Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Helminthiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560525/

  Helminthiasis causes a significant health problem with increased morbidity and, to some extent, mortality in an underdeveloped and developing country, although it may also occur in developed countries. […] The parasites that infect humans can be classified as heirlooms or souvenirs. […] In developing countries, the most common infectious agents of humans are these helminthic infections. More than a quarter of the world’s population, that means approximately 2 billion people are affected by the helminthic parasite, and it is one of the major burdens of developing countries, especially in children. […] The soil-transmitted helminths (STHs), enter into the human body from contaminated soil that contains eggs of A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura. Some helminth can penetrate the skin directly (hookworm larvae).

• #1 Parasitic Infection: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24885-parasitic-infection

  Helminth is a general term for parasitic worms. Scientists further classify them as flukes (trematodes), tapeworms (cestodes), roundworms (nematodes) and thorny-headed worms (acanthocephalans). Both adults and immature (larval) helminths can infect you. Helminths usually infect your intestinal tract, but they can also infect your skin, brain and other tissues. […] Providers use different medications to treat various types of parasitic infections, including: Antiparasitics (anthelmintics or antiprotozoals). […] Most parasites will only go away with medication or a combination of medications. Providers treat some skin infections, lice and mites with medicated lotions or shampoos.

• #1 Human parasitic infections of the class Adenophorea: global epidemiology, pathogenesis, prevention and control | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-024-01216-1

  Human parasitic infections caused by Adenophorean nematodes encompass a range of diseases, including dioctophymiasis, trichuriasis, capillariasis, trichinellosis, and myositis. […] These infections can result in adverse impacts on human health and cause societal and economic concerns in tropical and subtropical regions. […] Many organs are targeted by the Adenophorean nematode in humans such as the intestines, lungs, liver, kidneys, lymphatic circulation and blood vessels, resulting in gastrointestinal problems, excessive immunological responses, cell disruption, and even death. […] The common morphology, life cycle, global epidemiology and pathology of human Adenophorean nematode-borne parasitic diseases were highlighted, as well as their prevention and control. […] The findings of this review will contribute to improvement of monitoring and predicting human-parasitic infections, understanding the relationship between animals, humans and parasites, and preventing and controlling parasitic diseases.

• #1 Nematode Infections: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/224011-overview

  Nematode infections in humans include ascariasis, trichuriasis, hookworm, enterobiasis, strongyloidiasis, filariasis, trichinosis, dirofilariasis, and angiostrongyliasis (rat lungworm disease), among others. […] The life cycle of parasitic nematodes is clinically important. Some nematode infections can be transmitted directly from infected to uninfected people; in others, the nematode eggs must undergo a process of maturation outside the host. In a third category, the parasites may spend a part of their life cycle in the soil before becoming infective to humans. […] Unlike with protozoan infections, a casual or a low degree of exposure to infective stages of parasitic nematodes usually does not result in patent infection or pathologic findings. Repeated or intense exposure to a multitude of infective stage larvae is required for infection to be established and disease to arise.

• #1 Worms in humans

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/worms-in-humans/

  Some types of worms can infect people. Some can be caught in the UK and others are only caught abroad. Most worm infections are not serious and can be easily treated with medicine. […] These could be symptoms of something like roundworm, hookworm or tapeworm. […] These infections are usually caught while travelling. They can take a long time to cause symptoms, so tell the GP if you have been abroad in the last 2 years. […] It does not matter which type of worm you have all worm infections are treated in a similar way. […] If you have worms, a GP will prescribe medicine to kill them. You take this for 1 to 3 days. The people you live with may also need to be treated. […] Worms are mainly spread in small bits of poo from people with a worm infection. Some are caught from food. […] You can get infected by: touching objects or surfaces with worm eggs on them if someone with worms does not wash their hands; touching soil or swallowing water or food with worm eggs in it mainly a risk in parts of the world without modern toilets or sewage systems; walking barefoot on soil containing worms only a risk in parts of the world without modern toilets or sewage systems; eating raw or undercooked beef, pork or freshwater fish (like salmon or trout) containing baby worms more common in parts of the world with poor food hygiene standards.

• #1 CDC – DPDx – Ascariasis

  https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/ascariasis/index.html

  Ascaris species are very large (adult females: 20 to 35 cm; adult males: 15 to 30 cm) nematodes (roundworms) that parasitize the human intestine. A. lumbricoides is the primary species involved in human infections globally, but Ascaris derived from pigs (often referred to as A. suum) may also infect humans. […] Adult worms image live in the lumen of the small intestine. A female may produce approximately 200,000 eggs per day, which are passed with the feces image. Unfertilized eggs may be ingested but are not infective. Larvae develop to infectivity within fertile eggs after 18 days to several weeks image, depending on the environmental conditions (optimum: moist, warm, shaded soil). After infective eggs are swallowed image, the larvae hatch image, invade the intestinal mucosa, and are carried via the portal, then systemic circulation to the lungs image. The larvae mature further in the lungs (10 to 14 days), penetrate the alveolar walls, ascend the bronchial tree to the throat, and are swallowed image. Upon reaching the small intestine, they develop into adult worms. Between 2 and 3 months are required from ingestion of the infective eggs to oviposition by the adult female. Adult worms can live 1 to 2 years.

• #1

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schistosomiasis

  Schistosomiasis is an acute and chronic disease caused by parasitic worms. […] People become infected when larval forms of the parasite released by freshwater snails penetrate the skin during contact with infested water. […] In the body, the larvae develop into adult schistosomes. Adult worms live in the blood vessels where the females release eggs. Some of the eggs are passed out of the body in the faeces or urine to continue the parasites lifecycle. Others become trapped in body tissues, causing immune reactions and progressive damage to organs. […] Symptoms of schistosomiasis are caused mainly by the bodys reaction to the worms eggs. […] The economic and health effects of schistosomiasis are considerable and the disease disables more than it kills. […] Praziquantel is the recommended treatment against all forms of schistosomiasis. It is effective, safe and low-cost. Even though re-infection may occur after treatment, the risk of developing severe disease is diminished and even reversed when treatment is initiated and repeated in childhood.

• #1 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  http://www.news-medical.net/news/20250507/Anti-parasitic-drug-could-accelerate-the-elimination-of-infection-endemic-to-Africa.aspx

  Tens of millions of people in Africa are infected by parasitic worms that cause lymphatic filariasis (also called elephantiasis), a disease that leads to severe swelling and deformities of the limbs and genitals. […] The parasite that causes the disease, Wuchereria bancrofti, is spread by mosquitoes. […] The aim of this study was to determine whether moxidectin, a new medicine for river blindness, shown to be superior to ivermectin in combatting that disease, could be a better option in combination therapies for treating lymphatic filariasis. […] Participants in the trial all adults ages 18 to 70 had high blood concentrations of microfilaria, the larvae of adult worms. Those with high concentrations are considered infectious, contributing to the continued spread of this disease. […] After 12 months, 18 out of 19 participants in the group that received moxidectin and another drug (albendazole) had cleared their infections, compared to 8 out of 25 in the ivermectin plus albendazole group.

• #1 Mechanisms of Pathogenesis, Infective Dose and Virulence in Human Parasites | PLOS Pathogens

  https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002512

  The number of pathogens that are required to infect a host, termed infective dose, varies dramatically across pathogen species. […] It has recently been predicted that infective dose will depend upon the mode of action of the molecules that pathogens use to facilitate their infection. […] Specifically, pathogens which use locally acting molecules will require a lower infective dose than pathogens that use distantly acting molecules. […] Furthermore, it has also been predicted that pathogens with distantly acting immune modulators may be more virulent because they have a large number of cells in the inoculums, which will cause more harm to host cells. […] We formally test these predictions for the first time using data on 43 different human pathogens from a range of taxonomic groups with diverse life-histories.

• #1 Ascariasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/ascariasis

  Ascariasis is infection with the nematode (worm) Ascaris lumbricoides or occasionally with the nematode Ascaris suum (a closely related parasite of pigs). […] Infection contributes to undernutrition. […] Human infection can also be caused by ingesting the fertilized eggs of Ascaris suum (a closely related parasite of pigs) in pig feces. […] Ingested A. lumbricoides eggs hatch in the duodenum, and the resulting larvae penetrate the wall of the small intestine and migrate via the portal circulation through the liver to the heart and lungs. […] A tangled mass of worms resulting from heavy infection can obstruct the bowel, particularly in children. […] Aberrantly migrating individual adult worms occasionally obstruct the biliary or pancreatic ducts, causing cholecystitis or pancreatitis; cholangitis, liver abscess, and peritonitis are less common.

• #1 Thorny-headed Worm Infection | Iowa State University

  https://vetmed.iastate.edu/vdpam/about/focus-areas/swine/swine-disease-manual/index-diseases/thorny-headed-worm

  The worms proboscis is inserted deeply into the wall of the intestine. It sometimes penetrates into the peritoneal cavity and introduces infection that leads to peritonitis. […] The parasites develop by absorbing nutrients from the ingesta. […] The lesions cause hemorrhage, loss of blood proteins and localized intestinal infections. Animals with only a few parasites appear not to be seriously affected. Animals with many parasites tend to become unthrifty from loss of blood, the toxic effect of many localized lesions, and impaired -nutrition.

• #1 Trichinosis – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/trichinosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20378583

  Trichinosis (trik-ih-NO-sis), sometimes called trichinellosis (trik-ih-nuh-LOW-sis), is a type of roundworm infection. These roundworm parasites (trichinella) use a host body to live and reproduce. These parasites infect animals such as bears, cougars, walruses, foxes, wild boars and domestic pigs. You get the infection by eating the immature form of the roundworm (larvae) in raw or undercooked meat. […] When humans eat raw or undercooked meat containing trichinella larvae, the larvae grow into adult worms in the small intestine. This takes several weeks. The adult worms produce larvae that travel through the bloodstream to different parts of the body. They then bury themselves in muscle tissue. Trichinosis is most widespread in rural areas throughout the world. […] About a week after infection, the adult female worms produce larvae. The larvae go through the wall of your intestine and enter your bloodstream, They travel around the body and bury themselves in muscle tissue. Here, each larva coils up and forms a cyst around itself.

• #1

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/soil-transmitted-helminth-infections

  Soil-transmitted helminth infections are caused by different species of parasitic worms. […] They are transmitted by eggs present in human faeces, which contaminate the soil in areas where sanitation is poor. […] Soil-transmitted helminths impair the nutritional status of the people they infect in multiple ways. […] The worms feed on host tissues, including blood, which leads to a loss of iron and protein. […] Hookworms in addition cause chronic intestinal blood loss that can result in anaemia especially in adolescent girls and women of reproductive age. […] S. stercoralis may cause dermatological and gastro-intestinal morbidity and is also known to be associated with chronic malnutrition in children. […] In case of reduced host immunity, the parasite can cause the hyperinfection/dissemination syndrome that is invariably fatal if not promptly and properly cured and is often fatal despite the treatment.

• #1 Human gnathostomiasis: a neglected food-borne zoonosis | Parasites & Vectors | Full Text

  https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13071-020-04494-4

  Human gnathostomiasis is a food-borne zoonosis. Its etiological agents are the third-stage larvae of Gnathostoma spp. Human gnathostomiasis is often reported in developing countries, but it is also an emerging disease in developed countries in non-endemic areas. The recent surge in cases of human gnathostomiasis is mainly due to the increasing consumption of raw freshwater fish, amphibians, and reptiles. […] This article reviews the literature on Gnathostoma spp. and the disease that these parasites cause in humans. We review the literature on the life cycle and pathogenesis of these parasites, the clinical features, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, control, and new molecular findings on human gnathostomiasis, and social-ecological factors related to the transmission of this disease. […] L3 can, however, cause damage to their tissues and/or organs by inducing host reactions, like inflammation and allergy, when they migrate and secrete excreta and toxins. L3 may cause damage to vital organs and the central nervous system (CNS), resulting in detrimental outcomes including the sudden death of an infected individual.

• #1 Ascariasis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascariasis

  Ascariasis is a disease caused by the parasitic roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides. Infections have no symptoms in more than 85% of cases, especially if the number of worms is small. Symptoms increase with the number of worms present and may include shortness of breath and fever at the beginning of the disease. These may be followed by symptoms of abdominal swelling, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. Infection occurs by ingesting food or drink contaminated with Ascaris eggs from feces. The eggs hatch in the intestines, the larvae burrow through the gut wall, and migrate to the lungs via the blood. There they break into the alveoli and pass up the trachea, where they are coughed up and may be swallowed. The larvae then pass through the stomach a second time into the intestine, where they become adult worms. As larval stages travel through the body, they may cause visceral damage, peritonitis and inflammation, enlargement of the liver or spleen, and an inflammation of the lungs. Pulmonary manifestations take place during larval migration and may present as Loeffler’s syndrome, a transient respiratory illness associated with blood eosinophilia and pulmonary infiltrates with radiographic shadowing. The worms in the intestine may cause malabsorption and anorexia, which contribute to malnutrition. Ascaris takes most of its nutrients from the partially digested host food in the intestine. There is some evidence that it can secrete enzyme inhibitors, presumably to protect itself from digestion by the hosts’ enzymes.

• #1 Ascariasis: Symptoms, Causes & Transmission, Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14071-ascariasis

  Ascariasis is an infection in your intestines caused by a roundworm called Ascaris lumbricoides (A. lumbricoides). Like other parasites, these worms use the body of a host (like a human) to mature into egg-laying adults. The more the worms thrive, the more harm they can cause the host. […] You can develop ascariasis if you ingest (swallow) the eggs of the human roundworm A. lumbricoides. These worms rely on your body as a hospitable climate that allows them to mature, mate and lay more eggs. The species relies on human hosts to complete its life cycle. […] Ascariasis spreads through hand-to-mouth contact when someone touches and swallows fertilized A. lumbricoides eggs. […] After you swallow the eggs, they pass into your intestines. There, they hatch into larvae and begin to travel through your body: The larvae travel via your bloodstream or lymphatic system until they reach your lungs. They remain there for about two weeks.

• #1 Whipworm and roundworm infections | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-020-0171-3

  Trichuriasis and ascariasis are neglected tropical diseases caused by the gastrointestinal dwelling nematodes Trichuris trichiura (a whipworm) and Ascaris lumbricoides (a roundworm), respectively. […] Infection is initiated by ingestion of infective eggs, which hatch in the intestine. Thereafter, T. trichiura larvae moult within intestinal epithelial cells, with adult worms embedded in a partially intracellular niche in the large intestine, whereas A. lumbricoides larvae penetrate the gut mucosa and migrate through the liver and lungs before returning to the lumen of the small intestine, where adult worms dwell. […] Both species elicit type 2 anti-parasite immunity. […] Diagnosis is typically based on clinical presentation (gastrointestinal symptoms and inflammation) and the detection of eggs or parasite DNA in the faeces. […] The effectiveness of drug treatment is very high for A. lumbricoides infections, whereas cure rates for T. trichiura infections are low. […] Novel anthelminthic drugs are needed, together with vaccine development and tools for diagnosis and assessment of parasite control in the field.

• #1 Parasitic worm – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitic_worm

  Parasitic worms, also known as helminths, are a polyphyletic group of large macroparasites; adults can generally be seen with the naked eye. Many are intestinal worms that are soil-transmitted and infect the gastrointestinal tract. Other parasitic worms such as schistosomes reside in blood vessels. […] Parasitic worms live in and feed in living hosts. They receive nourishment and protection while disrupting their hosts’ ability to absorb nutrients. This can cause weakness and disease in the host, and poses a global health and economic problem. […] Helminths are able to survive in their mammalian hosts for many years due to their ability to manipulate the host’s immune response by secreting immunomodulatory products. […] The lifetime of adult worms varies tremendously from one species to another but is generally in the range of 1 to 8 years. This lifetime of several years is a result of their ability to manipulate the immune response of their hosts by secreting immunomodulatory products.

• #1 Parasitic Worms: Unsung Heroes in the Fight Against Inflammatory Bowel Disease? | NYU Langone News

  https://nyulangone.org/news/parasitic-worms-unsung-heroes-fight-against-inflammatory-bowel-disease

  Nearly 10 years ago, parasitologist Png Loke, PhD, then a postdoctoral fellow at the University of California, San Francisco, received a curious phone call. The caller, a technology entrepreneur, told Dr. Loke that he had cured himself of a painfully inflamed colon by eating parasitic whipworm eggs. […] Epidemiologic studies have shown that people who live in countries where soil-dwelling parasites like whipworm are prevalent tend not to develop inflammatory bowel disease, or IBD, an umbrella term for chronic conditions of the digestive tract. […] Their observations which were published in 2010, when Dr. Loke had joined the faculty at NYU Langone as associate professor of microbiology revealed that the worms were boosting intestinal mucus. […] According to Drs. Loke and Cadwell, the parasites provoke a particular type of immune response one that enhances the production of mucus.

• #1 10 Signs You May Have A Parasite – NYC Gastroenterologist | Manhattan Gastroenterology

  https://www.manhattangastroenterology.com/10-signs-you-may-have-a-parasite/

  Parasites come in many different shapes and sizes and can cause several health problems. Some consume your foods from inside your body and leave you hungry even after eating a healthy meal, while others feed off your red blood cells, causing anemia. […] The signs of parasites result from the toxins that these organisms release into the human bloodstream. Intestinal parasites get the most attention due to the intense and discomforting symptoms they produce. Many different types of parasites can lead to a variety of symptoms. […] Certain intestinal parasites, like Giardia, can actually cause chronic fatigue syndrome that can lead to deficiencies and malabsorption of essential nutrients like iron and B12 in the body. […] The mechanism behind skin diseases is a bit complex. Intestinal parasites can stimulate the production of immunoglobulin E (IgE), antibodies produced by the immune system. It can then produce allergic reactions in your body, including skin problems that do not seem to have any source.

• #1 Enterobiasis pathophysiology – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Enterobiasis_pathophysiology

  Enterobius vermicularis is usually transmitted via the feco-oral route to the human host. It reproduces in the small intestine of humans only. The gravid female worm lays eggs in the perianal area usually at night and causes pruritus. In addition to the fingernail contamination, the infective eggs can be transmitted via the dust and fomites. […] It is postulated that Enterobius vermicularis triggers an inflammatory response which is associated with the low-grade eosinophilia. […] Allergic response to the worm protein is considered the cause of pruritus; usually pruritus ani (perianal pruritus).

• #1 9 Types of Brain Parasites

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/parasitic-infections-of-the-central-nervous-system-2488670

  Parasitic infections can invade practically any part of the body. Brain parasites, those that infect the central nervous system which includes the brain, are potentially the most damaging and the most disturbing. […] Early recognition and prompt treatment are important to reduce both mortality and the frequently catastrophic aftermath of these diseases. […] Good hygiene (meticulous hand washing and wearing gloves), careful and thorough washing of fruits and vegetables, and proper cooking of meats can go a long way in lowering your risk of these conditions. […] You may suffer from seizures and neurological problems, which are symptoms of brain parasites due to toxoplasmosis, neurocysticercosis, cerebral malaria, echinococcus, and other infections. […] Ingesting the eggs leads to tapeworm larvae growing in many different human tissues, particularly brain and muscle. This leads to seizures and more.

• #1

  https://www.parasite.org.au/para-site/text/trichuris-text.html

  Trichurid worms are known as „whip-worms” because they have a broad short posterior end and a very long narrow whip-like anterior end (with a stichosome pharynx) which is embedded in the mucosa of the lower intestines of humans and domestic animals. Heavy infections may cause dysentery, anaemia, malnutrition, and occasionally rectal prolapse. […] Small worm burdens rarely cause disease, while heavier infections may produce a variety of conditions, ranging from local enteric disturbances to systemic conditions and occasionally death. The anterior ends of the adult worms are embedded in the mucosa where they feed on fluids, digested tissues and possibly blood. They may cause significant trauma to the mucosa with chronic haemorrhage leading to dysentery and anaemia. Pathogenesis has been related to host inflammatory responses, involving markedly reduced cell-mediated responses and elevated IgE responses, characteristic of local tissue anaphylactic responses. Persistent infections have been associated with malnutrition, growth retardation, and reduced cognitive function in children. Chronic infections may also cause finger (and occasionally toe) clubbing evident as odd thickening of the ends of the digits. Heavy infections may produce tenesmus (urgency) causing the host to strain and possibly suffer rectal prolapse.

• #1 Common Intestinal Parasites | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2004/0301/p1161.html

  Intestinal parasites cause significant morbidity and mortality. Diseases caused by Enterobius vermicularis, Giardia lamblia, Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus, and Entamoeba histolytica occur in the United States. E. vermicularis, or pinworm, causes irritation and sleep disturbances. Diagnosis can be made using the cellophane tape test. Treatment includes mebendazole and household sanitation. Giardia causes nausea, vomiting, malabsorption, diarrhea, and weight loss. Stool ova and parasite studies are diagnostic. Treatment includes metronidazole. Sewage treatment, proper handwashing, and consumption of bottled water can be preventive. A. duodenale and N. americanus are hookworms that cause blood loss, anemia, pica, and wasting. Finding eggs in the feces is diagnostic. Treatments include albendazole, mebendazole, pyrantel pamoate, iron supplementation, and blood transfusion. Preventive measures include wearing shoes and treating sewage. E. histolytica can cause intestinal ulcerations, bloody diarrhea, weight loss, fever, gastrointestinal obstruction, and peritonitis. Amebas can cause abscesses in the liver that may rupture into the pleural space, peritoneum, or pericardium. Stool and serologic assays, biopsy, barium studies, and liver imaging have diagnostic merit. Therapy includes luminal and tissue amebicides to attack both life-cycle stages. Metronidazole, chloroquine, and aspiration are treatments for liver abscess. Careful sanitation and use of peeled foods and bottled water are preventive.

• #1 Worms People Can Get

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/ss/slideshow-worms-people-can-get

  Worms (aka helminths) are a common parasite. There are several types of worms that infect and feed on people. […] You can get worms in different ways, depending on what type they are. Many times people get worms by accidentally swallowing them or their eggs. Some worms can go through your skin when they are young and small. […] Roundworms are common in warm places where there’s poor sanitation. When a person swallows roundworm eggs, the worms hatch in the intestines. The young worms then go to the lungs. After a week or two, the worms go to the throat and often get swallowed again. […] Hookworms also are common in the tropics. When the poop of an infected person is mixed into the soil, the eggs will hatch. At a certain stage, young hookworms can go through a person’s skin. […] Another type of tiny roundworm (Strongyloides stercoralis) causes this disease. People mainly get them when young worms in soil go through their skin. Once in the body, the worms find their way to the small intestine and lay eggs.

• #1 Schistosomiasis (bilharzia)

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/schistosomiasis/

  Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is an infection caused by a parasitic worm that lives in fresh water in subtropical and tropical regions. […] The infection can be easily treated with a short course of medicine, so see your GP if you think you might have it. […] Once in your body, the worms move through your blood to areas such as the liver and bowel. […] Without treatment, the worms can keep laying eggs for several years. […] After a few weeks, some people develop: a high temperature (fever), an itchy, red, blotchy and raised rash, a cough, diarrhoea, muscle and joint pain, tummy pain, a general sense of feeling unwell. […] But it’s still important to get treated because the parasite can remain in your body and lead to long-term problems. […] Some people with schistosomiasis, regardless of whether they had any initial symptoms or not, eventually develop more serious problems in parts of the body the eggs have travelled to.

• #1 How Parasitic Worms Evade the Body’s Itch Defense Mechanism | Technology Networks

  https://www.technologynetworks.com/immunology/news/how-a-parasitic-worm-avoids-the-bodys-itching-defense-mechanism-392564

  Researchers have illustrated how a parasitic worm evades the body’s „itching” defense mechanism. […] They shed light on how a parasitic worm, Schistosoma mansoni, can sneak into the human body by evading this very defense mechanism, bypassing the itch response entirely. […] These blood flukes, which are among the most prevalent parasites in humans, infecting nearly 250 million people, have seemingly evolved to block the itch, making it easier for them to enter the body undetected, Inclan says. […] This suggests two things: That the activation of these neurons is blocking the entry of the parasites and it’s also inhibiting their dissemination through the body. […] The researchers also found that the mice that had MrgprA3 ablation saw an increased amount of lung parasite infection. […] When we activated MrgprA3, it increased the number of macrophages in the skin, Inclan-Rico says.

• #1 The big gulp: Inside-out protection of parasitic worms against host defenses | ScienceDaily

  https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/07/200727154206.htm

  A team of developmental biologists at the Morgridge Institute for Research has discovered a means by which schistosomes, parasitic worms that infect more than 200 million people in tropical climates, are able to outfox the host’s immune system. […] Morgridge postdoctoral fellow Jayhun Lee and colleagues reported in today’s (July 27) issue of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) that the parasite’s esophageal gland, an accessory organ of the digestive tract, mediates an immune-evasion mechanism that is essential for survival in the host. […] „One big question we’re interested in is how these parasites can thrive for decades in the bloodstream, while avoiding the host immune system,” says Lee. […] „Based on clues from previous studies, we hypothesized that the esophageal gland of the parasite was acting as a barrier to prevent host immune cells from infiltrating the parasite,” says Lee.

• #1 Tiny Worms Living In Chernobyl Can Offer DNA Repair Mechanism For Humans: Study

  https://www.ndtv.com/science/tiny-worms-living-in-chernobyl-can-offer-dna-repair-mechanism-for-humans-study-7275631

  Nematodes have simple genomes and a short lifespan. […] The team concluded that these worms could offer insights into DNA repair mechanisms that could one day be adapted for human use. […] While the Chernobyl nematodes were different from other worms, signs of DNA damage from radiation were lacking. […] The team also found different generations of nematodes had different tolerance levels, which could help scientists figure out why some humans are more susceptible to cancer than others. […] „Thinking about how individuals respond differently to DNA-damaging agents in the environment is something that will help us have a clear vision of our own risk factors,” said Ms Tintori.

• #1 A defence mechanism to kill intestinal worms | Crick

  https://www.crick.ac.uk/news/2017-10-11-a-defence-mechanism-to-kill-intestinal-worms

  Researchers have discovered a mechanism that kills intestinal worms, which affect nearly a third of the world’s population as well as livestock. […] The worm-killer is an enzyme that is thought to disrupt vital cell processes in intestinal worms. […] This is the first time that a mechanism of worm killing has been discovered. […] The team first suspected that this enzyme might have a role in killing intestinal worms when mice that are immune to worm infections were found to have sustained high levels of the enzyme. […] When they knocked out the gene in mice, so that they didn’t make the enzyme, intestinal worms were not killed and expelled from the body as normal. […] But when they pre-treated worms with the enzyme before infection, killing and expulsion from the mice was restored.

• #1 Defense mechanism to kill intestinal worms | ScienceDaily

  https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/10/171011123823.htm

  Researchers have discovered a mechanism that kills intestinal worms, which affect nearly a third of the world’s population as well as livestock. […] The worm-killer is an enzyme that is thought to disrupt vital cell processes in intestinal worms. […] This is the first time that a mechanism of worm killing has been discovered. […] The team first suspected that this enzyme might have a role in killing intestinal worms when mice that are immune to worm infections were found to have sustained high levels of the enzyme. […] When they knocked out the gene in mice, so that they didn’t make the enzyme, intestinal worms were not killed and expelled from the body as normal. […] But when they pre-treated worms with the enzyme before infection, killing and expulsion from the mice was restored.

• #1 Pumpkin seeds (Cucurbita pepo subsp. ovifera) decoction promotes Trichinella spiralis expulsion during intestinal phase via “Weep and Sweep” mechanism | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-51616-4

  Trichinosis is a zoonotic disease of communal health concern as it instigated human outbreaks in several countries. […] The pumpkin decoction’s anthelmintic action was facilitated by the TGF-1 and IL-17-driven Weep and Sweep mechanism. […] It has been demonstrated that having worms in the bowel causes a number of pathological alterations that cause acute inflammatory reactions in the small intestine. […] The most well-known anthelmintics, the benzimidazole derivatives, impair the parasite’s structure by damaging its cuticle. […] The current study sought to determine the anthelmintic activity of pumpkin seed decoction against Trichinella spiralis in the intestinal stage due to its immunomodulatory impact. […] The therapeutic potential of pumpkin seeds decoction in-vivo during Trichinellosis intestinal phase in comparison to albendazole, as a reference drug.

• #1 Wormy people: why some people are wormier than others | RSTMH

  https://www.rstmh.org/news-blog/blog/wormy-people-why-some-people-are-wormier-than-others

  Ascariasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by the helminth Ascaris lumbricoides. Worldwide, 1 billion people are infected with this parasite with most cases occurring in Asia, Africa and South America. […] Infection occurs through ingestion of the helminth egg, which contains infective larvae. As they reach the gut, the larvae hatch and migrate to the liver. From there they migrate to the lungs, get coughed up and are swallowed back in. The larvae will then mature into adult worms in the gut. […] Our lab group has previously established that the difference in the level of infection occurs at the liver stage during the migration of the parasite. […] This special immune status is a necessary feature for this organ, as during digestion food antigens reach the liver. If it wasnt for this tolerance, an immune response would be activated with every meal.

• #1 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/news/20210416/Intestinal-worm-infection-can-cause-severe-sexually-transmitted-viral-diseases.aspx

  Infection with parasitic intestinal worms (helminths) can apparently cause sexually transmitted viral infections to be much more severe elsewhere in the body. […] According to the study, helminth-infected mice developed significantly more severe symptoms after infection with a genital herpes virus (Herpes Simplex Virus). […] The scientists involved in the study investigated how an infestation with helminths affects the course of a herpes infection of the female genital tract in the animals. […] Genital herpes disease is often accompanied by scarring of the vagina, known as necrosis. […] The finding is also surprising because the worms themselves never infest the female genital tract. […] In our case, however, the worm infestation in the intestine causes eosinophilic granulocytes to accumulate in the vagina during a concurrent genital herpes infection.

• #1

  https://www.parasite.org.au/para-site/text/enterobius-text.html

  Enterobius vermicularis [this species causes perianal pruritis (enterobiasis) in humans] […] While many infections remain asymptomatic, worm burdens may increase with time resulting in damage to the intestines by adult worms and/or damage to the perineum resulting from egg deposition. Adult worms attach to the mucosa and feed on intestinal content, bacteria and possibly epithelial cells, causing minute ulcerations which may lead to mild catarrhal inflammation with diarrhoea, eosinophilia and bacterial infection. More commonly, however, infections are characterized by intense perianal itching (pruritis ani) caused by host sensations and reactions to female worms depositing sticky eggs on the skin. […] Heavy infections in children may cause restlessness, irritability, anorexia, insomnia, nightmares, bed-wetting, nausea and vomiting. Occasionally, wandering worms have been associated with appendicitis, vaginitis, and rarely, extra-intestinal granulomas in ectopic sites.

• #1 Ascariasis Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, Life Cycle, Prevention

  https://www.medicinenet.com/ascariasis/article.htm

  Ascariasis is one of the tropical diseases caused by the parasite Ascaris lumbricoides, a large nematode (roundworm) that infects humans in the gastrointestinal tract and requires human infection to complete its complex life cycle. […] The cause of ascariasis is the invasion, spread, and eventual maturation of Ascaris lumbricoides in the human host. […] The symptoms described below are due to the parasite’s ability to penetrate the intestinal tract and proceed from there to the lungs where they eventually mature further and penetrate the air sacs of the lungs, migrate to the throat, and are subsequently swallowed to allow maturation in the intestinal tract. […] The prognosis of ascariasis for appropriately diagnosed and treated ascariasis is very good. However, the prognosis begins to decline if the patient develops a high number of worms in the body (worm burden). This worm burden can lead to more serious complications such as intestinal obstruction and worsens the prognosis of this disease.

• #1 Worms in humans – symptoms and treatments | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/worms-in-humans

  Intestinal worms are parasites they survive by living in or on another living thing (the host) and getting their food from it. […] These intestinal worms are parasites. This means that they survive by living in or on another living thing (the host) and getting their food from it. […] Once they have entered humans by penetrating the skin, the larvae of some worms, for example dog hookworm (ancylostoma caninum) or strongyloides, can migrate under the skin. This can cause diagnostic pink or red curving tracks known as larva migrans or larva currens. […] Threadworms can be diagnosed by a sticky tape test available from your doctor. The test detects threadworm eggs that are deposited around the anus at night. It involves using special sticky tape to take a sample first thing in the morning. The sticky tape is pressed onto the area around the anus, causing any threadworm eggs present to stick to the tape. The doctor or a laboratory will examine the tape under the microscope to look for the eggs.

• #1 Albendazole: Uses, Side Effects, Interactions, Pictures, Warnings & Dosing – WebMD

  https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-6261/albendazole-oral/details

  Albendazole is a tablet that is taken by mouth to treat infections caused by certain types of worms. The most common side effects are stomach pain, nausea or vomiting, headache, dizziness or vertigo, fever, hair loss, and changes in certain blood levels. […] Albendazole is commonly used to treat certain infections caused by tapeworms, such as neurocysticercosis and hydatid disease. […] Albendazole kills certain types of worms that cause infections.

• #1 Albendazole

  https://www.pediatriconcall.com/drugs/albendazole/232

  Albendazole is a broad spectrum anti-helminthic. The principal mode of action for albendazole is by its inhibitory effect on tubulin polymerization which results in the loss of cytoplasmic microtubules in the intestines of nematodes worms, ultimately causing energy depletion and death of the organism. […] Albendazole is contraindicated in patients with known hypersensitivity to benzimidazole class of compounds, and in pregnancy. […] Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, abnormal liver function tests, headache, dizziness, vertigo, meningeal signs, raised intracranial pressure, reversible alopecia, fever, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia.

• #2 Parasitic worm – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitic_worm

  Parasitic worms, also known as helminths, are a polyphyletic group of large macroparasites; adults can generally be seen with the naked eye. Many are intestinal worms that are soil-transmitted and infect the gastrointestinal tract. Other parasitic worms such as schistosomes reside in blood vessels. […] Parasitic worms live in and feed in living hosts. They receive nourishment and protection while disrupting their hosts’ ability to absorb nutrients. This can cause weakness and disease in the host, and poses a global health and economic problem. […] Helminths are able to survive in their mammalian hosts for many years due to their ability to manipulate the host’s immune response by secreting immunomodulatory products. […] The lifetime of adult worms varies tremendously from one species to another but is generally in the range of 1 to 8 years. This lifetime of several years is a result of their ability to manipulate the immune response of their hosts by secreting immunomodulatory products.

• #2 Mechanisms of Pathogenesis, Infective Dose and Virulence in Human Parasites | PLOS Pathogens

  https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002512

  We found that pathogens using local action do have lower infective doses, but are not less virulent than those using distant action. […] Instead, we found that virulence was negatively correlated with infective dose, and higher in pathogens infecting wounded skin, compared with those ingested or inhaled. […] More generally, our results show that broad-scale comparative analyses can explain variation in parasite traits such as infective dose and virulence, whilst highlighting the importance of mechanistic details. […] We found that mechanisms used by parasites to infect hosts are able to explain variation in two key pathogen traits: infective dose and virulence. […] In pathogens where the molecules secreted to facilitate infection acted locally, the number of cells required to start an infection (infective dose), was lower than in pathogens where the secreted molecules act more distantly.

• #2 Helminthiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560525/

  The major risk factors of helminthiasis are rural areas, low socioeconomic status, poor sanitation, poor availability of clean water, poor personal hygiene, lack of nail trimming, crowded living conditions, lack of education, lack of access to health care, and inadequate dwelling conditions. […] Schistosomiasis infection is usually transmitted from contact with freshwater snails during swimming or washing. Schistosomiasis causes chronic inflammation that produces oxygen-free radicals. These free radicals are responsible for different mutations and the formation of carcinogenic N-nitrosamines that cause bladder carcinoma and portal tract fibrosis. […] Direct damage is done by worm activity itself, such as internal organ blockage or direct pressure effects by growing parasites. […] Adult Ascaris blocks the intestine that leads to small bowel obstruction, volvulus, or intussusception, especially in children, or can invade orifices leading to appendicitis, cholecystitis, pancreatitis, and gastric ascariasis.

• #2 CDC – DPDx – Ascariasis

  https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/ascariasis/index.html

  Although heavy infections in children may cause stunted growth via malnutrition, adult worms usually cause no acute symptoms. High worm burdens may cause abdominal pain and intestinal obstruction and potentially perforation in very high intensity infections. Migrating adult worms may cause symptomatic occlusion of the biliary tract, appendicitis, or nasopharyngeal expulsion, particularly in infections involving a single female worm.

• #2 Trichinosis – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/trichinosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20378583

  After you eat roundworm (trichinella) larvae, they grow into adult worms in your small intestine. The adults then produce larvae that move through the bloodstream to muscle tissues, shown here. […] The larvae can live for months to years inside the muscle tissue. […] Symptoms caused by muscle tissue invasion usually start 2 to 8 weeks after infection and include: High fever and chills, Muscle pain and tenderness, Aching joints, Swelling of the eyelids or face, Weakness, Headache, Sensitivity to light, Pink eye (conjunctivitis), Itchy, irritated skin. […] In cases with a large number of roundworm (trichinella) larvae, larvae can move through the body to muscle tissue in and around organs. This can cause potentially dangerous, even fatal, complications, such as pain and swelling (inflammation) of the: Muscle layer of the heart wall (myocarditis), Brain (encephalitis), Protective tissue layer surrounding the brain and spinal cord (meningitis), Lungs (pneumonitis).

• #2 10 Signs You May Have A Parasite – NYC Gastroenterologist | Manhattan Gastroenterology

  https://www.manhattangastroenterology.com/10-signs-you-may-have-a-parasite/

  Parasites can invade the joint space and muscles and release inflammatory toxins that affect normal movements and range of motion. […] Parasites can start eating your red blood cells or lead to loss of blood through the stool, which can cause blood loss and result in iron deficiency anemia. […] Another sign of parasite infection is that you will never feel satisfied or full after meals. This feeling is followed by weight loss. […] Some parasites also dig tunnels under your skin and lay eggs in them, which leads to itching. […] The toxins released by the intestinal parasites can lead to anxiety. […] You may have trouble falling asleep, or wake up several times during the night. […] An intestinal parasite can lead to a buildup of extra gas in your gastrointestinal tract, which may result in bloating.

• #2 Human gnathostomiasis: a neglected food-borne zoonosis | Parasites & Vectors | Full Text

  https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13071-020-04494-4

  The pathogenesis of gnathostomiasis remains largely unknown. Nevertheless, it is plausible that the symptoms and signs of the disease are due to the mechanical damage caused by larval migration, the inflammation and infection that is secondary to the mechanical damage, the combined effects of reactions to larval ES and the activation of an immune response in the host. […] L3 are highly invasive, and migrate by releasing various molecules, such as cysteine proteases and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) into the invaded micro-environment to promote their penetration and invasion of organs. […] Direct mechanical damage to the CNS can also occur, as the relatively large L3, averaging 34 mm in length, can migrate through neural or vascular tissue. Larvae burrowing through a cerebral arteriole may cause subarachnoid hemorrhage. The universal presence of eosinophilic pleocytosis indicates that inflammatory responses to larval invasion could lead to further tissue destruction.

• #2 Tapeworm Infestation: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/786292-overview

  In the remaining cestodes (ie, Echinococcus species, Spirometra species, and T multiceps), humans function as the intermediate hosts. Larvae exist within the tissues and migrate through different organ systems. Hymenolepis species and T solium are the only cestodes for which humans can function as both primary hosts and intermediate hosts. […] Cysticercosis is a clinical syndrome of expanding embryonal cysts that occurs with T solium. The cysticerci that develop with T solium infestations can be found anywhere in the body, but they mainly occur in the central nervous system (neurocysticercosis) and skeletal muscles, causing local inflammatory responses and mass effects from the cystic growth. Cysticercosis is a common parasitic disease of the CNS. One of the most common manifestations is seizure.

• #2 Nematode Infections: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/224011-overview

  Eosinophilia and elevated serum immunoglobulin E (IgE) levels are features of many nematode infections; when unexplained, these symptoms should always prompt a search for occult roundworm infection. Humans do not appear to develop significant protective immunity to intestinal nematodes, although the mechanisms of parasite immune evasion and host immune responses to these infections have not been elucidated in detail. […] Some of the more serious nematode infections result in symptoms from inflammatory responses in vital organs and nutritional deficiencies.

• #2 Parasitic worm – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitic_worm

  Parasitic worms have been used as a medical treatment for various diseases, particularly those involving an overactive immune response. As humans have evolved with parasitic worms, proponents argue they are needed for a healthy immune system. […] Parasitic worms may be able to damp down the immune system of their host, making it easier for them to live in the intestine without coming under attack. This may be one mechanism for their proposed medicinal effect. […] Helminth infection causes an increase in eosinophils.

• #2 Dracunculiasis – Infectious Diseases – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/dracunculiasis

  Dracunculiasis is typically asymptomatic for the first year. Symptoms develop when the worm erupts through the skin. […] Local symptoms include intense itching and a burning pain at the site of the skin lesion. Urticaria, erythema, dyspnea, vomiting, and pruritus are thought to reflect allergic reactions to worm antigens. If the worm is broken during expulsion or extraction, a severe inflammatory reaction ensues, causing disabling pain. Symptoms subside and the ulcer heals once the adult worm is expelled. […] In approximately 50% of cases, secondary bacterial infections occur along the track of the emerging worm. […] The chronic stage of infection is associated with inflammation and pain in the joints and other signs of arthritis. Sequelae include fibrous ankylosis of joints and contraction of tendons.

• #2 Parasitic Worms: Unsung Heroes in the Fight Against Inflammatory Bowel Disease? | NYU Langone News

  https://nyulangone.org/news/parasitic-worms-unsung-heroes-fight-against-inflammatory-bowel-disease

  As predicted, the Orang Asli most of whom harbor the parasitic worm have fewer Bacteroides and more Clostridia than individuals from the urban environment of Kuala Lumpur. […] Worms may not provide a cure for all those suffering from intestinal ailments. But the current study suggests that the parasite could aid a subset of people with IBD or Crohns disease for example, those who have impaired mucus production, an increased load of Bacteroides, or defects in Nod2, the gene mutated in Dr. Cadwells mice. […] In the meantime, Drs. Cadwell and Loke will continue to explore the mechanism that allows worms to alter the intestinal microbiome. […] The premise is very simple, adds Dr. Cadwell. People who are resistant to Crohns disease are more likely to harbor fewer Bacteroides than Clostridia bacteria.

• #2 Human parasitic infections of the class Adenophorea: global epidemiology, pathogenesis, prevention and control | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-024-01216-1

  The Adenophorea class of nematodes remains a public health concern of importance regarding humans. […] The geographical distribution of D. renale infection in mammals has been reported in at least 33 countries across Asia, Africa, Europe and South and North America, with Argentina and Brazil each reporting more than 1000 cases. […] Dioctophymiasis is a zoonotic disease caused by Dioctophyme (or Dioctophyma) renale (giant kidney worm), and one of the largest known parasitic nematodes infecting humans. […] Human infection of D. renale usually manifests as nonspecific clinical symptoms including mainly hematuria, loin pain, nephritis, intermittent kidney pain, and renal cyst that may result in worms migrating through the ureter. […] Trichuriasis is caused by infection of Trichuris trichuira, also known as the human whipworm, and a member of the Trichuridae family.

• #2 9 Types of Brain Parasites

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/parasitic-infections-of-the-central-nervous-system-2488670

  Symptoms may then include increased intracranial pressure, headaches, and seizures. […] Cysticercosis is a leading cause of seizures worldwide and is a growing health problem in the United States (primarily due to immigration from Latin America). […] These brain parasites create circular abscesses, which are visible on an MRI. They can have devastating neurological consequences including seizures, focal neurological deficits, impaired consciousness, and death. […] Cerebral malaria can cause changes in consciousness or seizures. Without treatment, the disease usually progresses to coma or death. […] A headache, difficulty thinking, personality changes, and movement disorders such as tremors or ataxia (lack of coordination) can result. […] The worms can spread to the spinal cord, causing myelopathy (compression of the spinal cord). This results in pain, urinary retention, and weakness in the regions below the level of infection.

• #2 Ascariasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/ascariasis

  Even moderate infections can lead to undernutrition in children. The pathophysiology is unclear and may include competition for nutrients, impairment of absorption, and depression of appetite. […] Diagnosis of ascariasis is by microscopic detection of eggs in stool or gross visualization of adult worms in stool or emerging from the nose, mouth, or rectum. […] Obstructive complications may be effectively treated with anthelmintics or require surgical or endoscopic extraction of adult worms. […] Eggs hatch in the small intestine, and larvae migrate first to the lungs and then back to the small intestine, where they mature. […] Larvae in the lungs may cause cough and wheezing; masses of adult worms may obstruct the intestines and single adult worms may migrate into and obstruct bile or pancreatic ducts.

• #2 Ascariasis: Symptoms, Causes & Transmission, Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14071-ascariasis

  The whole process of the complete life cycle can take two to three months. […] If a new host ingests an egg during this time period, the cycle restarts in that person. […] Antiparasitic medications get rid of the infection by killing the adult worms. You’ll need to take your medicine for one to three days to kill all the adults. Most people start to feel symptom improvements fast, even before all the worms die. Treatment often results in pooping out the dead worms, which can be alarming. […] The medicines are best at killing the adult worms. The larvae aren’t as easily killed. You may need to take another round of the medicine in about one to three months to give the larvae time to mature into adults so you can kill them, too.

• #2 Schistosomiasis (bilharzia)

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/schistosomiasis/

  Chronic schistosomiasis can include a range of symptoms and problems, depending on the exact area that’s infected. […] Without treatment, affected organs can become permanently damaged. […] Schistosomiasis can usually be treated successfully with a short course of a medication called praziquantel, which kills the worms. […] Steroid medication can also be used to help relieve the symptoms of acute schistosomiasis, or symptoms caused by damage to the brain or nervous system.

• #2

  https://penntoday.upenn.edu/news/parasitic-worms-offer-missing-link-dual-nature-key-immune-regulator

  Dendritic cells, a type of myeloid antigen-presenting cell, produce IL-33, and further experiments showed that the cytokine produced by these cells supported a specific population of regulatory T cells (Tregs), which are cells whose whole purpose is to suppress the immune response, Herbert says. […] The find made complete sense to the researchers, providing an explanation for how dendritic cells could promote the release of IL-33 into the tissues to interact with Tregs. […] The study paves the way for even more translational work in immunologyand worms are to thank. Its kind of the missing link, Herbert says. It opens up a whole new direction for understanding how this cytokine could be involved in obesity, inflammatory bowel disease, Crohns, asthma, and development.

• #2 How Parasitic Worms Evade the Body’s Itch Defense Mechanism | Technology Networks

  https://www.technologynetworks.com/immunology/news/how-a-parasitic-worm-avoids-the-bodys-itching-defense-mechanism-392564

  This pro-inflammatory environment is critical for forming a protective barrier that prevents the parasite from advancing farther into the body. […] First, MrgprA3 neurons release CGRP, which signals into macrophages. Then, IL-33 held within the macrophages nuclei is greatly reduced, which enhances the inflammatory response and helps block the parasites entry. […] This tells us that the neurons are orchestrating this whole defense, but they need the macrophages—and specifically IL-33 in those macrophages—to mount a full immune response, Herbert says. […] If we can pinpoint the exact components that parasites are targeting to evade the itch response, we could develop new therapeutic approaches that not only treat parasitic infections but potentially offer relief for other itch-related conditions like eczema or psoriasis, Herbert says.

• #2 The big gulp: Inside-out protection of parasitic worms against host defenses | ScienceDaily

  https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/07/200727154206.htm

  „Our results show that the esophageal gland is an important barrier that needs to be in place before these parasites start feeding and ingesting immune cells,” Lee adds. […] „When we characterize these proteins, we might be able to find a way to block or disable their function, which would then allow immune cells to get inside the parasites and kill them,” he says.

• #2 A defence mechanism to kill intestinal worms | Crick

  https://www.crick.ac.uk/news/2017-10-11-a-defence-mechanism-to-kill-intestinal-worms

  The immune system certainly plays a role in getting rid of intestinal worms, but this enzyme is the 'bullet’ that kills them. […] Our findings provide a new avenue for developing novel drugs and vaccines, to combat the infections. […] Chemical analysis revealed that enzyme-treated worms had fewer phospholipids – molecules in cell membranes that are required for many crucial processes. […] Designing drugs that mimic the effect of the enzyme on intestinal worms could also be a fruitful avenue for combating worm infections.

• #2 Defense mechanism to kill intestinal worms | ScienceDaily

  https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/10/171011123823.htm

  The immune system certainly plays a role in getting rid of intestinal worms, but this enzyme is the 'bullet’ that kills them. […] Our findings provide a new avenue for developing novel drugs and vaccines, to combat the infections. […] To find out how the enzyme kills intestinal worms, the team compared enzyme-treated worms with controls. […] Chemical analysis revealed that enzyme-treated worms had fewer phospholipids — molecules in cell membranes that are required for many crucial processes. […] Designing drugs that mimic the effect of the enzyme on intestinal worms could also be a fruitful avenue for combating worm infections.

• #2 Pumpkin seeds (Cucurbita pepo subsp. ovifera) decoction promotes Trichinella spiralis expulsion during intestinal phase via “Weep and Sweep” mechanism | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-51616-4

  Our results demonstrated that pumpkin decoction significantly minimized the number of parasites in intestine by about 69.60%, compared to the infected group. […] To explore the mode of action of anthelminthic activity of pumpkin seeds decoction and its mixture with honey, we studied their effect on immunity; type 1 (TNF- and NO) and type 2 (TGF-1 and IL-17). […] The treatment groups also showed significant increase that represented as significant elevation on GSH level and antioxidant enzymes; GR, GST, CAT and SOD activities especially in mixture group when compared to the infected group. […] Pumpkin seeds decoction exhibited anthelmintic activity by two mechanisms: inducing weep and sweep processes and stimulating immunity Type 2.

• #2 Wormy people: why some people are wormier than others | RSTMH

  https://www.rstmh.org/news-blog/blog/wormy-people-why-some-people-are-wormier-than-others

  A similar mechanism could occur during Ascaris infection. […] We also found more mitochondrial proteins in the resistant strain than the susceptible strain both with and without infection. […] This finding could, therefore, indicate that the resistant strain has more ROS and potentially a head start in contending with the parasite. […] Therefore, the presence of these proteins could indicate that initiation of the immune system. […] In short, our research was able to identify important differences between the two mouse strains in mitochondrial and ribosomal proteins in addition to the retinol metabolism. These differences point us towards the solution of why some individuals get heavily infected and some dont. […] Our next steps in this project are to investigate how A. lumbricoides, the human ascarid, migrates through the body of our resistant and susceptible mice.

• #2 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/news/20210416/Intestinal-worm-infection-can-cause-severe-sexually-transmitted-viral-diseases.aspx

  And it’s this misdirected immune response that leads to the serious damage in the mucosa of the vagina that we’ve observed. […] A specific immune messenger, interleukin-33, appears to play an important role in this process, indirectly causing the accelerated maturation of granulocytes in the vagina. […] The mice then developed significantly less tissue damage in the genital tract.

• #2 Worms in humans – symptoms and treatments | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/worms-in-humans

  Other types of worms may be diagnosed in the laboratory from a fresh stool sample. For example, tapeworms are diagnosed by finding worm segments or worm eggs in a stool sample. Other worms are diagnosed by the presence of eggs, larvae or the parasites themselves in the stool sample. […] The treatment for threadworms is worming tablets, which are available from the pharmacy. The whole household should be treated at the same time, even if they have no symptoms. When taking the medicine, you should also ensure you follow strict hygiene practices to prevent reinfestation. […] Other intestinal worm infections are also treated with medicines that kill the parasite without harming the person. Your doctor or a gastroenterologist (gut specialist) will advise on the best medicine and the right dose. The worms then usually pass out of the body. […] Hydatid disease, caused by dog tapeworm, is serious and potentially fatal. It can cause cysts to form in the liver, lungs, spleen or kidneys, and rarely the brain. Removal of the cysts requires tricky surgery and medicines.

• #2

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/soil-transmitted-helminth-infections

  The strategy for control of soil-transmitted helminth infections is to control morbidity through the periodic treatment of at-risk people living in endemic areas. […] WHO recommends periodic medicinal treatment (deworming or preventive chemotherapy) without previous individual diagnosis to all at-risk people living in endemic areas. […] This intervention reduces morbidity by reducing the worm burden. […] Periodical treatment aims to reduce and maintain the intensity of infection low, and to protect infected at-risk populations from morbidity. […] WHO added the control of morbidity due to S. stercoralis as an objective for 2030. […] Generic ivermectin for the control of S. stercoralis has been available at affordable price since 2021.

• #2 Trichinosis – Infectious Diseases – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/trichinosis

  Symptoms begin with gastrointestinal irritation followed by periorbital edema, muscle pain, fever, and eosinophilia. […] Manifestations gradually resolve by about the third month, which is when the larvae have become fully encysted, but vague muscular pains and fatigue may persist. […] Anthelmintics eliminate adult Trichinella worms from the gastrointestinal tract, but once larvae encyst in skeletal muscle, treatment may not eradicate them or any associated symptoms. […] Treat symptoms (eg, with analgesics for pain and prednisone for allergic manifestations or central nervous system or myocardial involvement); anthelmintics kill adult worms, but once larvae encyst in skeletal muscle, treatment may not eradicate them or any associated symptoms.

• #2 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  http://www.news-medical.net/news/20250507/Anti-parasitic-drug-could-accelerate-the-elimination-of-infection-endemic-to-Africa.aspx

  The finding suggests that one dose of moxidectin and another drug is just as effective as moxidectin or ivermectin combined with two other drugs. […] „If you treat someone with moxidectin, they are more likely to clear their parasites for longer,” said Budge. „With ivermectin, people must be treated multiple times.” […] „The best possible outcome for this work long-term would be for moxidectin to be used in mass drug administration programs,” Budge said. „That would shorten the number of years we need to achieve lymphatic filariasis elimination.”

• #2 Tracking vampire worms with machine learning − using AI to diagnose schistosomiasis before the parasites causing it hatch in your blood – UPMC & Pitt Health Sciences News Blog

  https://inside.upmc.com/tracking-vampire-worms-with-machine-learning-%E2%88%92-using-ai-to-diagnose-schistosomiasis-before-the-parasites-causing-it-hatch-in-your-blood/

  Our study provides a clear path forward to improving early detection and diagnosis by identifying the hidden information in blood that signals active, early stage infection. […] Your body responds to a schistosomiasis infection by mounting an immune response involving several types of immune cells, as well as antibodies specifically targeting molecules secreted by or present on the worm and eggs. […] We identified not only biomarkers for the disease but also the potential mechanism that underlies infection. […] Further, our work identifies a potential mechanism behind disease progression. We found that a particular immune response against a specific protein on the surface of the worm signals an intermediate stage of infection. Understanding how the immune system responds to this understudied antigen could improve diagnosis and treatment. […] Our findings identify key antigens that could pave the way for designing cost-effective and efficient approaches to diagnosis and treatments.

• #3 Mechanisms of Pathogenesis, Infective Dose and Virulence in Human Parasites | PLOS Pathogens

  https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002512

  Parasite virulence showed no correlation with local versus distant action, but was negatively correlated with infective dose, and greater in species that infect via wounded skin. […] Our results show that transmission, dose and virulence can be influenced by mechanistic details such as distance at which molecules act and route of infection.

• #3 Tapeworm Infestation: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/786292-overview

  In Echinococcus infestations, humans ingest the eggs and the embryos escape, penetrate intestinal mucosa, and enter the portal circulation to invade other organs, mainly the liver (60%) and lungs (25%). The patient remains asymptomatic until the cysts cause a mass effect on the organ, which can be 5-20 years after the initial infestation. […] Rupture or leakage of an Echinococcus cyst produces symptoms of fever, pruritus, urticaria, eosinophilia, and potentially fatal anaphylaxis. Pulmonary hydatid cysts may rupture into the bronchial tree produce cough, dyspnea, chest pain, or hemoptysis. If alveolar hydatid disease is left untreated, more than 90% of patients will die within 10 years from the onset of symptoms and almost 100% by 15 years.

• #3 Helminthiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560525/

  Indirect damage is done by the host immune response against helminth. […] All helminths are antigenic to the body because they are foreign bodies and stimulate the immune response. […] Prognosis of helminthiasis depends on the extent of helminth infection. If the worm burden is high, ascariasis may produce some serious complications such as intestinal obstruction.

• #3 Human parasitic infections of the class Adenophorea: global epidemiology, pathogenesis, prevention and control | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-024-01216-1

  Infection often presents subclinically and moderately, however severe infections, especially among children, can result in weight loss, malnutrition, anemia, and rectal prolapse in addition to watery stools, mucoid mucus, abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting. […] Capillariasis is caused by Capillaria, a genus of the family, Capillaridae, that has 300 species, of which only three are well-known human parasites, including Capillaria philippinensis, Calodium hepaticum, and Eucoleus aerophilus. […] In humans, this worm is responsible for uncommon cases of hepatic capillariosis and spurious infections in patients. […] Human intestinal capillariasis can present clinically as watery stools, diarrhea, lower limb edema, vomiting, crampy abdominal pain, weight loss, anorexia, and borborygmi, which if left untreated can worsen into a serious condition.

• #3 9 Types of Brain Parasites

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/parasitic-infections-of-the-central-nervous-system-2488670

  In the brain, the cysts can cause seizures or elevated intracranial pressure. […] Severe trichinellosis can cause meningitis and encephalitis. […] The adult form of the parasite both releases inflammatory substances and tunnels through tissues, which can result in headaches, seizures, and strokes. […] The larva of this parasite migrates to the brain causing headaches, nausea, and neck stiffness. […] A large percentage of people throughout the world live with a worm or other parasite that may eventually affect the central nervous system. […] Due to symptoms ranging from rashes to seizures, brain parasites should be taken seriously.

• #3 Dracunculiasis – Infectious Diseases – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/dracunculiasis

  Diagnosis of dracunculiasis is obvious once the white, filamentous adult worm appears at the cutaneous ulcer. […] Treatment of dracunculiasis consists of slow removal of the adult worm (which may be up to 80 cm long) over days to weeks by rolling it on a stick. […] There are no effective anthelmintics for this infection; the beneficial effect of metronidazole has been ascribed to the medications anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties. […] Filtering drinking water through a piece of fine-mesh cloth, chlorination, or boiling effectively protects against dracunculiasis. […] When an infected person immerses the affected extremity in water to relieve the intense discomfort caused by eruption of the female worm through the skin, larvae are released and ingested by microcrustaceans; humans are infected when they ingest water contaminated with the microcrustaceans.

• #4 Human parasitic infections of the class Adenophorea: global epidemiology, pathogenesis, prevention and control | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-024-01216-1

  The severe symptoms of C. philippinensis, which include protein-losing enteropathy, hypokalemia (electrolyte loss), and chronic diarrhea, can be deadly to humans. […] The trichuroid parasitic nematode, E. aerophilus, is the cause of pulmonary capillariasis. […] Clinical symptoms of E. aerophilus infection are coughing, fever, bronchitis, mucoid mucus or blood-tinged sputum, eosinophilia, and dyspnea. […] Trichinellosis (or trichinosis) is a devastating zoonotic disease caused by members of the genus Trichinella, family Trichinellidae, that has a worldwide distribution in domestic and/or sylvatic animals, as well as among humans. […] Patients in the gastrointestinal phase of Trichinella spp. infection are generally asymptomatic or present mild clinical manifestations, such as nausea, diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal pain after 12 days, as a result of the first stage larvae penetrating the small intestine.

• #5 Human parasitic infections of the class Adenophorea: global epidemiology, pathogenesis, prevention and control | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-024-01216-1

  Parasitic myositis is caused by the muspiceoid nematode, Haycocknema perplexum, family Robertdollfusidae, and is suspected of being a zoonotic disease. […] While the majority of human parasites in the Adenophorea class are zoonotic and propagate through the ingestion of undercooked meats by humans, some species (T. trichiura and E. aerophilus) infect by consumption of embryonated eggs from soil. […] Since no vaccines are available, prevention relies on education, hygiene measures, and managing animal hosts. […] In minimizing parasitic infection, consumers should be informed about the risks of eating raw or undercooked meat from domestic and wild animal carriers of parasites. […] The International Commission on Trichinellosis advises using test-and-slaughter techniques, cooking, or irradiating to prevent infection.

• #6 Human parasitic infections of the class Adenophorea: global epidemiology, pathogenesis, prevention and control | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-024-01216-1

  However, reinfection in areas with poor sanitation and hygiene remains a problem, emphasizing the need for better WASH programs to control STH infections. […] Comprehensive molecular epidemiology research should be a component of further studies to better understand the distribution, parasitic ecology and parasitic infections in animals and humans, potentially leading to the establishment of new strategies for monitoring, predicting, preventing, and actively managing parasitic diseases caused by ANs.

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