Amnezja
Epidemiologia

Amnezja, definiowana jako utrata zdolności do zapamiętywania informacji i zdarzeń, wykazuje zróżnicowaną epidemiologię zależną od wieku, płci, rasy oraz typu amnezji. U około 40% populacji powyżej 60. roku życia obserwuje się pewien stopień utraty pamięci, z wyższą częstością u osób afroamerykańskich i latynoskich w porównaniu do nie-latynoskich osób rasy białej. Przemijająca amnezja globalna (TGA) występuje z częstością 3,4-10,4/100 000 osób rocznie, wzrastając do 23,5-32/100 000 u osób ≥50 lat, z niewielką przewagą u kobiet w wieku 40-60 lat. Migrena jest istotnym czynnikiem ryzyka TGA (RR=5,98). Amnezja dysocjacyjna, często związana z traumą, ma roczną częstość występowania około 1,8%, a jej podtyp – fuga dysocjacyjna – około 0,2%. Choroba Alzheimera dotyka 20% osób powyżej 85 lat, a demencja występuje u 3,9% populacji powyżej 60 lat, z wyższą częstością u osób rasy czarnej. Zespół Korsakowa, związany z niedoborem tiaminy i nadużywaniem alkoholu, ma rozpowszechnienie 0-2% globalnie, częściej u mężczyzn i osób starszych.

Amnezja – Epidemiologia i nadzór

Utrata pamięci (amnezja) to stan charakteryzujący się utratą zdolności do zapamiętywania informacji i zdarzeń, które normalnie byłyby pamiętane przez daną osobę. Zaburzenia pamięci mogą mieć różnorodne przyczyny i manifestować się w różnych formach klinicznych, co stanowi wyzwanie z punktu widzenia epidemiologii i nadzoru nad tymi przypadkami.12

Epidemiologia ogólna

Upośledzenie pamięci wykazuje tendencję do nasilania się wraz z wiekiem. Około 40% populacji powyżej 60 roku życia doświadcza pewnego stopnia utraty pamięci.123 Zauważalne są również różnice etniczne – amnezja i łagodne zaburzenia poznawcze występują częściej u osób w średnim i starszym wieku pochodzenia afroamerykańskiego (nie-latynoskiego) oraz u starszych Latynosów w porównaniu do nie-latynoskich osób rasy białej.1

Czynniki ryzyka rozwoju amnezji obejmują starzenie się, depresję, przewlekły stres, urazy głowy, przewlekłe niedobory snu oraz stosowanie niektórych leków.1 Istotnym elementem jest również różnica w epidemiologii poszczególnych typów amnezji, które wykazują odmienne wzorce występowania w populacji.1

Epidemiologia poszczególnych typów amnezji

Przemijająca amnezja globalna (TGA)

Przemijająca amnezja globalna (TGA – Transient Global Amnesia) jest jednym z najczęściej badanych typów amnezji. Charakteryzuje się nagłym początkiem amnezji anterogradowej, której towarzyszy przejściowy okres amnezji retrogradowej, dotykającej głównie osoby w średnim i starszym wieku.1

Częstość występowania TGA waha się od 3,4 do 10,4 przypadków na 100 000 osób rocznie w populacji ogólnej.123 U osób w wieku 50 lat i starszych wskaźnik ten znacznie wzrasta do 23,5-32 przypadków na 100 000 osób rocznie.123 Większość przypadków dotyczy osób w wieku 50-80 lat, a TGA rzadko występuje przed 40 rokiem życia.12

Niektóre badania wskazują na niewielką przewagę występowania u kobiet, szczególnie w wieku 40-60 lat, chociaż inne źródła sugerują brak różnic między płciami.123 Nawroty TGA są stosunkowo rzadkie, a wskaźniki nawrotów wahają się od 2,9% do 26,3% w różnych badaniach, z 10-letnim badaniem wykazującym wskaźnik nawrotów na poziomie 6,3%.123

Ważnym czynnikiem ryzyka rozwoju TGA jest migrena, z współczynnikiem ryzyka względnego wynoszącym 5,98.1 Inne choroby współistniejące to choroby niedokrwienne serca i hiperlipidemia, natomiast nie wykazano zwiększonego ryzyka w przypadku wcześniejszego udaru niedokrwiennego, cukrzycy czy nadciśnienia tętniczego.1 Niedawne badania sugerują również związek między ciężkim przebiegiem COVID-19 a wystąpieniem TGA, co może wynikać ze stanu nadkrzepliwości prowadzącego do udarów zakrzepowych w hipokampie.1

Badania populacyjne wskazują, że epizod TGA nie zwiększa ryzyka późniejszych incydentów naczyniowo-mózgowych, napadów drgawkowych ani zaburzeń poznawczych.1 Jednakże niedawne badanie z Korei sugeruje, że po epizodzie TGA może występować nieco podwyższone ryzyko padaczki, szacowane na 46% wyższe w porównaniu do osób bez tego schorzenia.1

Amnezja dysocjacyjna

Amnezja dysocjacyjna to potencjalnie odwracalne upośledzenie pamięci, które wpływa głównie na pamięć autobiograficzną. W amnezji dysocjacyjnej pacjent nie może przypomnieć sobie ważnych informacji autobiograficznych, zazwyczaj związanych z traumą lub stresem, choć może być zgłaszana bardziej rozległa utrata pamięci.12

Szacuje się, że roczna częstość występowania amnezji dysocjacyjnej w Stanach Zjednoczonych wynosi około 1,8% populacji.12 Z kolei chorobowość w ciągu całego życia zgłaszano na poziomie 67% w populacjach kanadyjskiej i tureckiej.1 W przypadku osób objętych opieką psychiatryczną, częstość występowania tego zaburzenia szacuje się na 7-11%.1

Według niektórych źródeł, częstość występowania amnezji dysocjacyjnej w populacji ogólnej wynosi 1,0-2,6%.1 Amnezja dysocjacyjna jest prawdopodobnie niedostatecznie wykrywana, a szacunki dotyczące rozpowszechnienia wahają się od 0,2% do 7,3%.1

Szczególnym podtypem amnezji dysocjacyjnej jest fuga dysocjacyjna, która charakteryzuje się nagłą, nieoczekiwaną podróżą lub wędrówką w stanie dysocjacyjnym, z następczą amnezją dysocjacyjną dotyczącą epizodu fugi i często części lub całej historii życia pacjenta.12 Częstość występowania fugi dysocjacyjnej szacuje się na około 0,2%, choć wartość ta może być niedoszacowana ze względu na niedostateczne rozpoznawanie.1

Amnezja związana z innymi schorzeniami

Utrata pamięci jest ważnym objawem chorób neurodegeneracyjnych, takich jak choroba Alzheimera. Około 15-20% osób w wieku 65 lat lub starszych ma łagodne zaburzenia poznawcze, a około jedna trzecia z nich rozwija chorobę Alzheimera w ciągu 5 lat obserwacji.1 Szacuje się, że roczna liczba nowych przypadków (zachorowalność) wszystkich typów demencji podwoi się do 2050 roku.1

Częstość występowania choroby Alzheimera wynosi 20% u osób powyżej 85 roku życia.1 Występowanie demencji u osób rasy czarnej jest prawie dwukrotnie wyższe w porównaniu do osób rasy białej.1 Szacowana światowa częstość występowania demencji u osób w wieku powyżej 60 lat wynosi około 3,9%, z regionalnymi różnicami: 1,6% w Afryce, 3,9% we Wschodniej Europie, 4,0% w Chinach, 4,6% w Ameryce Łacińskiej i 5,4% w Europie Zachodniej.1

Zespół Korsakowa, związany z niedoborem tiaminy, najczęściej spowodowany długotrwałym nadużywaniem alkoholu, ma światowe rozpowszechnienie wynoszące 0-2% i 1-2% w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Częstość występowania jest wyższa u osób starszych mieszkających samotnie, pacjentów psychiatrycznych i osób bezdomnych.1 Mężczyźni są bardziej dotknięci zespołem Korsakowa niż kobiety.1

Różnice demograficzne w występowaniu amnezji

Występowanie różnych typów amnezji różni się w zależności od płci i wieku. W przypadku amnezji dysocjacyjnej nie zaobserwowano wyraźnych różnic między płciami, natomiast zespół Korsakowa częściej dotyka mężczyzn.1 Z kolei choroba Alzheimera, której głównym objawem jest postępująca utrata pamięci, występuje częściej u kobiet niż u mężczyzn.1

Wiek jest istotnym czynnikiem ryzyka dla większości typów amnezji. TGA najczęściej występuje w wieku 50-80 lat, a częstość występowania zaburzeń pamięci generalnie wzrasta wraz z wiekiem.2 Czterdzieści procent populacji powyżej 60 roku życia doświadcza pewnego stopnia utraty pamięci.1

Występują również różnice etniczne i rasowe. Utrata pamięci i łagodne zaburzenia poznawcze są bardziej rozpowszechnione u osób w średnim i starszym wieku pochodzenia afroamerykańskiego (nie-latynoskiego) oraz u starszych Latynosów w porównaniu do nie-latynoskich osób rasy białej.1 Częstość występowania demencji u osób rasy czarnej jest prawie dwukrotnie wyższa w porównaniu do osób rasy białej.1

Nadzór i rozpoznawanie amnezji

Właściwe rozpoznawanie i nadzór nad przypadkami amnezji stanowi wyzwanie ze względu na różnorodność przyczyn i form klinicznych. Szczególnie trudne może być oszacowanie danych epidemiologicznych dla stanów niebędących chorobami neurodegeneracyjnymi, ponieważ utrata pamięci nie zawsze jest obecna w obrazie klinicznym.1

W przypadku amnezji dysocjacyjnej, rozpoznanie ma szczególne znaczenie w systemie wymiaru sprawiedliwości. Istnieje również pozytywna korelacja między liczbą przypadków amnezji a ciężkością popełnionych przestępstw.1 Badania nad amnezją związaną z przestępstwami z użyciem przemocy wykazały, że amnezja dla przestępstw z użyciem przemocy była związana z „zbrodniami namiętności” i objawami dysocjacyjnymi w czasie zdarzenia.1

W przypadku TGA, brak możliwości postawienia ostatecznej diagnozy, dopóki objawy nie ustąpią, stanowi wyzwanie dla nadzoru. Niepowodzenie ustąpienia objawów i inne niepokojące objawy wykluczają diagnozę TGA.1 Diagnostyka różnicowa amnezji dysocjacyjnej obejmuje zaburzenia związane z używaniem substancji, symulowanie, zaburzenia poznawcze oraz stany neurologiczne, takie jak padaczka i przemijająca amnezja globalna.1

W 2012-2016 w Massachusetts zidentyfikowano nietypową grupę 14 przypadków nagłej amnezji z ostrym, całkowitym i obustronnym niedokrwieniem hipokampa. Pozorne skupienie czasoprzestrzenne, stosunkowo młody wiek w momencie wystąpienia (19-52 lat) i rozległe używanie substancji przez tych pacjentów sugeruje potrzebę szerszego nadzoru w celu ustalenia, czy jest to nowy zespół związany z używaniem substancji lub innymi przyczynami, w tym wprowadzeniem toksycznej substancji.1

Prognozy i nawroty

Rokowanie w różnych typach amnezji jest zróżnicowane. W przypadku TGA jest ono generalnie dobre, a badania populacyjne nie wykazują zwiększonego ryzyka udaru mózgu po epizodzie TGA.1 Wskaźniki nawrotów TGA wahają się od 2,9% do 23,8% według różnych publikacji.1

W przypadku amnezji dysocjacyjnej, rokowanie jest bardzo zależne od indywidualnych cech pacjenta.1 Większość pacjentów odzyskuje utracone wspomnienia i amnezja ustępuje. Jednak niektórzy nigdy nie są w stanie zrekonstruować swojej utraconej przeszłości.1

W badaniu osób z amnezją związaną z przestępstwami z użyciem przemocy, po trzech latach obserwacji pamięć całkowicie powróciła u 33% osób z amnezją, częściowo poprawiła się u 26%, a pozostała niezmieniona u 41%.1

Wyzwania i przyszłe kierunki badań

Pomimo znaczących postępów w rozumieniu epidemiologii amnezji, nadal istnieją wyzwania i potrzeba dalszych badań. W przypadku amnezji dysocjacyjnej, istnieje potrzeba większej ilości badań i edukacji w celu wyjaśnienia i zrozumienia tych doświadczeń oraz określenia skutecznych metod leczenia, zarówno medycznych, jak i holistycznych.1

Badania genetyczne amnezji globalnej przemijającej (TGA) z trzech biobanków populacyjnych (Finlandia, Stany Zjednoczone i Wielka Brytania) obejmujące 4303 przypadki i ponad milion kontroli zidentyfikowały 9 nowych loci podatności spełniających kryterium istotności statystycznej dla całego genomu.1 Te same źródła podatności były wcześniej odnotowywane w przypadku migreny, jednego z głównych ustalonych czynników ryzyka TGA.1

Wyniki te mogą otworzyć nowe możliwości zrozumienia, szczególnie składników naczyniowych pamięci i utraty pamięci, dostarczając genów i wariantów do głębszej eksploracji molekularnej i fenotypowej.1 Przyszłe badania koncentrujące się na plastyczności synaptycznej mogą również mieć potencjał terapeutyczny w leczeniu zaburzeń pamięci spowodowanych wielokrotną ekspozycją na uderzenia w głowę.1

Proponowane „skoncentrowane na engram” modele trzech amnezji o ostrym początku (TGA, przemijająca amnezja padaczkowa i amnezja funkcjonalna) pomagają konceptualizować te zaburzenia w kategoriach rozproszonych i dynamicznych zespołów neuronalnych, które ze względu na swoją plastyczność mogą ewoluować w czasie, wyjaśniając kliniczne cechy tych stanów.1

Mimo tych postępów, nadal istnieje ograniczona wiedza na temat typowej długości i charakteru epizodów amnestycznych, zwłaszcza w kontekście kryminalistycznym.1 Istnieje również mało badań nad tym, czy wspomnienia wracają z czasem u osób popełniających przestępstwa, mimo literatury dotyczącej odzyskiwania pamięci u ofiar przestępstw.1

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-amnesia.aspx
    Amnesia refers to partial or complete memory loss. […] Memory loss or amnesia is said to be present when a person loses the ability to remember events and information that they would regularly or normally remember. […] Around 40% of people aged over 65 have some kind of memory problem, and only 15% will develop dementia each year. […] Amnesia may also occur after a head injury or after a stroke. […] Other causes of memory loss include: disease of the thyroids, as side effects of some medications such as sedatives or drugs used in Parkinsons disease, long term alcohol abuse, vitamin B1 (thiamine) deficiency (causing Korsakoffs psychosis), brain infections (Lymes disease, syphilis or HIV/AIDS), a sudden stressful or traumatic event leading a person to block an unpleasant memory (psychogenic amnesia). […] Amnesia may also occur in brain tumors. […] Transient global amnesia is related to psychological trauma or a medical procedure. […] Amnesia patients need adequate support from friends and family.
  • #1 Amnesia epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Amnesia_epidemiology_and_demographics
    Memory impairment tends to increase with age. Forty percent of the population over age sixty have some degree of memory loss. […] Amnesia and mild cognitive impairment is more prevalent in middle-aged to older Non-Hispanic Black and older Latino as compared to non-Hispanic Whites. […] The prevalence of dissociative amnesia is 1,000 to 2,600 per 100,000 (1.0% to 2.6%) of the overall population. […] Prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease is 20% over the age of 85. […] The prevalence of dissociative fugue is approximately 0.2%. This might be underestimated as dissociative fugue is under diagnosed. […] Worldwide prevalence of Korsakoff Syndrome is 0-2% and 1-2% in the United States. Prevalence is higher in elderly living by themselves, psychiatric inpatients and the homeless. […] Worldwide, the incidence of transient global amnesia is approximately 2.9 10 per 100,000 cases per year.
  • #1 Amnesia epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Amnesia_epidemiology_and_demographics
    Incidence of dissociative disorder is higher in substance abuse cases. […] Higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease is seen in women than men. […] Males are more affected by Korsakoff Syndrome than females. […] Memory loss and mild cognitive impairment is more prevalent in middle-aged to older Non-Hispanic Black and older Latino as compared to non-Hispanic Whites. […] Memory impairment tends to increase with age. Forty percent of the population over age sixty have some degree of memory loss.
  • #1 Amnesia overview – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Amnesia_overview
    Memory impairment tends to increase with age. Forty percent of the population over age sixty have some degree of memory loss. Amnesia and mild cognitive impairment is more prevalent in middle-aged to older Non-Hispanic Black and older Latino as compared to non-Hispanic Whites. […] The underlying etiology of memory loss must be differentiated on the basis of duration of memory loss, presence of anterograde amnesia or retrograde amnesia, associated features, and cognitive impairment. […] Aging, depression, chronic stress, head trauma, chronic sleep deprivation and medications are risk factors for amnesia.
  • #1 Amnesia Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment – Cura4U
    https://cura4u.com/conditions/amnesia
    Amnesia can occur in any age group, but the risk increases with age. […] The incidence of amnesia varies based on its certain types. For example, dissociative amnesia is present in 1.0 to 2.6% of the population. […] Gender and racial prevalence also vary for different types of amnesia. The risk is greater for older age people above the age of 60.
  • #1 Transient Global Amnesia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK442001/
    Transient global amnesia is a sudden onset of anterograde amnesia accompanied by a temporary period of retrograde amnesia, primarily affecting middle-aged and older individuals. […] The incidence of transient global amnesia ranges from 3.4 to 10.4 per 100,000 people per year in the general population. In individuals aged 50 or older, this increases to 23.5 to 32 per 100,000 per year, with most cases occurring in those aged 50 to 80. There is no gender difference. […] Although no clear risk factors have been identified, transient global amnesia is more frequently noted in patients with a history of ischemic heart disease and hyperlipidemia but not with prior ischemic stroke, diabetes, or hypertension. Individuals with migraine have an increased risk, with an incidence risk ratio of 2.48.
  • #1 Neurocognitive Perspective of Transient Global Amnesia | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/69615
    Transient global amnesia (TGA) is a neuropsychological syndrome that involves a sudden and temporary episode of memory loss that includes inability to create new memories. […] Concerning TGA epidemiology, the annual TGA incidence varies between 3 and 10 per 100,000 in different studies. […] In population older than 50 years old, the TGA rate increases until 2332/100,000, and it is very rare before 40. […] The second TGA episode recurrence rate varies between 6 and 15%; thus it is not very frequent to have another episode.
  • #1 Transient Global Amnesia
    https://fpnotebook.com/Neuro/Cognitive/TrnsntGlblAmns.htm
    Incidence 5-10 per 100,000 per year (23 to 32 per 100,000 per year in age over 50 years) […] Age: Over age 50 years (typical age range 50 to 80 years) […] More common in women (esp. ages 40 to 60 years old)
  • #1 Transient Global Amnesia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK442001/
    Transient global amnesia recurrence is uncommon but not rare, with rates varying from 2.9% to 26.3%. […] Most cases of transient global amnesia occur as isolated events with favorable outcomes and negligible morbidity or mortality reported. Although recurrences are possible, their incidence varies from 2.9% to 26.3% over different follow-up periods, with a 10-year study showing a recurrence rate of 6.3%. […] Complications directly attributable to transient global amnesia are rare, given its typically benign and self-limiting nature.
  • #1 Transient Global Amnesia | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2022/0100/p50.html
    Transient global amnesia (TGA) is a clinical syndrome characterized by anterograde amnesia, mild retrograde amnesia, and confusion up to 24 hours. […] The incidence of TGA is three to eight cases per 100,000 person years but increases to 23.8 cases per 100,000 in patients older than 50 years. […] A history of migraine headache is the only diagnosis definitively associated with TGA, with a relative risk of 5.98. […] Reports of TGA associated with severe COVID-19 have recently appeared, suggesting that the hypercoagulable state of COVID-19 may precipitate thrombotic strokes in the hippocampus. […] The prognosis of TGA is uniformly good. Population-based studies do not demonstrate an increased risk of cerebrovascular accident after an episode of TGA. […] The published TGA recurrence rate ranges from 2.9% to 23.8%.
  • #1 Transient global amnesia – GPnotebook
    https://gpnotebook.com/pages/general-information/transient-global-amnesia
    Epidemiological data put the annual incidence of TGA between 3.4 and 10.4/100,000 (2) […] most commonly presents in the seventh decade of life. Across studies, the mean age of an episode ranges from 61 to 67.3 years […] studies show a slight female predominance […] study evidence showed a recurrence rate of 6.3% in a 10 year period. […] a population-based study concluded that an episode of TGA does not increase the risk of subsequent cerebrovascular events, seizures, or cognitive impairment (4).
  • #1 Transient Global Amnesia – MD Searchlight
    https://mdsearchlight.com/neurology/transient-global-amnesia/
    Transient global amnesia is a condition that causes sudden memory loss, affecting mainly adults between the ages of 50 and 70. This episode of memory loss can last from 1 to 24 hours. Its quite a common condition, especially seen in emergencies. […] Transient global amnesia, a temporary loss of memory, affects 3.4 to 10.4 out of every 100,000 people each year. However, this rate goes up in folks who are 50 and older, with the majority of cases happening in those between 50 and 80 years old. Both men and women are equally likely to experience it. […] A recent study from Korea indicated that there could be a slightly increased risk of epilepsy, a neurological disorder leading to frequent seizures, after an episode of transient global amnesia. This risk is estimated to be 46% higher compared to those without the condition. However, this finding also emphasizes how critical it is to accurately confirm the initial diagnosis of transient global amnesia.
  • #1 Dissociative amnesia: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, course, and diagnosis – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/dissociative-amnesia-epidemiology-pathogenesis-clinical-manifestations-course-and-diagnosis/print
    Dissociative amnesia is a potentially reversible memory impairment that primarily affects autobiographical memory. In dissociative amnesia, the patient cannot recall important autobiographical information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, although more extensive memory loss may be reported. […] Dissociative fugue, a subtype of dissociative amnesia in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR), is characterized by sudden unexpected travel or wandering in a dissociated state, with subsequent dissociative amnesia for the fugue episode, and often for some or all of the patient’s life history. […] Dissociative amnesia and the dissociative fugue subtype are reviewed here.
  • #1 Dissociative Amnesia Statistics, Facts, Prevalence, Diagnosis and Treatment
    https://www.therecoveryvillage.com/mental-health/dissociative-amnesia/dissociative-amnesia-statistics/
    Individuals that struggle with dissociative amnesia have significant memory loss that usually stems from psychological stress or trauma. […] Dissociative amnesia facts and statistics suggest that this disorder is understudied and underdiagnosed in the general population. […] Approximately 1.8% of people in the United States are diagnosed with dissociative amnesia over a 12-month period. […] The lifetime prevalence of dissociative amnesia has been reported at 67% of Canadian and Turkish populations. […] For individuals under psychiatric care, the prevalence of this disorder is estimated at 711%. […] Dissociative amnesia can be diagnosed as a singular condition. More commonly, it co-occurs with similar conditions involving response to trauma, such as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or substance use. […] Diagnosis of dissociative amnesia is particularly important in the criminal justice system. […] There is also a positive correlation with the number of amnesia cases pleaded and the severity of crimes committed. […] The prognosis for dissociative amnesia is highly dependent on the individual.
  • #1 Dissociative Amnesia – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/dissociative-disorders/dissociative-amnesia
    Dissociative amnesia is likely underdetected. Prevalence is not well-established, but estimates range from 0.2 to 7.3%. […] Diagnosis of dissociative amnesia is clinical, based on presence of the following criteria in the DSM-5-TR: Patients cannot recall important personal information (usually trauma- or stress-related) that would not typically be lost with ordinary forgetting. […] Most patients recover their missing memories, and amnesia resolves. However, some are never able to reconstruct their missing past.
  • #1 Short-Term Memory Impairment – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545136/
    Epidemiological data are related to different conditions that induce memory impairment. For instance, concerning neurodegenerative diseases, about 15% to 20% of people aged 65 or older have mild cognitive impairment, with approximately one-third of them developing Alzheimer disease within 5 years of follow-up. Furthermore, the prevalence of existing cases of Alzheimer disease is 5.8 million Americans, and estimates suggest that the annual number of new cases (incidence) of all types of dementia is expected to double by 2050. Mild cognitive impairment is a syndrome of memory impairment with normal activities of daily living but may precede dementia for several years. […] According to a recent study, around 5% to 15% of individuals with mild cognitive impairment progress to dementia annually. The prevalence of dementia in Blacks is almost twice compared to that of Whites. In China, the population older than 60 is expected to increase approximately from 12% in 2010 to 33% of the overall population by 2050. Therefore, the increase in the aging population is projected to result in an Alzheimer disease prevalence of 27.7 million people in China by 2050. Parkinson disease affects approximately 1% of the population older than 60, whereas the incidence of Huntington disease is 0.38 per 1,00,000 per year. For non-neurodegenerative conditions, estimating epidemiological data is challenging as memory decline is not always in the clinical picture.
  • #1
    https://journals.lww.com/ijnp/fulltext/2017/07030/memory_impairment_with_reference_to_alzheimer_s.1.aspx
    Amnesia also known as amnesic syndrome is a deficit in memory caused by brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma. […] The estimated global dementia prevalence in people aged over 60 is approximately 3.9%, with the regional prevalence being 1.6% in Africa, 3.9% in Eastern Europe, 4.0% in China, 4.6% in Latin America, and 5.4% in Western Europe. […] The incidence rate of dementia increases exponentially with age, and incidence rates across regions of dementia are quite similar. […] Memory loss is associated with brain shrinkage and localized loss of neurons, mainly in the hippocampus and basal forebrain. […] The main pathological features of memory loss and AD comprise amyloid plaques (APs), neurofibrillary tangles, and a loss of neurons (particularly the cholinergic neurons of the basal forebrain).
  • #1 Amnesia for Violent Offenses: Factors Underlying Memory Loss and Recovery | Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law
    https://jaapl.org/content/42/2/202
    Amnesia for violent offenses is common, but little is known about underlying causes or whether memory can recover. […] The results showed that amnesia for a violent offense was associated with crimes of passion and dissociative symptoms at the time, but not with impaired neuropsychological functioning. […] Long amnesic gaps were associated with a state of dissociation surrounding the offense and with previous blackouts (whether alcoholic or dissociative). […] Memory often recovered, either partially or completely, especially where there was a history of blackouts or a lengthy amnesic gap. […] Brief amnesic gaps were likely to persist, perhaps as a consequence of faulty encoding during a period of extreme emotional arousal (or red-out). […] There is considerable controversy concerning amnesia for offenses.
  • #1 Transient Global Amnesia in the ED: Diagnosis and Treatment
    https://www.ebmedicine.net/topics/neurologic/transient-global-amnesia
    Transient global amnesia is a clinically distinct syndrome characterized by the acute inability to form new memories. It can last up to 24 hours. […] The definitive diagnosis of TGA cannot be made until symptoms have resolved. Failure of symptom resolution and other worrisome signs and symptoms excludes the diagnosis. […] In order to confidently make the diagnosis of TGA, a prehospital witness is helpful in providing a reliable history of the symptoms, including a description of the onset. […] While diagnostic criteria are clear, disagreement as to the causes and etiology of TGA continues. […] Little high-quality research on TGA exists. Most of the literature is comprised of case reports and case series. […] Retrospective studies designed to identify risk factors for the development of TGA have been conducted and have also yielded mixed results.
  • #1 Generalized Dissociative Amnesia Versus Transient Global Amnesia
    https://www.psychiatrist.com/pcc/generalized-dissociative-amnesia-versus-transient-global-amnesia/
    Dissociative amnesia, a type of dissociative disorder, is characterized by autobiographical memory loss. A previous study in a population-based sample from Canada reported a lifetime prevalence of 6% for this condition. […] The differential diagnosis of dissociative amnesia involves substance use disorder, malingering, cognitive disorder, and neurologic conditions such as seizure disorders and transient global amnesia. […] The core feature of memory loss in dissociative amnesia is inability to remember autobiographical information, which makes it distinctive from other conditions such as transient global amnesia. […] Transient global amnesia is a neurologic condition characterized by acute-onset memory impairment. Although it usually manifests as anterograde amnesia, which makes it distinguishable from dissociative amnesia, retrograde amnesia is also common. The majority of patients experience recovery within 24 hours of the onset of symptoms.
  • #1 Cluster of an Unusual Amnestic Syndrome — Massachusetts, 2012–2016 | MMWR
    https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/mm6603a2.htm
    A unique cluster of 14 cases of sudden onset amnesia with acute, complete, and bilateral ischemia of the hippocampus was identified in Massachusetts during 2012-2016. […] The apparent temporospatial clustering, relatively young age at onset (1952 years), and extensive substance use associated with this group of patients suggests broader surveillance is needed to determine whether this represents an emerging syndrome related to substance use or other causes, including introduction of a toxic substance. […] This cluster of amnestic syndrome associated with bilateral complete hippocampal ischemia is unusual given the absence of a readily identifiable etiology, the temporospatial clustering, relatively young patient age, and extensive substance use among affected persons. […] However, further case identification and reporting are needed to determine whether these combined observations represent an emerging syndrome related to substance use or other causes (e.g., a toxic exposure).
  • #1 Amnesia for Violent Offenses: Factors Underlying Memory Loss and Recovery | Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law
    https://jaapl.org/content/42/2/202
    At this three-year follow-up, memory was reported to have recovered completely in 33 percent of those with amnesia, partially improved in 26 percent, and remained unchanged in 41 percent. […] The aims of the present investigation were to identify the characteristics of amnesia, the length of the amnesic gap, and factors associated with amnesia, to help elucidate its underlying cause; to determine what factors are associated with the return of memory following amnesia; and to determine whether recovered memories are qualitatively similar to, or different from, memories in those violent offenders who have never experienced amnesia. […] On the basis of the previous literature, we hypothesized that amnesia would be related to such factors as alcohol dependence or blackouts and crimes of passion.
  • #1 I just needed support: Overcoming dissociative amnesia » College of Public Health & Health Professions » University of Florida
    https://phhp.ufl.edu/2025/02/20/i-just-needed-support-overcoming-dissociative-amnesia/
    My therapist told me she believed I had dissociative amnesia. Dissociative amnesia occurs when dissociation leads to memory loss. Witnessing or re-experiencing traumatic events causes symptoms to appear. […] The American Psychiatric Association estimated that 1.8% of the population experiences dissociative amnesia annually. We need more research and education to explain and understand these experience and what treatments work, whether medical or holistic. […] It didn’t help that there is a lack of research and treatment for dissociative disorders. Unless treatment becomes more comprehensive and accessible, this range of disorders will keep affecting many people, just like it affected me.
  • #1 Genetics of transient amnesia highlights a vascular role in memory | medRxiv
    https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.08.18.24312185v1.full-text
    Age and migraine are established risk factors to trigger TGA. […] Here, we use genetic analysis of transient global amnesia from global population biobanks to better understand memory. […] We identified 9 new susceptibility loci meeting genome-wide significance as there has been no prior GWAS study conducted of TGA. […] In this study we present the first genetic dissection of transient global amnesia, an unusual form of transient memory loss attributable to factors beyond those observed in Alzheimer’s disease or secondary to stroke or seizure. […] Using genome wide association across three biobanks, totalling 4303 cases and more than 1 million controls, we identify nine genome wide significant associations. […] The same susceptibility origin has previously been noted for migraine, one of the main established risk factors for TGA, though the associations described here are not broadly here seen in migraine. […] We anticipate that these results may open new opportunities towards understanding, in particular, the vascular components of memory and memory loss, providing genes and variants for deeper molecular and phenotypic exploration.
  • #1 Amnesia after Repeated Head Impact Is Caused by Impaired Synaptic Plasticity in the Memory Engram | Journal of Neuroscience
    https://www.jneurosci.org/content/44/8/e1560232024
    Our data adds to the literature showing that the synaptic changes occurring in engram neurons serve as a gain-control mechanism to improve the fear memory engram’s signal-to-noise ratio against other ensembles in the hippocampus. […] Interventions targeting synaptic plasticity may have therapeutic potential for treating memory impairments caused by repeated head impact exposure.
  • #1 An “Engram-Centric” Approach to Transient Global Amnesia (TGA) and Other Acute-Onset Amnesias
    https://www.mdpi.com/2035-8377/17/1/8
    The hypothesis proposed here is that the distributed ensembles of engram neurones normally activated during the formation of new memories fail to become appropriately activated in an episode of TGA. […] Another interesting possibility of the “engram-centric” model of TGA is that it may help to explain one of the demographic factors observed to influence the likelihood of having TGA, namely, the age distribution of cases. […] The occasional recovery of “lost” memories, either partial or total, in patients with functional amnesia suggests that an “engram-centric” model may be more readily applicable here than in TGA or TEA. […] The proposed “engram-centric” models of three acute-onset amnesias presented here help to conceptualise these disorders in terms of distributed and dynamic neuronal ensembles that, because of their plasticity, can evolve over time, thus accounting for the clinical characteristics of these conditions.
  • #1 Amnesia for Violent Offenses: Factors Underlying Memory Loss and Recovery | Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law
    https://jaapl.org/content/42/2/202
    The typical length and nature of such amnesic episodes have not been systematically investigated. […] Notably, there has been little exploration of whether memories return over time in offenders, despite the literature regarding recovery of memory in victims of crime, such as in childhood sexual abuse, and in alcoholic blackout and head injury. […] Furthermore, it is not known whether recovered memories feel real or imagined, despite the potential legal importance of this and related investigations of the quality and reliability of memories in other contexts. […] The presence of amnesia was associated with such factors as a history of psychiatric disorder, alcohol abuse, alcoholic blackouts, and committing a crime of passion (killing a spouse, lover, or partner). […] The outcome at three years was examined in the inmate’s follow-up reports for the parole board.
  • #2
    https://journals.lww.com/ijnp/fulltext/2017/07030/memory_impairment_with_reference_to_alzheimer_s.1.aspx
    Dementia or memory loss is the hallmark symptom of Alzheimers disease (AD). […] The World Health Organization predicts that, by 2025, about 75% of the estimated 1.2 billion people aged 60 years and older will reside in developing countries. […] It is estimated that the number of people living with dementia will almost double every 20 years to 42.3 million in 2020 and 81.1 million in 2040. […] Memory loss, also called amnesia, happens when a person loses the ability to remember information and events they would normally be able to recall. […] Memory loss due to the dysfunction of the episodic memory (EM) system generally follows a pattern known as Ribots law, which states that events just prior to an ictus are most vulnerable to decay, whereas remote memories are more resistant. […] Dementia is defined as an acquired deterioration in cognitive abilities that impair the successful performance of activities of daily living.
  • #2 Amnesia epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Amnesia_epidemiology_and_demographics
    Incidence of dissociative disorder is higher in substance abuse cases. […] Higher prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease is seen in women than men. […] Males are more affected by Korsakoff Syndrome than females. […] Memory loss and mild cognitive impairment is more prevalent in middle-aged to older Non-Hispanic Black and older Latino as compared to non-Hispanic Whites. […] Memory impairment tends to increase with age. Forty percent of the population over age sixty have some degree of memory loss.
  • #2 Transient Global Amnesia | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2022/0100/p50.html
    Transient global amnesia (TGA) is a clinical syndrome characterized by anterograde amnesia, mild retrograde amnesia, and confusion up to 24 hours. […] The incidence of TGA is three to eight cases per 100,000 person years but increases to 23.8 cases per 100,000 in patients older than 50 years. […] A history of migraine headache is the only diagnosis definitively associated with TGA, with a relative risk of 5.98. […] Reports of TGA associated with severe COVID-19 have recently appeared, suggesting that the hypercoagulable state of COVID-19 may precipitate thrombotic strokes in the hippocampus. […] The prognosis of TGA is uniformly good. Population-based studies do not demonstrate an increased risk of cerebrovascular accident after an episode of TGA. […] The published TGA recurrence rate ranges from 2.9% to 23.8%.
  • #2 Transient Global Amnesia
    https://fpnotebook.com/Neuro/Cognitive/TrnsntGlblAmns.htm
    Incidence 5-10 per 100,000 per year (23 to 32 per 100,000 per year in age over 50 years) […] Age: Over age 50 years (typical age range 50 to 80 years) […] More common in women (esp. ages 40 to 60 years old)
  • #2 Transient global amnesia: current perspectives | NDT
    https://www.dovepress.com/transient-global-amnesia-current-perspectives-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-NDT
    Transient global amnesia (TGA) is a clinical syndrome characterized by the sudden onset of an extraordinarily large reduction of anterograde and a somewhat milder reduction of retrograde episodic long-term memory. […] Recent epidemiological data put the annual incidence of TGA between 3.4 and 10.4/100,000. […] TGA most commonly presents in the seventh decade of life. […] Epidemiological studies fail to identify any subjects under the age of 55 years. […] A migraine history is one of the more notable risk factors associated with developing TGA. […] Cardiovascular risk factors are also well studied in TGA. […] In summary, according to community-based studies, the annual incidence of TGA is 510/100,000 and 23.532/100,000 for people aged 50 years and older.
  • #2 Transient global amnesia: Psychiatric precipitants, features, and comorbidities | MDedge
    https://www.mdedge.com/content/transient-global-amnesia-psychiatric-precipitants-features-and-comorbidities
    Transient global amnesia (TGA) describes an episode of anterograde, and possibly retrograde, amnesia that lasts up to 24 hours. […] Though TGA is the most common cause of acute-onset amnesia, it is rare, affecting approximately 3 to 10 individuals per 100,000. The average age of onset is 61 to 63, with most cases occurring after age 50. TGA is generally thought to affect males and females equally, though some studies suggest a female predominance. […] In most cases (approximately 90%), there is a precipitating event such as physical or emotional stress, change in temperature, or sexual intercourse. […] While TGA is a neurologic diagnosis, in a subset of patients it can present with psychiatric features resembling conversion disorder. […] This classification may empower emergency psychiatry clinicians and psychotherapists to identify and treat the condition, which is not described by the current psychiatric diagnostic system. […] Others have argued for a subtype of “emotional arousal–induced TGA” or “emotional TGA.” […] Despite these similarities, however, TGA’s neurophysiological changes on MRI and self-resolving nature still position the disorder as uniquely neuropsychiatric in the term’s purest sense.
  • #2 Transient global amnesia – GPnotebook
    https://gpnotebook.com/pages/general-information/transient-global-amnesia
    Epidemiological data put the annual incidence of TGA between 3.4 and 10.4/100,000 (2) […] most commonly presents in the seventh decade of life. Across studies, the mean age of an episode ranges from 61 to 67.3 years […] studies show a slight female predominance […] study evidence showed a recurrence rate of 6.3% in a 10 year period. […] a population-based study concluded that an episode of TGA does not increase the risk of subsequent cerebrovascular events, seizures, or cognitive impairment (4).
  • #2 Dissociative amnesia: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, course, and diagnosis – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/dissociative-amnesia-epidemiology-pathogenesis-clinical-manifestations-course-and-diagnosis
    Dissociative amnesia is a potentially reversible memory impairment that primarily affects autobiographical memory. In dissociative amnesia, the patient cannot recall important autobiographical information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, although more extensive memory loss may be reported. […] Dissociative fugue, a subtype of dissociative amnesia in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR), is characterized by sudden unexpected travel or wandering in a dissociated state, with subsequent dissociative amnesia for the fugue episode, and often for some or all of the patient’s life history. […] Dissociative amnesia and the dissociative fugue subtype are reviewed here. Other dissociative disorders, including dissociative identity disorder, depersonalization disorder, and dissociative aspects of posttraumatic stress disorder, are reviewed separately.
  • #2 I just needed support: Overcoming dissociative amnesia » College of Public Health & Health Professions » University of Florida
    https://phhp.ufl.edu/2025/02/20/i-just-needed-support-overcoming-dissociative-amnesia/
    My therapist told me she believed I had dissociative amnesia. Dissociative amnesia occurs when dissociation leads to memory loss. Witnessing or re-experiencing traumatic events causes symptoms to appear. […] The American Psychiatric Association estimated that 1.8% of the population experiences dissociative amnesia annually. We need more research and education to explain and understand these experience and what treatments work, whether medical or holistic. […] It didn’t help that there is a lack of research and treatment for dissociative disorders. Unless treatment becomes more comprehensive and accessible, this range of disorders will keep affecting many people, just like it affected me.
  • #3 Amnesia overview – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Amnesia_overview
    Memory impairment tends to increase with age. Forty percent of the population over age sixty have some degree of memory loss. Amnesia and mild cognitive impairment is more prevalent in middle-aged to older Non-Hispanic Black and older Latino as compared to non-Hispanic Whites. […] The underlying etiology of memory loss must be differentiated on the basis of duration of memory loss, presence of anterograde amnesia or retrograde amnesia, associated features, and cognitive impairment. […] Aging, depression, chronic stress, head trauma, chronic sleep deprivation and medications are risk factors for amnesia.
  • #3 Transient global amnesia: current perspectives | NDT
    https://www.dovepress.com/transient-global-amnesia-current-perspectives-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-NDT
    Transient global amnesia (TGA) is a clinical syndrome characterized by the sudden onset of an extraordinarily large reduction of anterograde and a somewhat milder reduction of retrograde episodic long-term memory. […] Recent epidemiological data put the annual incidence of TGA between 3.4 and 10.4/100,000. […] TGA most commonly presents in the seventh decade of life. […] Epidemiological studies fail to identify any subjects under the age of 55 years. […] A migraine history is one of the more notable risk factors associated with developing TGA. […] Cardiovascular risk factors are also well studied in TGA. […] In summary, according to community-based studies, the annual incidence of TGA is 510/100,000 and 23.532/100,000 for people aged 50 years and older.
  • #3 Transient Global Amnesia – MD Searchlight
    https://mdsearchlight.com/neurology/transient-global-amnesia/
    Transient global amnesia is a condition that causes sudden memory loss, affecting mainly adults between the ages of 50 and 70. This episode of memory loss can last from 1 to 24 hours. Its quite a common condition, especially seen in emergencies. […] Transient global amnesia, a temporary loss of memory, affects 3.4 to 10.4 out of every 100,000 people each year. However, this rate goes up in folks who are 50 and older, with the majority of cases happening in those between 50 and 80 years old. Both men and women are equally likely to experience it. […] A recent study from Korea indicated that there could be a slightly increased risk of epilepsy, a neurological disorder leading to frequent seizures, after an episode of transient global amnesia. This risk is estimated to be 46% higher compared to those without the condition. However, this finding also emphasizes how critical it is to accurately confirm the initial diagnosis of transient global amnesia.
  • #3 Transient Global Amnesia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK442001/
    Transient global amnesia is a sudden onset of anterograde amnesia accompanied by a temporary period of retrograde amnesia, primarily affecting middle-aged and older individuals. […] The incidence of transient global amnesia ranges from 3.4 to 10.4 per 100,000 people per year in the general population. In individuals aged 50 or older, this increases to 23.5 to 32 per 100,000 per year, with most cases occurring in those aged 50 to 80. There is no gender difference. […] Although no clear risk factors have been identified, transient global amnesia is more frequently noted in patients with a history of ischemic heart disease and hyperlipidemia but not with prior ischemic stroke, diabetes, or hypertension. Individuals with migraine have an increased risk, with an incidence risk ratio of 2.48.
  • #3 Neurocognitive Perspective of Transient Global Amnesia | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/69615
    Transient global amnesia (TGA) is a neuropsychological syndrome that involves a sudden and temporary episode of memory loss that includes inability to create new memories. […] Concerning TGA epidemiology, the annual TGA incidence varies between 3 and 10 per 100,000 in different studies. […] In population older than 50 years old, the TGA rate increases until 2332/100,000, and it is very rare before 40. […] The second TGA episode recurrence rate varies between 6 and 15%; thus it is not very frequent to have another episode.