness  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-treatment/medications/prozac/
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a complex mental health condition that can impact mental, physical, and emotional well-being. […] BN is often caused by a combination of psychological, biological, and environmental complications, which often require a comprehensive approach to treat appropriately. […] Currently, Prozac is the only antidepressant specifically approved for the treatment of bulimia nervosa. […] Research has suggested fluoxetine, the drug that makes up the brand name Prozac medication, was helpful as an intervention for patients who did not respond adequately to psychotherapy alone. […] Its possible it may have the same effect on people with bulimia nervosa. […] No medication exists exclusively to treat bulimia nervosa or other eating disorders. […] But fluoxetine is the only medication approved for treating bulimia nervosa by the FDA.
  • #94 Using Prozac to Treat Bulimia: Research & Effectiveness  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-treatment/medications/prozac/
    Bulimia nervosa (BN) is a complex mental health condition that can impact mental, physical, and emotional well-being. […] BN is often caused by a combination of psychological, biological, and environmental complications, which often require a comprehensive approach to treat appropriately. […] Currently, Prozac is the only antidepressant specifically approved for the treatment of bulimia nervosa. […] Research has suggested fluoxetine, the drug that makes up the brand name Prozac medication, was helpful as an intervention for patients who did not respond adequately to psychotherapy alone. […] Its possible it may have the same effect on people with bulimia nervosa. […] No medication exists exclusively to treat bulimia nervosa or other eating disorders. […] But fluoxetine is the only medication approved for treating bulimia nervosa by the FDA.
  • #95 Aetiopathogenesis and pathophysiology of bulimia nervosa: biological bases and implications for treatment – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11460890/
    Data in the literature suggest that levels of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) are lower in individuals with bulimia nervosa than in healthy controls. Levels of dopamine are similar to, or lower than, those in controls. After remission of the disorder, noradrenergic function returns to that seen in controls, whereas dopaminergic and serotonergic function rebound to levels higher than in controls. Among the neuropeptides, alterations in the levels of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, beta-endorphin, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, cholecystokinin and vasopressin have been found in the symptomatic phase of bulimia nervosa, with a return to levels seen in controls after remission. Pharmacological treatment of bulimia nervosa that is directed at correction of the neurochemical alterations observed is difficult because of the complexity of the impairments. However, such treatment is necessary and should be continued long after symptomatic remission to ensure reinstitution of cerebral biochemical homeostasis.
  • #96
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00023210-200115020-00004
    Data in the literature suggest that levels of noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) are lower in individuals with bulimia nervosa than in healthy controls. Levels of dopamine are similar to, or lower than, those in controls. After remission of the disorder, noradrenergic function returns to that seen in controls, whereas dopaminergic and serotonergic function rebound to levels higher than in controls. Among the neuropeptides, alterations in the levels of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, -endorphin, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, cholecystokinin and vasopressin have been found in the symptomatic phase of bulimia nervosa, with a return to levels seen in controls after remission. […] Pharmacological treatment of bulimia nervosa that is directed at correction of the neurochemical alterations observed is difficult because of the complexity of the impairments. However, such treatment is necessary and should be continued long after symptomatic remission to ensure reinstitution of cerebral biochemical homeostasis.
  • #97 The Relationship Between Bulimia & Anxiety  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-mental-illness/anxiety-disorder/
    Overall, however, OCD is one of the most common anxiety disorders to co-occur with any type of eating disorder. This may be due to the mechanisms involved in OCD, e.g., the obsessions and compulsions that drive the disorder. […] Women who struggle with PTSD are also at a particularly high risk of developing BN. Sadly, a history of trauma is a very common experience for people with all types of eating disorders, and the comorbidity with bulimia nervosa is particularly strong. […] Typically, when someone experiences co-occurring mental health disorders, the conditions are best treated simultaneously. With how deeply interconnected most of these conditions are, not addressing both can make long-term recovery particularly difficult. […] The type of comprehensive care needed to treat bulimia and anxiety often includes courses of therapy both individual and in a group, nutritional counseling, meal support, medical treatment, and medication when needed.
  • #98 The Relationship Between Bulimia & Anxiety  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-mental-illness/anxiety-disorder/
    Overall, however, OCD is one of the most common anxiety disorders to co-occur with any type of eating disorder. This may be due to the mechanisms involved in OCD, e.g., the obsessions and compulsions that drive the disorder. […] Women who struggle with PTSD are also at a particularly high risk of developing BN. Sadly, a history of trauma is a very common experience for people with all types of eating disorders, and the comorbidity with bulimia nervosa is particularly strong. […] Typically, when someone experiences co-occurring mental health disorders, the conditions are best treated simultaneously. With how deeply interconnected most of these conditions are, not addressing both can make long-term recovery particularly difficult. […] The type of comprehensive care needed to treat bulimia and anxiety often includes courses of therapy both individual and in a group, nutritional counseling, meal support, medical treatment, and medication when needed.
  • #99 Bulimia nervosa | Better Health Channel
    https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/bulimia-nervosa
    Like other eating disorders, treatment for bulimia nervosa needs to address both your physical and mental health. […] Research indicates that the most effective therapies for bulimia nervosa include: Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Enhanced (CBT-E), Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Guided Self Help (CBT-GSH), Interpersonal Therapy (IPT).
  • #100 Using Prozac to Treat Bulimia: Research & Effectiveness  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-treatment/medications/prozac/
    Its unlikely that there will ever be a medication that cures bulimia nervosa, in the sense that a person takes it and needs no further treatment to control their symptoms and improve their health. […] An effective bulimia treatment program is often a multi-faceted approach, dealing with the various psychological, biological, and environmental factors that develop and maintain eating disorders. […] As such, fluoxetine, tricyclic antidepressants, and other medications work best when combined with talk-based treatments, nutritional education, and other methods to help patients learn to reconfigure how they view themselves and their eating.
  • #101 Using Prozac to Treat Bulimia: Research & Effectiveness  | The Bulimia Project
    https://bulimia.com/bulimia-treatment/medications/prozac/
    Its unlikely that there will ever be a medication that cures bulimia nervosa, in the sense that a person takes it and needs no further treatment to control their symptoms and improve their health. […] An effective bulimia treatment program is often a multi-faceted approach, dealing with the various psychological, biological, and environmental factors that develop and maintain eating disorders. […] As such, fluoxetine, tricyclic antidepressants, and other medications work best when combined with talk-based treatments, nutritional education, and other methods to help patients learn to reconfigure how they view themselves and their eating.
  • #102 Bulimia nervosa – Knowledge @ AMBOSS
    https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/bulimia-nervosa/
    Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by recurrent binge eating episodes, inappropriate weight compensatory behaviors, and sense of self-worth disproportionately impacted by body weight and/or shape. […] Causes are multifactorial and similar to those of anorexia nervosa (e.g., genetic factors, psychiatric disorders, psychosocial factors); bulimia nervosa is associated with obesity. […] Recurrent purging can lead to severe complications such as esophageal tears, cardiac arrhythmias, and seizures. […] Bulimia nervosa is associated with an increased risk of suicide. […] Etiology is not entirely understood. […] Binge eating episodes can occur during periods of stress or boredom, or after an attempt to lower body weight through dietary restriction. […] Pharmacotherapy should be used only as an adjunct to psychotherapy in the management of bulimia nervosa. […] Fluoxetine is the preferred pharmacotherapy agent for bulimia nervosa and can reduce binge eating episodes and purging.
  • #103 Bulimia nervosa – Knowledge @ AMBOSS
    https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/bulimia-nervosa/
    Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by recurrent binge eating episodes, inappropriate weight compensatory behaviors, and sense of self-worth disproportionately impacted by body weight and/or shape. […] Causes are multifactorial and similar to those of anorexia nervosa (e.g., genetic factors, psychiatric disorders, psychosocial factors); bulimia nervosa is associated with obesity. […] Recurrent purging can lead to severe complications such as esophageal tears, cardiac arrhythmias, and seizures. […] Bulimia nervosa is associated with an increased risk of suicide. […] Etiology is not entirely understood. […] Binge eating episodes can occur during periods of stress or boredom, or after an attempt to lower body weight through dietary restriction. […] Pharmacotherapy should be used only as an adjunct to psychotherapy in the management of bulimia nervosa. […] Fluoxetine is the preferred pharmacotherapy agent for bulimia nervosa and can reduce binge eating episodes and purging.